经济学原理(曼昆)4
曼昆经济学原理第四版课后习题中文答案_百度文库
产大量物品与劳务，才能使本国居民享有在国际贸易环境下的高生活水平。
2．假定社会决定减少消费并增加投资。
A．这种变化会如何影响经济增长?答：当社会决定减少消费并增加投资时，会使社会的储蓄增加，更多的资源用于生产资本品，结果，资本存量增加，引起生产率提高和 GDP 增长得更为迅速。
B．哪些社会群体会从这种变化中获益?哪些集团会受到损害?答：拥有资本品的人会从这种变化中获益，如拥有较多的物质资本和人力资本的人。
而那些依靠政府援助的人将从这种变化中受损，因为社会减少了现期物品与劳务的消费。
3．社会选择把多少资源用于消费和把多少资源用于投资。
这些决策中的一部分涉及私人支出；另一些涉及政府支出。
A．说明代表消费的一些私人支出形式，以及代表投资的一些私人支出形式。
国民收入账户把学费作为消费支出的一部分。
按你的看法，把资源用于教育是一种消费的形式，还是一种投资的形式。
答：如家庭购买食物和服装是消费的私人支出形式，而个人购买新住房、企业对厂房和设备的投资是代表投资的私人支出形式。
资源用于教育即可以看作是一种消费的形式，也可以看作是一种投资的形式。
B．说明代表消费的一些政府支出形式，以及代表投资的一些政府支出形式。
按你的看法，我们应该把政府用于医疗计划的支出作为一种消费的形式，还是投资的形式？你能区分青年人的医疗计划和老年人的医疗计划吗？答：社会保险、国防和退伍军人津贴等是代表消费的一些政府支出形式，政府修筑铁路、核电站是代表投资的一些政府支出形式。
政府用于医疗计划的支出是一种对人力资本的投资。
与老年人的医疗计划相比，青年人的医疗计划更接近对人力资本的投资。
4．投资于资本的机会成本是什么？你认为一国有可能对资本“过度投资”吗？人力资本投资的机会成本是什么？你认为一国可能对人力资本“过度投资”吗？解释之。
答：投资于资本的机会成本是牺牲现期的物品和劳务的消费。
一国有可能对资本“过度投资”。
人力资本投资也有机会成本。
当学生上学时．他们放弃了他们本可以赚到的收入。
曼昆经济学原理（第四版）课后习题中文答案（7）[小编整理]
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曼昆经济学原理（第四版）课后习题中文答案（7）[小编整理]第一篇：曼昆经济学原理(第四版)课后习题中文答案(7)图 26－4 政府借款对可贷资金市场的影响由于可贷资金的供给弹性衡量可贷资金供给量对利率变化的反应程度，所以它反映在可贷资金供给曲线的形状上。
当可贷资供给弹性大时，即可贷资金供给曲线平缓，在这种情况下，当市场利率上升时，可贷资金供给量会大量增加，尤其是私人储蓄，因为公共储蓄由政府收入和政府支出决定，所以公共储蓄不变，国民储蓄会大量增加。
(见图a)当可贷资金供给弹性小时，既可贷资金供给曲线陡峭，在这种情况下，当市场利率大幅度上升时，可贷资金供给没有增加多少，尤其是私人储蓄没有大量增加，因为公共储蓄不受利率的影响，因此，国民储蓄没有增加多少。
(见图 b)D．可贷资金需求弹性如何影响这些变动的大小? 答：当可贷资金的需求弹性大时，政府借款增加200 亿美元引起的利率上升会挤出大量的投资。
当可贷资金的需求弹性小时，政府借款的增加只会减少小部分私人投资。
(a)可贷资金需求弹性大(b)可贷资金需求弹性小图 26－5 可贷资金需求弹性对可贷资金市场的影响E．假设家庭相信，政府现在借款越多意味着未来为了偿还政府债务而必须征收的税收越高。
这种信念对私人储蓄和现在可贷资金的供给有什么影响？这种信念加强还是减弱了你在 A 与 B 中所讨论的影响? 答：为了偿还现在积累的债务，政府将要在未来增加税收，这种信念会使家庭认为减税并没有减少家庭的整体税单，它仅仅是延期而已。
因此家庭会把所有的减税储蓄起来，而不是支出其中一部分，因而会使私人储蓄增加。
由于私人储蓄增加量完全等于公共储蓄减少量，作为公共和私人储蓄之和的国民储蓄并没有变，因此可贷资金的供给没有变。
这种信念减弱了 A 与 B 中所讨论的影响。
9．过去的十年间，新电脑技术使企业大大减少了它们每销售一美元所持有的存货量。
说明这种变化对可贷资金市场的影响。
(提示：用于存货的支出是一种投资。
微观经济学学习笔记(曼昆经济学原理)04章节
经济学习笔记第4章供给与需求的市场力量一、重要名词解释市场：由某种物品或服务的买者与卖者组成的一个群体。
竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
（竞争市场一般指完全竞争市场。
完全竞争，又称为纯粹竞争，是指不存在任何阻碍和干扰竞争因素的市场情况，亦即没有任何垄断因素的市场结构。
完全竞争市场需要具备四个条件：市场上有大量的买者和卖者；市场上每一个厂商提供的商品都是同质的；所有的资源具有完全的流动性；信息是完全的。
）需求量：买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。
需求表：表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的表格。
需求曲线：表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的图形。
正常物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
替代品：一种物品价格的上升引起另一种物品需求量的增加的两种物品。
互补品：一种物品价格的上升引起另一种物品需求量的减少的两种物品。
供给量：卖者愿意并且能够出售的一种物品的数量。
供给定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，该物品的供给量增加的观点。
供给表：表示一种物品的价格与供给量之间关系的表格。
供给曲线：表示一种物品的价格与供给量之间关系的图形。
均衡：市场价格达到使供给量与需求量相等的水平时的状态。
均衡价格/市场出清价格：使供给与需求平衡的价格。
均衡数量：均衡价格下的供给量与需求量。
过剩：供给量大于需求量的状态，也称为超额供给状态。
短缺：需求量大于供给量的状态，也称为超额需求状态。
供求定理：认为任何一种物品的价格都会自发调整，使该物品的供给与需求达到平衡的观点。
（供求定理是指在其他条件不变的情况下，需求变动分别引起均衡价格和均衡数量的同方向变动；供给变动分别引起均衡价格的反方向变动和均衡数量的同方向变动。
）二、重要摘抄1.供给与需求是使市场经济运行的力量。
曼昆经济学原理英文版教案加习题答案第4章THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
51WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION:The In the News feature “Price Increases after Disasters” has been updated with a new article.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:➢ what a competitive market is.➢ what determines the demand for a good in a competitive market.➢ what determines the supply of a good in a competitive market.➢ how supply and demand together set the price of a good and the quantity sold.➢ the key role of prices in allocating scarce resources in market economies.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 4 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence that deals with supply and demand and how markets work. Chapter 4 shows how supply and demand for a good determines both the quantity produced and the price at which the good sells. Chapter 5 will add precision to the discussion of supply and demand by addressing the concept of elasticity —the sensitivity of the quantity supplied and quantity demanded to changes in economic variables. Chapter 6 will address the impact of government policies on prices and quantities in markets.The purpose of Chapter 4 is to establish the model of supply and demand. The model of supply and demand is the foundation for the discussion for the remainder of this text. For this reason, time spent studying the concepts in this chapter will return benefits to your students throughout their study of economics. Many instructors would argue that this chapter is the most important chapter in the text.THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND52 ❖Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandKEY POINTS:• Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets. In a competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no influence on the market price.• The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good demanded depends on the price. According to the law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises. Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.• In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include income, the prices of substitutes and complements, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.• The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends on the price. According to the law of supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises. Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.• In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include input prices, technology, expectations, and the number of sellers. If one of these factors changes, the supply curve shifts.• The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the market equilibrium. At the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.• The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium. When the market price is above the equilibrium price, there is a surplus of the good, which causes the market price to fall. When the market price is below the equilibrium price, there is a shortage, which causes the market price to rise.• To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram to examine how the event affects equilibrium price and quantity. To do this we follow three steps. First, we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve or the demand curve (or both). Second, we decide which direction the curve shifts. Third, we compare the new equilibrium with the initial equilibrium.• In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby allocate scarce resources. For every good in the economy, the price ensures that supply and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price then determines how much of the good buyers choose to consume and how much sellers choose to produce.