syntax 7
6-7 chapter syntax
So, in the perspective of the behavioural psychologists ,language learning is simply the “stimulus and response” . The language is somewhat like a “habit structure”.
(3) a. 张三送李四一本书。 b. 张三送一本书给李四。 c. 张三送给李四一本书。 d. * 张三送一本书李四。
（4）问. 你认识老李吗？ 答. 我认识他。 __ 认识___。 (5) a.可是除了他，我谁也不认识。 b. *可是除了，我谁也不认识。
（1）a. John is easy to please. b. John is eager to please. （2）a. I wonder who the man expected to see them. b. The man expected to see them.
(3) a. John knows that Tom hates himself. b. 张三知道李四恨自己。 （4）a.Everyone likes someone. b. 每个人都喜欢一个人。
"Suppose Jack and Jill are walking down a lane. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple in a tree. She makes a noise with her larynx, tongue, and lips. Jack vaults the fence, climbs the tree, takes the apple, brings it to Jill, and places it in her hand. Jill eats the apple.
4.syntax
The traditional approach (传统学派)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
The generative approach (生成学派)
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修 饰语).
(主要/次要词汇范畴)
2. What are major/minor lexical categories?
① Major lexical categories are often assumed 3.toWbehtahte ahreeadtsh(e中心cr语it/e中r心ia成t分o )daertoeurnmdinwehiach
branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
普通语言学 6-Syntax解析
?
Syntax
pedago gy
• Syntax 来自古希腊语：sý ntaxis • 布局、陈列（“arrangement” or “setting out together”）
符号学中的 Syntax
• Morris (1938):符号学（semiotics）的三个分支
1. Syntactics: 符号之间的关系
NP
N’ 是介于名词 N 和名 词短语NP的中间层次
X-语杠
• X-语杠是大于中心语，小于短语（XP）的中间成分。 • X-语杠理论意味着每个短语都有中心语，即每个短语 都是一个向心结构（endocentric structure）。 • 这有别于传统结构语言学区分向心结构和离心结构（ exocentric structure）的做法。
• 句子是理论/抽象单位,由语法界定。 正确/不正确 • 语段是物理单位，属于言语表达或运用的范畴。 合适/不合适
如何解决？？？
• 句子功能的区分：
1. 2. 3. 4. 陈述句（statement） 疑问句（question） 命令句（command） 感叹句（exclamation）
如何解决？？？
???
• 现代句法学的句子定义不再使用“思想” 这一抽象的概念。 • 例如：an apple 表达思想,但不是句子； He came late, because he overslept. 一个句子，两个思想。
Bloomfield
• 现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。 • 语法中最大的语言单位 / 适用于句法规则的最大结构单 位。 • 一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的 语言形式中（Bloomfield, 1933）。 • An independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.
syntax
Syntax
2015/04/15
1
Outline
What is syntax? Syntactic units; Syntactic functions Syntactic relations
Syntagmatic relation 组合关系 paradigmatic relation 聚合关系
8
Clause
A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a CLAUSE. (1) I want to know why. (2) Having an influential father is often advantageous. (3) Do you know where I come from? finite and non-finite clause (traditional infinite phrase, participial phrase and gerundial phrase)
3
•
• •
词如何组织为句子
句子结构 制约句子结构的规则
4
The word “syntax” , derived originally from the Ancient Greek sý ntaxis, is made up of two morphemes: syn and tax . The former means “together” and the latter “to arrange”, hence the literal meaning “a setting out together” or “arrangement” . The core of syntax is the study of the structures of sentences. Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structures.