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 53CHAPTER OUTLINE: I. Markets and CompetitionA. What Is a Market?1. Definition of market: a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service.2. Markets can take many forms and may be organized (agricultural commodities) or lessorganized (ice creamB. What Is Competition?1. Definition of competitive market: a market in which there are so many buyers andso many sellers that each has a negligible impact on the market price.2. Each buyer knows that there are several sellers from which to choose. Sellers know that each buyer purchases only a small amount of the total amount sold.C. In this chapter, we will assume that markets are perfectly competitive.1. Characteristics of a perfectly competitive market:a. The goods being offered for sale are exactly the same.b. The buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buyer or seller has any influence over the market price.2. Because buyers and sellers must accept the market price as given, they are often called "price takers."3. Not all goods are sold in a perfectly competitive market.a. A market with only one seller is called a monopoly market.b. Other markets fall between perfect competition and monopoly.54 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandD. We will start by studying perfect competition.1. Perfectly competitive markets are the easiest to analyze because buyers and sellers take the price as a given.2. Because some degree of competition is present in most markets, many of the lessons that we learn by studying supply and demand under perfect competition apply in morecomplicated markets.II. DemandA. The Demand Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Demanded1. Definition of quantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers are willing andable to purchase.2. One important determinant of quantity demanded is the price of the product.a. Quantity demanded is negatively related to price. This implies that the demand curve isdownward sloping.b. Definition of law of demand: the claim that, other things being equal, thequantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good rises .3. Definition of demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between theprice of a good and the quantity demanded. Price of Ice-Cream ConeQuantity of Cones Demanded$0.0012 $0.5010 $1.008 $1.506 $2.004 $2.502 $3.00Figure 1Make sure that you explain that, when we discuss the relationship between quantity demanded and price, we hold all other variables constant. You will need toemphasize this more than once to ensure that students understand why a change inprice leads to a movement along the demand curve.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 554. Definition of demand curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.a. Price is generally drawn on the vertical axis.b. Quantity demanded is represented on the horizontal axis. B. Market Demand versus Individual Demand1. The market demand is the sum of all of the individual demands for a particular good orservice.2. The demand curves are summed horizontally —meaning that the quantities demanded are added up for each level of price.3. The market demand curve shows how the total quantity demanded of a good varies with the price of the good, holding constant all other factors that affect how much consumers want to buy.C. Shifts in the Demand Curve1. Because the market demand curve holds other things constant, it need not be stable overtime.56 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand2. If any of these other factors change, the demand curve will shift.a. An increase in demand is represented by a shift of the demand curve to the right.b. A decrease in demand is represented by a shift of the demand curve to the left.3. Incomea. The relationship between income and quantity demanded depends on what type of good the product is.b. Definition of normal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand.c. Definition of inferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase inincome leads to a decrease in demand.4. Prices of Related Goodsa. Definition of substitutes: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to an increase in the demand for the other.b. Definition of complements: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in the demand for the other.5. Tastes6. Expectationsa. Future incomeb. Future prices7. Number of BuyersChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖57D. Case Study: Two Ways to Reduce the Quantity of Smoking Demanded1. Public service announcements, mandatory health warnings on cigarette packages, and theprohibition of cigarette advertising on television are policies designed to reduce the demandfor cigarettes (and shift the demand curve to the left).2. Raising the price of cigarettes (through tobacco taxes) lowers the quantity of cigarettesdemanded.a. The demand curve does not shift in this case, however.b. An increase in the price of cigarettes can be shown by a movement along the originaldemand curve.3. Studies have shown that a 10% increase in the price of cigarettes causes a 4% reduction inthe quantity of cigarettes demanded. For teens, a 10% increase in price leads to a 12% dropin quantity demanded.4. Studies have also shown that a decrease in the price of cigarettes is associated with greateruse of marijuana. Thus, it appears that tobacco and marijuana are complements.III. SupplyA. The Supply Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Supplied1. Definition of quantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers are willing andable to sell.a. Quantity supplied is positively related to price. This implies that the supply curve will beupward sloping.b. Definition of law of supply: the claim that, other things equal, the quantitysupplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises.2. Definition of supply schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the priceof a good and the quantity supplied.58 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand3. Definition of supply curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. Price of Ice-Cream ConeQuantity of Cones Supplied$0.000 $0.50 0 $1.001 $1.502 $2.003 $2.504 $3.005B. Market Supply versus Individual Supply1. The market supply curve can be found by summing individual supply curves.2. Individual supply curves are summed horizontally at every price.3. The market supply curve shows how the total quantity supplied varies as the price of thegood varies.C. Shifts in the Supply Curve1. Because the market supply curve holds other things constant, the supply curve will shift ifany of these factors changes.a. An increase in supply is represented by a shift of the supply curve to the right.b. A decrease in supply is represented by a shift of the supply curve to the left.Figure 5Figure 7Figure 6You will want to take time to emphasize the difference between a “change in supply” and a “change in quantity supplied.”Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 592. Input Prices3. Technology4. Expectations5. Number of Sellers IV. Supply and Demand TogetherA. Equilibrium1. The point where the supply and demand curves intersect is called the market’s equilibrium.2. Definition of equilibrium: a situation in which the market price has reached thelevel at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.3. Definition of equilibrium price: the price that balances quantity supplied andquantity demanded.4. The equilibrium price is often called the "market-clearing" price because both buyers andsellers are satisfied at this price.Table 2Figure 8 Students will benefit from seeing equilibrium using both a graph and a supply-and-demand schedule. The schedule will also make it easier for students to understand concepts such as shortages and surpluses.60 ❖Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand5. Definition of equilibrium quantity: the quantity supplied and the quantitydemanded at the equilibrium price.6. If the actual market price is higher than the equilibrium price, there will be a surplus of thegood.Figure 9a. Definition of surplus: a situation in which quantity supplied is greater thanquantity demanded.b. To eliminate the surplus, producers will lower the price until the market reachesequilibrium.7. If the actual price is lower than the equilibrium price, there will be a shortage of the good.a. Definition of shortage: a situation in which quantity demanded is greater thanquantity supplied.b. Sellers will respond to the shortage by raising the price of the good until the marketreaches equilibrium.8. Definition of the law of supply and demand: the claim that the price of any goodadjusts to bring the supply and demand for that good into balance.B. Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in Equilibrium 1. Decide whether the event shifts the supply or demand curve (or perhaps both). 2. Determine the direction in which the curve shifts.3. Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how the shift changes the equilibrium price andquantity. C. Example: A change in market equilibrium due to a shift in demand —the effect of hot weather onthe market for ice cream.D. Shifts in Curves versus Movements along Curves1. A shift in the demand curve is called a "change in demand." A shift in the supply curve iscalled a "change in supply."2. A movement along a fixed demand curve is called a "change in quantity demanded." Amovement along a fixed supply curve is called a "change in quantity supplied." E. Example: A change in market equilibrium due to a shift in supply —the effect of a hurricane thatdestroys part of the sugar-cane crop and drives up the price of sugar.F. Example: Shifts in both supply and demand —the effect of hot weather and a hurricane thatdestroys part of the sugar cane crop. G. Summary1. When an event shifts the supply or demand curve, we can examine the effects on theequilibrium price and quantity.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Go through these examples of events that would shift either the demand or supply of #2 lead pencils:▪ an increase in the income of consumers▪ an increase in the use of standardized exams (using opscan forms) ▪ a decrease in the price of graphite (used in the production of pencils) ▪ a decrease in the price of ink pens ▪ the start of a school year▪ new technology that lowers the cost of producing pencils.2. Table 4 reports the end results of these shifts in supply and demand.H. In the News: Price Increases after Disasters1. When a disaster strikes a region, many good experience an increase in demand or a decreasein supply resulting in upward pressure on prices.2. This article from defends price increases following natural disasters as a naturalresult of market interactions.V. Conclusion: How Prices Allocate ResourcesA. The model of supply and demand is a powerful tool for analyzing markets.B. Supply and demand together determine the prices of the economy’s goods and services.1. These prices serve as signals that guide the allocation of scarce resources in the economy.2. Prices determine who produces each good and how much of each good is produced.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. A market is a group of buyers (who determine demand) and a group of sellers (whodetermine supply) of a particular good or service. A perfectly competitive market is one inwhich there are many buyers and many sellers of an identical product so that each has anegligible impact on the market price.2. Here is an example of a monthly demand schedule for pizza:Price of Pizza Slice Number of Pizza Slices Demanded$ 0.00 100.25 90.50 80.75 71.00 61.25 51.50 41.75 32.00 22.25 12.50 0The demand curve is graphed in Figure 1.Figure 1Examples of things that would shift the demand curve include changes in income, prices ofrelated goods like soda or hot dogs, tastes, expectations about future income or prices, andthe number of buyers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this demand curve; it would only lead to amovement from one point to another along the same demand curve.3. Here is an example of a monthly supply schedule for pizza:Price of Pizza Slice Number of PizzaSlices Supplied$ 0.00 00.25 1000.50 2000.75 3001.00 4001.25 5001.50 6001.75 7002.00 8002.25 9002.50 1000The supply curve is graphed in Figure 2.Figure 2Figure 3Examples of things that would shift the supply curve include changes in prices of inputs like tomato sauce and cheese, changes in technology like more efficient pizza ovens or automatic dough makers, changes in expectations about the future price of pizza, or a change in the number of sellers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this supply curve; it would only lead to amovement from one point to another along the same supply curve.4. If the price of tomatoes rises, the supply curve for pizza shifts to the left because there hasbeen an increase in the price of an input into pizza production, but there is no shift indemand. The shift to the left of the supply curve causes the equilibrium price to rise and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 3 shows.If the price of hamburgers falls, the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left because thelower price of hamburgers will lead consumers to buy more hamburgers and fewer pizzas,but there is no shift in supply. The shift to the left of the demand curve causes theequilibrium price to fall and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 4 shows.Figure 4Questions for Review1. A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers of anidentical product so that each has a negligible impact on the market price. Another type ofmarket is a monopoly, in which there is only one seller. There are also other markets that fallbetween perfect competition and monopoly.2. The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good andthe quantity demanded. The demand curve is the downward-sloping line relating price andquantity demanded. The demand schedule and demand curve are related because thedemand curve is simply a graph showing the points in the demand schedule.The demand curve slopes downward because of the law of demand—other things beingequal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded of the good falls. People buyless of a good when its price rises, both because they cannot afford to buy as much andbecause they switch to purchasing other goods.3. A change in consumers' tastes leads to a shift of the demand curve. If the change inconsumers' tastes leads to an increase in demand, consumers want to buy more of this goodat every price level. A change in price leads to a movement along the demand curve.Because price is measured on the vertical axis, a change in the price represents a movementalong the demand curve.4. Because Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him.His demand curve for spinach shifts out to the right as a result of the decrease in his income.5. A supply schedule is a table showing the relationship between the price of a good and thequantity a producer is willing and able to supply. The supply curve is the upward-sloping linerelating price and quantity supplied. The supply schedule and the supply curve are related because the supply curve is simply a graph showing the points in the supply schedule.The supply curve slopes upward because when the price is high, suppliers' profits increase, so they supply more output to the market. The result is the law of supply—other things being equal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of the good also rises.6. A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in priceleads to a movement along the supply curve.7. The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantitysupplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.8. When the price of beer rises, the demand for pizza declines, because beer and pizza arecomplements and people want to buy less beer. When we say the demand for pizza declines, we mean that the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left as in Figure 5. The supply curve for pizza is not affected. With a shift to the left in the demand curve, the equilibrium price and quantity both decline, as the figure shows. Thus, the quantity of pizza supplied anddemanded both fall. In sum, supply is unchanged, demand is decreased, quantity supplied declines, quantity demanded declines, and the price falls.Figure 59. Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. Ifthe price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price untilequilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions andallocate scarce resources.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. b2. b3. d4. b5. a6. cProblems and Applications1. a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges and raising theprice of oranges. This leads to a decline in the supply of orange juice because orangesare an important input in the production of orange juice. This can be seen in Figure 6 asa shift to the left in the supply curve for orange juice. The new equilibrium price is higherthan the old equilibrium price.Figure 6b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so thedemand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer peopletravel to the Caribbean, because northern climates are more pleasant. The result, asshown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price ofCaribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figureshows.Figure 7c. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Because a largeproportion of oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting thesupply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in theequilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating agas-guzzling automobile like a Cadillac will increase. As a result, the demand for usedCadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive.In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result isthat the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8 Figure 92. The statement is false. As Figure 10 shows, in equilibrium the increase in demand fornotebooks results in an increased quantity demanded and the quantity supplied.Figure 10 Figure 113. a. If people decide to have more children, they will want larger vehicles for hauling theirkids around, so the demand for minivans will increase. Supply will not be affected. The result is a rise in both the price and the quantity sold, as Figure 12 shows.Figure 12 Figure 13b. If a strike by steelworkers raises steel prices, the cost of producing a minivan rises andthe supply of minivans decreases. Demand will not be affected. The result is a rise in the price of minivans and a decline in the quantity sold, as Figure 13 shows.c. The development of new automated machinery for the production of minivans is animprovement in technology. This reduction in firms' costs will result in an increase in supply. Demand is not affected. The result is a decline in the price of minivans and an increase in the quantity sold, as Figure 14 shows.Figure 14d. The rise in the price of sport utility vehicles affects minivan demand because sport utilityvehicles are substitutes for minivans. The result is an increase in demand for minivans.Supply is not affected. The equilibrium price and quantity of minivans both rise, as Figure12 shows.e. The reduction in peoples' wealth caused by a stock-market crash reduces their income,leading to a reduction in the demand for minivans, because minivans are likely a normal good. Supply is not affected. As a result, both the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity decline, as Figure 15 shows.Figure 154. a. DVDs and TV screens are likely to be complements because you cannot watch a DVDwithout a television. DVDs and movie tickets are likely to be substitutes because a movie can be watched at a theater or at home. TV screens and movie tickets are likely to besubstitutes for the same reason.b. The technological improvement would reduce the cost of producing a TV screen, shiftingthe supply curve to the right. The demand curve would not be affected. The result is that the equilibrium price will fall, while the equilibrium quantity will rise. This is shown inFigure 16.Figure 16c. The reduction in the price of TV screens would lead to an increase in the demand forDVDs because TV screens and DVDs are complements. The effect of this increase in the demand for DVDs is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity, as shown inFigure 17.Figure 17The reduction in the price of TV screens would cause a decline in the demand for movie tickets because TV screens and movie tickets are substitute goods. The decline in thedemand for movie tickets would lead to a decline in the equilibrium price and quantitysold. This is shown in Figure 18.Figure 185. Technological advances that reduce the cost of producing computer chips represent a declinein an input price for producing a computer. The result is a shift to the right in the supply of computers, as shown in Figure 19. The equilibrium price falls and the equilibrium quantity rises, as the figure shows.Figure 19Because computer software is a complement to computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers increases the demand for software. As Figure 20 shows, the result is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of software.Figure 20Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers reduces the demand for typewriters. As Figure 21 shows, the result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and quantity of typewriters.Figure 216. a. When a hurricane in South Carolina damages the cotton crop, it raises input prices forproducing sweatshirts. As a result, the supply of sweatshirts shifts to the left, as shownin Figure 22. The new equilibrium price is higher and the new equilibrium quantity ofsweatshirts is lower.。
曼昆经济学原理目录
曼昆经济学原理目录曼昆经济学原理（Principles of Economics）是由美国经济学家尼古拉斯·格里高里·曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）所著的一本经济学教科书，旨在向大学学生介绍经济学基本原理和理论。
该教材分为三个部分，涵盖了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学三个领域。
下面将对每个部分的目录进行详细介绍。
第一部分：微观经济学第一章：经济学原理和经济思维- 经济学的基本原理和概念- 经济学家如何思考和分析经济问题第二章：在十大原则中思考- 十大原则介绍：如人们如何面对稀缺性和权衡取舍- 供求原则和市场机制- 政府干预经济的原则第三章：供需：一种模型的起点- 供给和需求的概念- 市场均衡和市场价格的形成- 自由市场与政府管制的比较第四章：市场效果：量与质的考虑- 市场效率和福利经济学- 市场失灵和外部性- 公共物品和共享资源第五章：务实的消费者和无穷的厂商- 消费者选择行为和效用最大化- 企业产量选择和生产成本- 供给曲线和市场调整第六章：市场均衡和资源配置- 市场均衡的概念和效率性- 供求关系和经济的资源配置- 政府政策和市场效率的影响第二部分：宏观经济学第七章：储蓄、投资和资本市场- 储蓄、投资和财务体系- 成本效益分析和资本市场的理论第八章：经济增长和生产函数- 国民收入和生产函数的概念- 技术进步和经济增长- 资本积累对经济增长的影响第九章：失业和通货膨胀- 失业和就业水平- 失业的成因和传统观点- 通货膨胀和货币政策第十章：货币和银行体系- 货币和货币供给- 银行体系和货币创造- 中央银行政策和货币政策工具第十一章：货币市场和货币政策- 资本市场和货币市场的联系- 货币市场利率和货币政策的影响- 货币供给和货币创造的影响第三部分：国际经济学第十二章：国际贸易的原理和比较优势- 国际贸易的原理和概念- 绝对优势和比较优势- 贸易制度和贸易政策第十三章：国际贸易的应用和政策- 暂定均衡和相对比较优势- 贸易政策和进出口管制- 贸易摩擦和贸易战争第十四章：国际金融与公共金融- 汇率和外汇市场- 货币政策和国际金融体系- 公共债务和国际金融危机曼昆经济学原理目录总共包括了14个章节，它们涵盖了经济学的基本原理和概念，并且深入探讨了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学的各个领域。
曼昆的十大经济学原理
曼昆的十大经济学原理曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）是一位知名的经济学家，他在其著作《宏观经济学原理》中提出了十大经济学原理，这些原理不仅对经济学领域有着重要的指导意义，也对我们理解经济运行规律有着重要的启示。
接下来，我们将逐一介绍这十大经济学原理。
第一条原理是“人们面临权衡取舍”。
这个原理告诉我们，在资源有限的情况下，人们需要在各种选择之间进行权衡取舍。
任何决策都意味着放弃其他选择，这就是经济学中的“机会成本”概念。
第二条原理是“某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西”。
这一原理与第一条原理相呼应，它强调了机会成本的概念。
在做出决策时，我们需要考虑到放弃某种东西所带来的成本。
第三条原理是“理性人考虑边际量”。
边际量指的是一种额外的量，理性人会比较边际量与边际成本来做出决策。
这一原理对于理解人们的决策行为有着重要的启示作用。
第四条原理是“人们会对激励作出反应”。
激励是人们行为的重要驱动力，人们会对各种激励作出反应，这一原理对于理解市场经济中的行为有着重要的意义。
第五条原理是“贸易可以使每个人的状况都变得更好”。
贸易能够让每个人更好地利用自己的优势，从而实现互利互惠，这一原理是国际贸易理论的基础。
第六条原理是“市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法”。
市场机制能够有效地调节资源配置，实现资源的有效利用，这一原理是市场经济制度的基础。
第七条原理是“政府有时可以改善市场结果”。
尽管市场能够有效地调节资源配置，但有些时候政府的干预也是必要的，比如修正市场失灵和提供公共产品等。
第八条原理是“一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品和服务的能力”。
经济增长是提高生活水平的根本途径，这一原理强调了生产力的重要性。