syntax评分系统方法及意义
08年长城会上听专家讲了Syntax score评分方法，这评分方法比较复杂，主要是依据冠脉造影的结果来判断。
在准备阅读之前，先要熟悉冠脉解剖的节段分布情况：（上图为左优势型冠脉解剖分布，下图为右优势型解剖分布）Figure 1. Definition of the coronary tree segments（冠脉束血管段的识别）1. RCA proximal: From the ostium to one half the distance to the acute margin of the heart.2. RCA mid: From the end of first segment to acute margin of heart.3. RCA distal: From the acute margin of the heart to the origin of the posterior descending artery.4. Posterior descending artery: Running in the posterior interventricular groove.16. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Posterolateral branch originating from the distal coronary artery distal to the crux.16a. Posterolateral branch from RCA: First posterolateral branch from segment 16.16b. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Second posterolateral branch from segment 16.16c. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Third posterolateral branch from segment 16.5. Left main: From the ostium of the LCA through bifurcation into left anterior descending and left circumflex branches.6. LAD proximal: Proximal to and including first major septal branch.7. LAD mid: LAD immediately distal to origin of first septal branch and extending to the point where LAD forms an angle (RAO view). If thisangle is not identifiable this segment ends at one half the distance from the first septal to the apex of the heart.8. LAD apical: Terminal portion of LAD, beginning at the end of previous segment and extending to or beyond the apex.9. First diagonal: The first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7.9a. First diagonal a: Additional first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7, before segment 8.10. Second diagonal: Originating from segment 8 or the transition between segment 7 and 8. 10a. Second diagonal a: Additional second diagonal originating from segment 8.11. Proximal circumflex artery: Main stem of circumflex from its origin of left main and including origin of first obtuse marginal branch.12. Intermediate/anterolateral artery: Branch from trifurcating left main other than proximal LAD or LCX. It belongs to the circumflex territory.12a. Obtuse marginal a: First side branch of circumflex running in general to the area of obtuse margin of the heart.12b. Obtuse marginal b: Second additional branch of circumflex running in the same direction as 12.13. Distal circumflex artery: The stem of the circumflex distal to the origin of the most distal obtuse marginal branch, and running along the posteriorleft atrioventricular groove. Caliber may be small or artery absent.14. Left posterolateral: Running to the posterolateral surface of the left ventricle. May be absent or a division of obtuse marginal branch.14a. Left posterolateral a: Distal from 14 and running in the same direction.14b. Left posterolateral b: Distal from 14 and 14 a and running in the same direction.15. Posterior descending: Most distal part of dominant left circumflex when present. It givesorigin to septal branches. When this arteryis present, segment 4 is usually absent。
7. Syntax
Linguistik Jingping Wang
2
paradigmatische Beziehungen
austauschbar
Der Mann Der Kerl Die Frau geht ü die Straß ber e.
Der
rote grü ne blaue
Mantel
3
Linguistik Jingping Wang
13
Grammatische Kongruenz
Ein alter Mann bringt dem Kind einen Hund.
Zwei Flexionsarten im Syntax
Sing./Pl. Artikel Nomen Genus Kasus Verb Person, Numeri, Tempora, Modi, Genus verbi
Linguistik Jingping Wang
19
Satzklammerkonstruktionen
Hilfsverb + Vollverb – Er wird bald ausreisen./ Er ist gestern ausgereist. – Er kann mir helfen. – Der Mantel wird von ihm gereinigt. Trennbares Verb + Prä fix Er nimmt am Deutschkurs teil.
Im Imperativ und Entscheidungsfrage: Stellung I
Gib mir ein Bier! Hast du morgen frei?
Im Nebensatz: Endstellung
Syntax
relations of substitution are often called paradigmatic relations. It refers to the relations between words or phrases that can be substituted for each other in the same grammatical position. I( ) Tom the book. passed handed threw gave The ( ) smiles. strong man old professor pretty girl tall boy
• Descriptive usages are generally understood and don't need to be taught, especially to native speakers. Because descriptivists more easily accept change due to syntax modifications and cultural influences, they believe language is learned or understood, rather than taught.