第九条原理是“当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升”。
通货膨胀是货币供应过多的结果，这一原理强调了货币政策对于通货膨胀的影响。
第十条原理是“社会面临通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡取舍”。
通货膨胀和失业之间存在一种短期的权衡取舍关系，这一原理对宏观经济政策的制定有着重要的指导意义。
曼昆经济学原理第5版微观PPT第四章(4)免费中文版.pptx
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市场需求与个人需求
▪ 市场需求量是所有买者在每一价格水平下需求量的
总和
▪ 假设海伦与肯是拿铁咖啡市场上唯一的两个买者
（Qd = 需求量）
价格 海伦的需求量 肯的需求量
市场需求量
$0.00
16
+8
=
24
1.00
14
+7
=
21
2.00
12
+6
=
18
3.00
10
+5
=
15
4.00
8
+4
=
12
5.00
6
式电脑，CD与音乐下载
供给与需求的市场力量
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需求曲线的移动：相关物品的价格
▪ 互补品：一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求
量减少的两种物品
▪ 例如，电脑与软件。如果电脑价格上升，那人们
会减少电脑的购买，因此也会减少软件的购买。 软件的需求曲线向左移动
▪ 其它例子：大学学费与教材，百吉饼与奶油乳酪，
4 C H A P T E R
经济学原理
N.格里高利.曼昆 著
供给与需求的市场力 量
© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved
本教学PPT双语版由 浙江工商大学经济学院 陈宇峰 编译
供给与需求的市场力量
品的数量
▪ 需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的
价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点
供给与需求的市场力量
4
需求表
▪ 需求表：
表示一种物品的价格与需求 量之间关系的表格
曼昆的十大经济学原理
曼昆的十大经济学原理
人们是如何做决定的
原理一：人们面临权衡取舍
——天下没有免费的午餐，为了得到我们喜欢的东西，通常不得不放弃另一件我们喜欢的东西，做出决策要求我们在一个目标和另一个目标间权衡取舍
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西——机会成本
原理三：理性人考虑边际量
——边际变动：对行动计划微小的增量调整
原理四：人们会对激烈作出反应
——由于人们通过比较成本与利益作出决策，所以当成本或利益变动时，人们的行动也会改变。
人们如何相互交易
原理五：贸易使每个人变得更好
——通过个人从事各自最擅长的事，而通过贸易获取自己不是最擅长东西或服务，能够使得自己获得最大的受益。
原理六：市场通常是组织经济活动的一种最好方法
——“在看不见的手”的指引下，千百万利己的决策者和分散的决策，能够促进普遍的经济福利。
原理七：政府有时是可以改变市场结果
——看不见的手需要政府的保护。
只有产权得到保障，市场才能运行。
——有时会有“市场失灵”，一种是外部性（一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响），还有一种是市场势力（一个人或一群人不适当地影响市场价格的能力）
整体经济是如何运行的
原理八：一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品和劳务的能力
——几乎所有生活水平的变动都可以归因于各国生产率的差别。
原理九：当政府发行过多的的货币时，物价上涨
——在大多数严重或持续的通货膨胀情况下，罪魁祸首总是相同——货币量的增长。
原理十：社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期群恒取舍
——当政府增加经济中的货币量时，一个结果是通货膨胀，另一个结果是至少在短期内降低失业水平。
这种权衡取舍的曲线被称为菲利普斯曲线。
曼昆经济学原理第四章
Competition: Perfect and Otherwise
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Monopoly
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One seller, and seller controls price Few sellers Not always aggressive competition
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Oligopoly
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SUPPLY AND DEMAND I: HOW MARKETS WORK 供给与需求（I）：市场如何运行
The Market Forces of Supply and Demand
供给与需求的市场力量
Chapter 4
The Market Forces of Supply and Demand
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市场
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市场 是指某种物品或劳务的一群 买者与卖者的集合。
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供给与需求这两个术语是指人们
在市场上相互交易时的行为。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Markets and competition 市场与竞争
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Buyers determine demand. 买者决定需求
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Sellers determine supply. 卖者决定供给
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版-微观经济学分册-第4章-课后习题答案P92-P94.doc
第二篇市场如何运作第四章供给与需求的市场力量复习题1．什么是竞争市场?简单描述除了完全竞争市场之外的市场类型。
答：竞争市场是有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
除了完全竞争市场之外，还有垄断市场。
在这个市场上只有一个卖者，他决定价格。
这个卖者被称为垄断者。
还有寡头市场，在这个市场上有几个并不总是主动竞争的卖者，他们提供相似或相同的产品。
通常情况下，寡头们会尽力联合起来，避免激烈的竞争，收取较高的市场价格。
还有垄断竞争市场，这是一个有许多提供相似但不相同产品的企业的市场结构。
由于各自提供的产品不同，每个企业对产品的价格都有一定的影响力。
2．什么是需求表和需求曲线?它们如何相关联?为什么需求曲线向右下方倾斜?答：需求表是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格，需求曲线是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的图形。
需求曲线将需求表用图形的形式表现出来，需求表是需求曲线上若干个点的坐标的数字表格排列。
需求曲线向右下方倾斜是因为在其他条件不变的情况下，随着价格上升，需求量会减少。
3．消费者嗜好的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动，还是需求曲线的移动，价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动，还是需求曲线的移动?答：消费者嗜好的变化引起了需求曲线的移动，价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动。
4．Popeye的收入减少了，结果他买了更多的菠菜。
菠菜是低档物品，还是正常物品? Popeye菠菜的需求曲线是什么样的?答：菠菜对波匹来说是低档物品。
因为Popeye的收入减少了，他对菠菜的需求量反而增大。
波匹菠菜的需求曲线是向右下方倾斜的。
5．什么是供给表和供给曲线，它们如何关联?为什么供给曲线向石上方倾斜?答：供给表是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的表格，供给曲线是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的图形。
供给曲线是供给表的图形表示，供给表是供给曲线上点的坐标的数字排列。
因为在其他因素不变时，价格上升，供给量上升，所以供给曲线向右上方倾斜。
曼昆宏观经济学4精品文档37页
现期财 富
财富
效用函数与风险厌恶
效用
赢得1000美元获 得的效用
输掉1000美 元损失的效
用
由于边际效用递减， 损失1000美元减少的 效用大于得到1000美 元增加的效用
财富 –1000 +1000
保险的风险管理
保险如何起作用：
面临风险的人向保险公司支付一笔保险费，作为 回报，保险公司同意接受所有或部分风险
你会参加这个游戏吗？
如果你是一个风险厌恶者，失去1000美元的痛苦
会大于赢得1000美元的快乐，并且二者的可能性 相同，所以你不会参加这个赌博
效用函数
效用是一个 人福利的主 观衡量，取 决于财富
效用
现期效 用
随着财富的增加，由
于边际效用递减，效用 函数变得越来越平坦。 一个人拥有的财富越多， 从额外一美元中得到的 效用就会越少
C. 当Gertrude停她的克尔维特敞篷车时，她懒得 把把车顶关好，因为她购买的保险能够补偿车 内的任意失窃 道德风险
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风险的衡量
我们用标准差（衡量变量的变动，即变量的波动
可能有多大）来衡量资产的风险
资产收益标准差越大，该资产的风险越大
保险公司无法充分保护自己免受损失，所以它们会 收取一个较高的保费
结果，低风险的人有时不会购买保险，从而失去了 风险分摊的利益
主动学习 2
逆向选择还是道德风险？
指出下述情形属于逆向选择还是道德风险的例子
A. Joe在买火险之后开始在床上吸烟
B. Susan的父母都因为牙龈疾病而失去了他们的 牙齿，因此Susan购买了牙科保险
4 经济学原理
基本金融工具
本章我们将探索这些问题的答案:
简述曼昆的经济学十大原理
简述曼昆的经济学十大原理经济学是研究人类如何分配稀缺资源的一门学科。
在经济学家中，曼昆是享有盛誉的经济学家之一。
他在其著作《经济学原理》中提出了经济学的十大基本原理，这些原理帮助我们理解和解释经济行为和现象。
下面将简要介绍曼昆的经济学十大原理。
原理一：人们面临权衡取舍这是经济学理论的基础。
人们在面对有限资源时，需要进行权衡和取舍。
由于资源的稀缺性，我们不得不做出抉择，牺牲一个目标以追求另一个目标。
原理二：机会成本机会成本指的是为了获得某种东西而放弃的其他东西。
当我们做出决策时，需要考虑放弃其他可能的选择所付出的代价。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量边际量是指在某一活动中增加或减少一个单位的数量。
理性人会在做决策时考虑边际成本和边际收益，即额外产生的成本和收益。
原理四：人们对激励作出反应人们对激励作出反应，即人们倾向于在面临奖励时增加其行为，在面临惩罚时减少其行为。
激励是经济学中重要的因素，能够影响人们的决策和行为。
原理五：贸易能使每个人受益贸易的出现使每个人都能从中受益。
通过贸易，人们可以根据自身的比较优势进行专业化生产，并通过交换来获得其他需要的物品或服务。
原理六：市场通常是组织经济活动的最佳方式在许多情况下，市场是组织经济活动的最有效和最有效的方式。
市场通过供求关系自动调节价格和数量，达到资源的高效分配。
原理七：政府的干预有时可能改善市场结果尽管市场通常是最佳组织经济活动的方式，但有时政府干预是必要的。
政府可以通过税收、补贴和监管等手段来纠正市场失灵，保护公共利益。
原理八：一国的生活水平取决于其生产力生产力是一个国家经济发展的重要指标。
生产力的提高可以带来经济增长和提高生活水平。
原理九：价格上涨会导致需求减少当价格上涨时，消费者会减少对商品或服务的需求。
价格和需求之间存在反向关系，这是经济学中的基本原理。
原理十：社会面临通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡社会常常面临通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡。
为了降低通货膨胀，可能会导致一段时间内的高失业率；为了降低失业率，可能会导致通货膨胀率的上升。
曼昆经济学原理试题Chapter 04a
Chapter 4The Market Forces of Supply and DemandTest A1. A market is aa. place where only buyers come together.b. place where only sellers meet.c. group of people with common desires.d. group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y2. A monopoly is a marketa. with one seller.b. with few sellers.c. with one buyer.d. where the government sets the price.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y3. When we are studying the behavior of buyers, we are studyinga. supply.b. demand.c. an entire market.d. government regulation.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y4. A demand curve is thea. curve that relates income with quantity demanded.b. upward-sloping line relating price with quantity supplied.c. downward-sloping line relating the price of the good with the quantity demanded.d. None of the above answers is correct.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y5. If a good is “normal,” then an increase in income will result ina. a lower market price.b. a decrease in the demand for the good.c. an increase in the demand for the good.d. no change in the demand for the good.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y6. If the price of a substitute to good X increases, then thea. demand for good X will decrease.b. demand for good X will increase.c. market price of good X will decrease.d. demand for good X will not change.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y34 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand7. What will happen in the rice market if buyers are expecting higher prices in the near future?a. The supply of rice will increase.b. The demand for rice will decrease.c. The demand for rice will increase.d. The demand for rice will be unaffected.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y8. The movement from point A to point B on the graph would be caused bya. an increase in income.b. an increase in price.c. a decrease in price.d. a decrease in the price of a substitute good.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y9. Ceteris paribus is a Latin phrase that literally meansa. “after this therefore because of this.”b. “other things being equal.”c. “to respond slowly to a change in price.”d. “There’s no such thing as a free lunch.”TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y10. Which of the following would NOT shift the demand curve for a good or service?a. a change in incomeb. a change in the price of a related goodc. a change in the price of the good or serviced. a change in expectations about the price of the good or serviceTYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y11. If the number of buyers in the market decreases, thea. demand in the market will decrease.b. supply in the market will increase.c. demand in the market will increase.d. supply in the market will decrease.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: YChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 3512. When the price of a good or service changes,a. supply shifts in the opposite direction.b. demand shifts in the opposite direction.c. demand shifts in the same direction.d. there is a movement along a stable demand curve.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y13. A supply curve slopes upward becausea. a decrease in input prices decreases supply.b. an increase in input prices increases supply.c. as more is produced, per-unit costs of production fall.d. an increase in price gives producers incentive to supply a larger quantity.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y14. On the graph, the movement from S to S1 is calleda. a decrease in quantity supplied.b. an increase in quantity supplied.c. a decrease in supply.d. an increase in supply.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y15. A technological advancement will shift thea. supply curve to the left.b. demand curve to the left.c. supply curve to the right.d. demand curve to the right.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y16. Suppose there is an increase in input prices. We would expect supplya. to increase.b. to decrease.c. to remain unchanged.d. to either increase or decrease.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y36 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand17. The unique point at which the supply and demand curves intersect is calleda. cohesion.b. market unity.c. equilibrium.d. an agreement.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y18. According to the graph, at the equilibrium price,a. 20 units would be supplied and demanded.b. 40 units would be supplied and demanded.c. 60 units would be supplied and demanded.d. 60 units would be supplied, but only 20 would be demanded.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y19. According to the graph, at a price of $7,a. a surplus would exist and the price would tend to rise.b. a surplus would exist and the price would tend to fall.c. the market would be in equilibrium.d. a shortage would exist and the price would tend to fall.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y20. If there is a shortage of farm laborers, we would expecta. the wages of farm laborers to increase.b. the wages of farm laborers to decrease.c. the prices of farm commodities to decrease.d. a decrease in the demand for substitutes of farm labor.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 5 OBJECTIVE: 5 RANDOM: Y21. At the equilibrium pricea. sellers would eventually require a higher price.b. there will be no pressure on price to rise or fall.c. there can still be upward or downward pressure on price.d. buyers would not be willing to purchase the output sellers desire to sell. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: YChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 3722. When the price is higher than the equilibrium price,a. a shortage will exist.b. quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.c. buyers desire to purchase more than is produced.d. sellers desire to produce and sell more than buyers wish to purchase.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y23. Suppose that demand decreases AND supply decreases. What would you expect to occur in themarket for the good?a. Both equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity would increase.b. Equilibrium price would decrease, but the impact on equilibrium quantity would be ambiguous.c. Equilibrium quantity would decrease, but the impact on equilibrium price would be ambiguous.d. Equilibrium price would increase, but the impact on equilibrium quantity would be ambiguous. ambiguous.TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y24. Suppose that the incomes of buyers in a particular market for a normal good declines and there isalso a reduction in input prices. What would we expect to occur in this market?a. Both the equilibrium price and quantity would increase.b. Equilibrium price would increase, but the impact on the amount sold in the market would beambiguous.c. Equilibrium price would decrease, but the impact on the amount sold in the market would beambiguous.d. Equilibrium quantity would increase, but the impact on equilibrium price would be ambiguous.be ambiguous.TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y25. In a free market system, what is the mechanism for rationing scarce resources?a. the governmentb. pricesc. buyersd. sellersTYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 5 OBJECTIVE: 5 RANDOM: Y1 ANSWER: d. group of demanders and suppliers of a particular good or service.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y2 ANSWER: a. with one seller.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y3 ANSWER: b. demand.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y4 ANSWER: c. downward-sloping line relating the price of the good with the quantity demanded. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y5 ANSWER: c. an increase in the demand for the good.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y38 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand6 ANSWER: b. the demand for good X will increase.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y7 ANSWER: c. The demand for rice will increase.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y8 ANSWER: c. a decrease in price.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y9 ANSWER: b. “other things being equal.”TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y10 ANSWER: c. a change in the price of the good or serviceTYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y11 ANSWER: a. the demand in the market will decrease.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y12 ANSWER: d. there is a movement along a stable demand curve.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 2 OBJECTIVE: 2 RANDOM: Y13 ANSWER: d. an increase in price gives producers incentive to supply a larger quantity. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y14 ANSWER: d. an increase in supply.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y15 ANSWER: c. supply curve to the right.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y16 ANSWER: b. to decrease.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 3 OBJECTIVE: 3 RANDOM: Y17 ANSWER: c. equilibrium.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: YChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 39 18 ANSWER: b. 40 units would be supplied and demanded.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y19 ANSWER: b. a surplus would exist and the price would tend to fall.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y20 ANSWER: a. the wages of farm laborers to increase.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 5 OBJECTIVE: 5 RANDOM: Y21 ANSWER: b. there will be no pressure on price to rise or fall.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y22 ANSWER: d. sellers desire to produce and sell more than buyers wish to purchase.TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y23 ANSWER: c. Equilibrium quantity would decrease, but the impact on equilibrium price would beambiguous.TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y24 ANSWER: c. Equilibrium price would decrease, but the impact on the amount sold in the marketwould be ambiguous.TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 4 OBJECTIVE: 4 RANDOM: Y25 ANSWER: b. pricesTYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 5 OBJECTIVE: 5 RANDOM: Y。