LISP编程语言教学手册说明书
1About the T utorialLISP is the second-oldest high-level programming language after Fortran and has changed a great deal since its early days, and a number of dialects have existed over its history. Today, the most widely known general-purpose LISP dialects are Common LISP and Scheme.This tutorial takes you through features of LISP Programming language by simple and practical approach of learning.AudienceThis reference has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to LISP Programming language.PrerequisitesBefore you start doing practice with various types of examples given in this reference, we assume that you are already aware of the fundamentals of computer programming and programming languages.Copyright & DisclaimerCopyright 2014 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd.All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy, distribute or republish any contents or a part of contents of this e-book in any manner without written consent of the publisher.You strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as precisely as possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our website or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover any errors on our website or in this tutorial, please notify us at **************************iT able of ContentsAbout the Tutorial (i)Audience (i)Prerequisites (i)Copyright & Disclaimer (i)Table of Contents (ii)1.OVERVIEW (1)Features of Common LISP (1)Applications Developed in LISP (1)2.ENVIRONMENT SETUP (3)How to Use CLISP (3)3.PROGRAM STRUCTURE (4)A Simple LISP Program (4)LISP Uses Prefix Notation (5)Evaluation of LISP Programs (5)The 'Hello World' Program (6)4.BASIC SYNTAX (7)Basic Elements in LISP (7)Adding Comments (8)Notable Points (8)LISP Forms (8)Naming Conventions in LISP (9)Use of Single Quotation Mark (9)5.DATA TYPES (11)Type Specifiers in LISP (11)6.MACROS (14)Defining a Macro (14)7.VARIABLES (15)Global Variables (15)Local Variables (16)8.CONSTANTS (18)9.OPERATORS (19)Arithmetic Operations (19)Comparison Operations (20)Logical Operations on Boolean Values (22)Bitwise Operations on Numbers (24)10.DECISION MAKING (27)The cond Construct in LISP (28)The if Construct (29)The when Construct (30)The case Construct (31)11.LOOPS (32)The loop Construct (33)The loop for Construct (33)The do Construct (35)The dotimes Construct (36)The dolist Construct (37)Exiting Gracefully from a Block (38)12.FUNCTIONS (40)Defining Functions in LISP (40)Optional Parameters (41)Keyword Parameters (43)Returning Values from a Function (43)Lambda Functions (45)Mapping Functions (45)13.PREDICATES (47)14.NUMBERS (51)Various Numeric Types in LISP (52)Number Functions (53)15.CHARACTERS (56)Special Characters (56)Character Comparison Functions (57)16.ARRAYS (59)17.STRINGS (66)String Comparison Functions (66)Case Controlling Functions (68)Trimming Strings (69)Other String Functions (70)18.SEQUENCES (73)Creating a Sequence (73)Generic Functions on Sequences (73)Standard Sequence Function Keyword Arguments (76)Finding Length and Element (76)Modifying Sequences (77)Sorting and Merging Sequences (78)Sequence Predicates (79)19.LISTS (81)The Cons Record Structure (81)Creating Lists with list Function in LISP (82)List Manipulating Functions (83)Concatenation of car and cdr Functions (85)20.SYMBOLS (86)Property Lists (86)21.VECTORS (89)Creating Vectors (89)Fill Pointer Argument (90)22.SET (92)Implementing Sets in LISP (92)Checking Membership (93)Set Union (94)Set Intersection (95)Set Difference (96)23.TREE (98)Tree as List of Lists (98)Tree Functions in LISP (98)Building Your Own Tree (100)Adding a Child Node into a Tree (100)24.HASH TABLE (103)Creating Hash Table in LISP (103)Retrieving Items from Hash Table (104)Adding Items into Hash Table (104)Applying a Specified Function on Hash Table (106)25.INPUT & OUTPUT (107)Input Functions (107)Reading Input from Keyboard (108)Output Functions (110)Formatted Output (113)26.FILE I/O (115)Opening Files (115)Writing to and Reading from Files (116)Closing a File (118)27.STRUCTURES (119)Defining a Structure (119)28.PACKAGES (122)Package Functions in LISP (122)Creating a Package (123)Using a Package (123)Deleting a Package (125)29.ERROR HANDLING (127)Signaling a Condition (127)Handling a Condition (127)Restarting or Continuing the Program Execution (128)Error Signaling Functions in LISP (131)MON LISP OBJECT SYSTEMS (133)Defining Classes (133)Providing Access and Read/Write Control to a Slot (133)Defining a Class Method (135)Inheritance (136)LISP8LISP stands for LIS t P rogramming. John McCarthy invented LISP in 1958, shortly after the development of FORTRAN. It was first implemented by Steve Russell on an IBM 704 computer. It is particularly suitable for Artificial Intelligence programs, as it processes symbolic information efficiently.Common LISP originated during the decade of 1980 to 1990, in an attempt to unify the work of several implementation groups, as a successor of Maclisp like ZetaLisp and New Implementation of LISP (NIL) etc.It serves as a common language, which can be easily extended for specific implementation. Programs written in Common LISP do not depend on machine-specific characteristics, such as word length etc.Features of Common LISP∙ It is machine-independent∙ It uses iterative design methodology∙ It has easy extensibility∙ It allows to update the programs dynamically∙ It provides high level debugging.∙ It provides advanced object-oriented programming.∙ It provides convenient macro system.∙ It provides wide-ranging data types like, objects, structures, lists, vectors, adjustable arrays, hash-tables, and symbols.∙ It is expression-based.∙ It provides an object-oriented condition system.∙ It provides complete I/O library.∙ It provides extensive control structures.1. OVERVIEWLISPApplications Developed in LISPThe following applications are developed in LISP: Large successful applications built in LISP.∙Emacs: It is a cross platform editor with the features of extensibility, customizability, self-document ability, and real-time display.∙G2∙AutoCad∙Igor Engraver∙Yahoo Store9LISP10CLISP is the GNU Common LISP multi-architechtural compiler used for setting up LISP in Windows. The Windows version emulates Unix environment using MingW under Windows. The installer takes care of this and automatically adds CLISP to the Windows PATH variable.You can get the latest CLISP for Windows at:/projects/clisp/files/latest/downloadIt creates a shortcut in the Start Menu by default, for the line-by-line interpreter.How to Use CLISPDuring installation, CLISP is automatically added to your PATH variable if you select the option (RECOMMENDED). It means that you can simply open a new Command window and type "clisp" to bring up the compiler. To run a *.lisp or *.lsp file, simply use: clisp hello.lisp2. ENVIRONMENT SETUPLISP11LISP expressions are called symbolic expressions or S-expressions. The S-expressions are composed of three valid objects:∙ Atoms ∙ Lists ∙StringsAny S-expression is a valid program. LISP programs run either on an interpreter or as compiled code.The interpreter checks the source code in a repeated loop, which is also called the Read-Evaluate-Print Loop (REPL). It reads the program code, evaluates it, and prints the values returned by the program.A Simple LISP ProgramLet us write an s-expression to find the sum of three numbers 7, 9 and 11. To do this, we can type at the interpreter prompt ->: (+7911)LISP returns the following result: 27If you would like to execute the same program as a compiled code, then create a LISP source code file named myprog.lisp and type the following code in it: (write(+7911))When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is: 273. PROGRAM STRUCTURELISP Uses Prefix NotationIn prefix notation, operators are written before their operands. You might have noted that LISP uses prefix notation. In the above program, the ‘+’ symbol works as a function name for the process of summation of the numbers.For example, the following expression,a * (b +c ) / dis written in LISP as:(/ (* a (+ b c) ) d)Let us take another example. Let us write code for converting Fahrenheit temperature of 60o F to the centigrade scale:The mathematical expression for this conversion is:(60 * 9 / 5) + 32Create a source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it:(write(+ (* (/ 9 5) 60) 32))When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result is:140Evaluation of LISP ProgramsThe LISP program has two parts:∙Translation of program text into LISP objects by a reader program.∙Implementation of the semantics of the language in terms of LSIP objects by an evaluator program.The evaluation program takes the following steps:∙The reader translates the strings of characters to LISP objects or s-expressions.12∙The evaluator defines syntax of LISP forms that are built from s-expressions.∙This second level of evaluation defines a syntax that determines which s-expressions are LISP forms.