宏观经济学(曼昆第四版)讲义(武大)
支出法
从最终使用的角度出发，将一个 国家一定时期内的所有产品和劳 务的最终使用进行统计和加总。
国民收入的计算公式
国民收入的计算公式
国内生产总值 = 总产出 - 总 投入
总产出
一定时期内所有生产单位生 产的最终产品和劳务的价值 总和。
总投入
一定时期内所有生产单位用 于生产的各种生产要素的总 和。
04
失业与通货膨胀的关系
菲利普斯曲线
描述失业率与通货膨胀率之间关系的曲线，表明短期内失业率与通 货膨胀率存在交替关系，长期内则不存在这种关系。
奥肯定律
描述经济增长与失业率之间关系的定律，表明经济增长与失业率呈 负相关关系。
斯堪的纳维亚学派
主张宏观经济政策应同时考虑就业、收入分配和经济增长等目标， 强调政策协调和灵活性。
货币政策
01 02 03 04
货币政策是指中央银行通过控制货币供应量来影响利率和国民收入的 政策。
中央银行可以通过增加货币供应量来降低利率，从而刺激总需求，增 加国民收入。
中央银行也可以通过减少货币供应量来提高利率，从而抑制总需求， 减少国民收入。
货币政策的效果取决于货币需求的敏感性和投资与储蓄的利率弹性。
0全球范围的有机经
济整体。
03
国际经济一体化与全球化的影响
国际经济一体化与全球化促进了国际贸易和投资的发展，加速了技术转
移和资本流动，提高了世界范围内的生产效率和资源配置效率。
感谢您的观看
THANKS
宏观经济学与微观经济学的关系
微观经济学关注个体经济单位（如家庭、企 业）的经济行为，而宏观经济学则从整体上 研究经济运行。两者相互补充，共同构成经
济学体系。
宏观经济学的研究对象与内容
曼昆微观经济学Chapter4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand
微观经济学Chapter4The Market Forces of SupplyAnd Demand完全竞争市场被定义有两个基本特点：1）提供的物品全部相同2）买者与卖者众多，因此没有单一买家或卖家可以影响市场价格。
由于买卖双方都必须接受这一价格，我们称他们为价格接受者。
有些市场我们是可以考虑为完全竞争的。
谷物市场，比如说，有成千的销售者和上万的买家，没有人可以撼动市场价格，我们说它是完全竞争的。
不是每个市场都是完全竞争的，有一种情况称为垄断，在垄断的情况下，价格由唯一的卖价设定。
一些市场介于完全竞争与垄断之间，称为寡头垄断：由一定数量的卖家，但并不激烈地竞争。
航空公司是一个范例，如果一条航线只由两到三个载运承担，则这些承运者可以躲避竞争，从而使机票价格保持在高位。
另一种竞争是垄断竞争。
市场中有很多买家，但他们的商品不尽相同，因此他们有权为自己定价。
举例：杂志。
杂志竞争中，市场里随时都能闯入新人，并开创新的杂志。
尽管今天市场种产品多样，我们仍要从完全竞争学起。
完全竞争市场在这当中最容易分析。
需求Figure 3(需求增长,曲线右移,需求下降,曲线左移)指出，有很多变数可以影响需求曲线，以下是一些主要的：收入（Income ）低收入意味着你的支出将减少，低而降低了，我们就说这种商品为normal good .不是所有商品都为一般商品，如果收入下降而需求升高，则我们称该商品为替代商品（Inferior good ）。
就像，收入降低时，我们不会去买车或打出租车，而改坐公交。
1234567相关产品价格(Price of Related Goods)假如,冻酸奶的价格下降,则需求定理告诉我们，我们可能去购买冻得更好的酸奶。
同时，你会减少冰淇淋的购买量。
因为冰淇淋和冻酸奶都是冷的、甜的、奶油制甜品，他们满足人本呈负相关。
技术（Technology）技术有利于降低商品成本，解放人力，降低成本后，先进的技术增加了供给量。
曼昆经济学原理第四版名词解释
Chap1Principle #1: People Face Tradeoffsscarcity: the limited nature of society’s resources.economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources.efficiency: the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources.equity: the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of society.Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get Itopportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtain some item.marginal changes: small incremental adjustments to a plan of action.Principle #4: People Respond to IncentivesPrinciple #5: Trade Can Make Everyone Better OffPrinciple #6: Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activitymarket economy: an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services.Principle #7: Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomesmarket failure: a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficiently.externality: the impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.market power: the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market prices.Principle #8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce Goods and Servicesproductivity: the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time.Principle #9: Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Moneyinflation: an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy.Principle #10: Society Faces a Short-Run Tradeoff between Inflation and UnemploymentChap3absolute advantage: the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivity.opportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtain some item.comparative advantage: the comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity cost.imports: goods produced abroad and sold domestically.exports: goods produced domestically and sold abroadChap4market: a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service.competitive market: a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers so that each has a negligible impact on the market price.quantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase.law of demand: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good rises.demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.demand curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.normal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand.inferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demand.substitutes: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to an increase in the demand for the other.complements: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in the demand for the other.quantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell.law of supply: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises.supply schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good andthequantity supplied.supply curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied.equilibrium: a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.equilibrium price: the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded.equilibrium quantity: the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price.surplus: a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded.shortage: a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied.law of supply and demand: the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the supply and demand for that good into balance.5elasticity: a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinants.price elasticity of demand: a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price.total revenue: the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computedas theprice of the good times the quantity sold.income elasticity of demand: a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers’ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income.price elasticity of supply: a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price.6price ceiling: a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold.price floor: a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold.tax incidence: the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market.7welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.consumer surplus: a buyer’s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays.cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good.efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society.equity: the fairness of the distribution of well-being among the members of society.8deadweight loss: the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a tax.9world price: the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good. tariff: a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domestically.import quota: a limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domestically.10externality: the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of abystander.internalizing an externality: altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions.coase