∙The evaluator works as a function that takes a valid LISP form as an argument and returns a value. This is the reason why we put the LISP expression in parenthesis, because we are sending the entire expression/form to the evaluator as argument.The 'Hello World' ProgramLearning a new programming language does not really take off until you learn how to greet the entire world in that language, right ?Let us create new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it:(write-line "Hello World")(write-line "I am at 'Tutorials Point'! Learning LISP")When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:Hello WorldI am at 'Tutorials Point'! Learning LISP13LISP14This chapter introduces you to basic syntax structure in LISP.Basic Elements in LISPLISP programs are made up of three basic elements:∙ atom ∙ list ∙stringAn atom is a number or string of contiguous characters. It includes numbers and special characters. The following examples show some valid atoms: hello-from-tutorials-point name 123008907 *hello* Block#221 abc123A list is a sequence of atoms and/or other lists enclosed in parentheses. The following examples show some valid lists: ( i am a list) (a ( a b c) d e fgh)(father tom ( susan bill joe)) (sun mon tue wed thur fri sat) ( )A string is a group of characters enclosed in double quotation marks. The following examples show some valid strings:4. BASIC SYNTAX" I am a string""a ba c d efg #$%^&!""Please enter the following details:""Hello from 'Tutorials Point'! "Adding CommentsThe semicolon symbol (;) is used for indicating a comment line.Example(write-line "Hello World") ; greet the world; tell them your whereabouts(write-line "I am at 'Tutorials Point'! Learning LISP")When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result returned is:Hello WorldI am at 'Tutorials Point'! Learning LISPNotable PointsThe following important points are notable:∙The basic numeric operations in LISP are +, -, *, and /∙LISP represents a function call f(x) as (f x), for example cos(45) is written as cos 45∙LISP expressions are not case-sensitive. Means, cos 45 or COS 45 are same.∙LISP tries to evaluate everything, including the arguments of a function. Only three types of elements are constants and always return their own value:o Numberso The letter t, that stands for logical trueo The value nil, that stands for logical false, as well as an empty list.15LISP FormsIn the previous chapter, we mentioned that the evaluation process of LISP code takes the following steps:∙The reader translates the strings of characters to LISP objects or s-expressions.∙The evaluator defines syntax of LISP forms that are built from s-expressions.This second level of evaluation defines a syntax that determines which s-expressions are LISP forms.A LISP form can be:∙An atom∙An empty list or non-list∙Any list that has a symbol as its first elementThe evaluator works as a function that takes a valid LISP form as an argument and returns a value.This is the reason why we put the LISP expression in parenthesis,because we are sending the entire expression/form to the evaluator as argument.Naming Conventions in LISPName or symbols can consist of any number of alphanumeric characters other than whitespace, open and closing parentheses, double and single quotes, backslash, comma, colon, semicolon and vertical bar. To use these characters in a name, you need to use escape character (\).A name can have digits but must not be made of only digits, because then it would be read as a number. Similarly a name can have periods, but cannot be entirely made of periods.Use of Single Quotation MarkLISP evaluates everything including the function arguments and list members.At times, we need to take atoms or lists literally and do not want them evaluated or treated as function calls. To do this, we need to precede the atom or the list with a single quotation mark.16The following example demonstrates this:Create a file named main.lisp and type the following code into it:(write-line "single quote used, it inhibits evaluation")(write '(* 2 3))(write-line " ")(write-line "single quote not used, so expression evaluated")(write (* 2 3))When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:single quote used, it inhibits evaluation(* 2 3)single quote not used, so expression evaluated617LISP18LISP data types can be categorized as:Scalar types - numbers, characters, symbols etc. Data structures - lists, vectors, bit-vectors, and strings.Any variable can take any LISP object as its value, unless you declare it explicitly. Although, it is not necessary to specify a data type for a LISP variable, however, it helps in certain loop expansions, in method declarations and some other situations that we will discuss in later chapters.The data types are arranged into a hierarchy. A data type is a set of LISP objects and many objects may belong to one such set.The typep predicate is used for finding whether an object belongs to a specific type. The type-of function returns the data type of a given object.T ype Specifiers in LISPType specifiers are system-defined symbols for data types.Array fixnum package simple-string Atom float pathname simple-vector Bignum function random-state single-float Bit hash-table Ratio standard-char bit-vector integer Rational stream Character keyword readtable string [common]listsequence[string-char]5. DATA TYPESLISP compiled-function long-float short-float symbolComplex nill signed-byte tCons null simple-array unsigned-bytedouble-float number simple-bit-vector vectorApart from these system-defined types, you can create your own data types. When a structure type is defined using defstruct function, the name of the structure type becomes a valid type symbol.