theorem: the proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their own.transaction costs: the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargain.Pigouvian tax: a tax enacted to correct the effects of a negative externality.11excludability: the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it.rivalry: the property of a good whereby one person’s use diminishes other people’s use.private goods: goods that are both excludable and rival.public goods: goods that are neither excludable nor rival.common resources: goods that are rival but not excludable.free rider: a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it.cost-benefit analysis: a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public good.tragedy of the commons: a parable that illustrates why common resources get used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a whole.13total revenue: the amount a firm receives for the sale of its output.total cost: the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.profit: total revenue minus total cost.explicit costs: input costs that require an outlay of money by the firm.implicit costs: input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firm.economic profit: total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costs.accounting profit: total revenue minus total explicit cost.production function: the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good.marginal product: the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input.diminishing marginal product: the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.fixed costs: costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced.variable costs: costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced.Definition of marginal cost: the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production.efficient scale: the quantity of output that minimizes average total cost.economies of scale: the property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases.diseconomies of scale: the property whereby long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases.constant returns to scale: the property whereby long-run average total cost stays the same as the quantity of output changes.14competitive market: a market with many buyers and sellers tradingidentical products so that each buyer and seller is a price taker.sunk cost: a cost that has been committed and cannot be recovered.15monopoly: a firm that is the sole sellerof a product without close substitutes.natural monopoly: a monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firms.price discrimination: the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customers.16oligopoly: a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical products.monopolistic competition: a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical.collusion: an agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to charge.cartel: a group of firms acting in unison.Nash equilibrium: a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the other actors have chosen.game theory: the study of how people behave in strategic situations.prisonersdilemma: a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial.17monopolistic competition: a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical.human capital: the accumulation of investments in people, such as education and on-the-job training.discrimination: the offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristics.in-kind transfers: transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cash.life cycle: the regular pattern of income variation over a person's life.welfare: government programs that supplement the incomes of the needy.。
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P
$6.00 $5.00 $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 $0.00 0 5 10 15 20 25
如果买者数量增加，那 么，在每一种价格水平 P，需求量Q会增加
（在本例中需求量的增加为5）
Q
30
10
供给与需求的市场力量
价格
需求量
$0.00
需求曲线（Demand curve）：表示某物品价格和需
求量之间关系的曲线
16
14 12 10 8
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Demand curve: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded 例如:
【例如：】
皮萨/汉堡 可乐/百事可乐 牛奶/豆浆 便携式电脑/台式电脑，等
供给与需求的市场力量
13
引起需求曲线位移（shift）的因素之三：相关物品价格（2）
Demand Curve Shifters: Prices of Related Goods
互补品（complements）：——
Q
7
供给与需求的市场力量
需求曲线的移动：——影响需求的因素
【回顾：】需求曲线：指（other things being equal，即其他条件不变情况下），
反映价格对需求量影响的曲线图形
Demand Curve Shifters
这里，所谓 “other things‖或“其他条件”， ——指除价格 之外的
供给与需求的市场力量
3
需求表（ The Demand Schedule ）
需求表（ Demand schedule）：表示某物品价格和需
求量之间关系的表格 （咖啡） （咖啡）
Demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded
市场需求量——指在每一个价格水平下所有单个买者需求量的总和
（The quantity demanded in the market is the sum of the quantities demanded by all buyers at each price. ）
假设肯和海伦是拿铁咖啡市场上仅有的两位买者 （Qd = 需求量）
引起需求曲线位移（shift）的影响因素之二：收入
Demand Curve Shifters: Income
正常物品(normal good )的需求与收入的变化正相关（或同方向）变动
即 收入 —— （每一价格水平下物品的）需求量 （——需求曲线将向右移动）
低档物品（ inferior good ）的需求与收入的变化负相关（或反方向）变动
market price and quantity of a good?
市场怎样配置资源？
How do markets allocate resources?
1
市场和竞争
市场（ market ）： ——由产品或劳务的买者和卖者组成 也可以是无形的，如网络交易，包括实物goods的或有价证券（securities）等交易）
替代品（ substitutes ）：—— 如果两种物品即为替代品，
则
A物品价格 —— A物品需求量
或
B物品需求量 B物品需求量
A物品价格 —— A物品需求量
Two goods are substitutes if
an increase in the price of one causes an increase in demand for the other.
示正常物品和低挡物品的需求量与收入之间的变动关系
用纵轴代表价格（P），横轴代表需求量（Q），
分别画图表示收入增加对正常物品和低档物品需求的影响
供给与需求的市场力量
12
引起需求曲线位移（shift）的因素之三：相关物品价格（1）
Demand Curve Shifters: Prices of Related Goods
影响需求的其他因素，——被统称为“非价格因素”
“非价格因素”的变化会引起需求曲线（向左或右）发生位
移（shift）
The demand curve shows how price affects quantity demanded, other
things being equal.
These ―other things‖ are non-price determinants of demand (i.e., things that
海伦对咖啡的需求
5.00
【注意：】——海伦的个人偏好符合“需求定理” —— 即需求量随着价格的下降而增加，随着价格的上升而减少
6
4
6.00
供给与需求的市场力量
4
海伦的 需求表 和 需求曲线
（ Helen’s Demand Schedule & Curve ）
拿铁咖啡 拿铁 咖啡
（Latte）
买者数量增加会增加每一种价格水平下的市场需
求量，从而引起 需求曲线右移
Increase in # of buyers
increases quantity demanded at each price, shifts D curve to the right.
供给与需求的市场力量
9
引起需求曲线位移（shift）的因素之一：买者数量
供给与需求的市场力量
2
需求（ Demand ）
需求量（ quantity demanded ）：——买者/消费者想
购买（即有意愿购买）并且能购买（即有支付能力）的某 种物品的数量
需求定理（ Law of demand）：——（在前提条件不变时）
某种物品价格上升，将引起该物品需求量减少
The quantity demanded of any good is the amount of the good that
肯的需求量
（ Qd ）
价格（P）
海伦的需求量（Qd）
市场需求量
（ Qd ）
$0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
16 14
+ + + + + + +
8 7 6 =
24 21 18 15 12 9 6
6
12
10 8
6
4
拿铁咖啡：市场需求曲线
A competitive market is one with many buyers and sellers, each has a negligible effect on price.
In a perfectly competitive market: All goods exactly the same Buyers & sellers so numerous that no one can affect market price – each is a ―price taker‖ In this chapter, we assume markets are perfectly competitive.
价格
拿铁咖啡 需求量
$6.00 $5.00 $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 $0.00 0 5 10 15
供给与需求的市场力量
拿铁咖啡
价格
$0.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
16
14 12 10 8
5.00
6.00 数量
6
4
5
个人需求 vs. 市场需求
（ Individual Demand versus Market Demand ）
即 收入 —— （每一价格水平下物品的）需求量 （——需求曲线将向左移动）
Demand for a normal good is positively related to income. Increase in income causes
increase in quantity demanded at each price, shifts D curve to the right.
determine buyers’ demand for a good, other than the good’s price).
Changes in them shift the D curve…
供给与需求的市场力量
8
引起需求曲线位移（shift）的因素之一：买者数量
Demand Curve Shifters: # of Buyers
（—— 它可以是有形的，如supermarket，open market，shop，ect.
竞争市场 （ competitive market ）——由很多买者和卖者组成的市场 完全竞争市场的特征： 销售的物品完全相同 买者与卖者人数众多，以至于任何一个买者或卖者都不能影响市场价格 —— 即所有买者和卖者都是被动的市场价格的“接受者” 我们假定本章讨论的市场是完全竞争的市场 A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular product.
buyers are willing and able to purchase.