>/p>Example 1Create new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it:(setq x 10)(setq y 34.567)(setq ch nil)(setq n 123.78)(setq bg 11.0e+4)(setq r 124/2)(print x)(print y)(print n)(print ch)(print bg)(print r)When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result returned is:1034.567123.78NIL19LISP110000.062Example 2Next let us check the types of the variables used in the previous example. Create new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it:(setq x 10)(setq y 34.567)(setq ch nil)(setq n 123.78)(setq bg 11.0e+4)(setq r 124/2)(print (type-of x))(print (type-of y))(print (type-of n))(print (type-of ch))(print (type-of bg))(print (type-of r))When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:(INTEGER 0 281474976710655)SINGLE-FLOATSINGLE-FLOATNULLSINGLE-FLOAT(INTEGER 0 281474976710655)20LISP 21LISP22This chapter introduces you about macros in LISP.A macro is a function that takes an s-expression as arguments and returns a LISP form, which is then evaluated. Macros allow you to extend the syntax of standard LISP.Defining a MacroIn LISP, a named macro is defined using another macro named defmacro. Syntax for defining a macro is:(defmacro macro-name (parameter-list)"Optional documentation string."body-form)The macro definition consists of the name of the macro, a parameter list, an optional documentation string, and a body of LISP expressions that defines the job to be performed by the macro.ExampleLet us write a simple macro named setTo10, which takes a number and sets its value to 10.Create new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it: defmacro setTo10(num)(setq num 10)(print num))(setq x 25)(print x)(setTo10 x)When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:6. MACROSLISP251023LISP24In LISP, each variable is represented by a symbol. The name of the variable is the name of the symbol and it is stored in the storage cell of the symbol. Global V ariablesGlobal variables are generally declared using the defvar construct. Global variables have permanent values throughout the LISP system and remain in effect until new values are specified.Example(defvar x 234)(write x)When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:234As there is no type declaration for variables in LISP, you need to specify a value for a symbol directly with the setq construct.Example->(setq x 10)The above expression assigns the value 10 to the variable x. You can refer to the variable using the symbol itself as an expression.The symbol-value function allows you to extract the value stored at the symbol storage place.ExampleCreate new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it: (setq x 10)(setq y 20)7. VARIABLES(format t "x = ~2d y = ~2d ~%" x y)(setq x 100)(setq y 200)(format t "x = ~2d y = ~2d" x y)When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:x = 10 y = 20x = 100 y = 200Local V ariablesLocal variables are defined within a given procedure. The parameters named as arguments within a function definition are also local variables. Local variables are accessible only within the respective function.Like the global variables, local variables can also be created using the setq construct. There are two other constructs - let and prog for creating local variables.The let construct has the following syntax:(let ((var1 val1) (var2 val2).. (varn valn))<s-expressions>)Where var1, var2,…,varn are variable names and val1, val2,…, valn are the initial values assigned to the respective variables.When let is executed, each variable is assigned the respective value and at last, the s-expression is evaluated. The value of the last expression evaluated is returned.If you do not include an initial value for a variable, the variable is assigned to nil. ExampleCreate new source code file named main.lisp and type the following code in it:(let ((x 'a)(y 'b)(z 'c))(format t "x = ~a y = ~a z = ~a" x y z))25When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, LISP executes it immediately and the result is:x = A y = B z = CThe prog construct also has the list of local variables as its first argument, which is followed by the body of the prog,and any number of s-expressions.26End of ebook previewIf you liked what you saw…Buy it from our store @ https://27。
普通语言学 6-Syntax
4. 句法分析的最初模式
• 短语结构规则生成基本的句子结构，再 通过转换生成句子。 • 每个句子都有两层结构：深层结构和表 层结构。 • 深层结构是句子的抽象句法表示。 • 表层结构是实际发出的或者听到的句法 结构，它是句法派生的最后阶段。
模式
• 短语结构规则生成深层结构，通过应用 一组转换规则，再形成表层结构。
•节点C, D, F, H, J是终极节 点。
C-统制
• 用来解释句子是否合乎语法的结构关系 • C-统制：αC-统制β，当且仅当α不统辖β ，而且每一个统辖α的γ也统辖β
怎么确定C-统制？(Radford, 2002)
• 把α和β想象为火车站点
• αC-统制β：乘北向列车从α出发，在第一 个站点下车，换乘（不同线路的）南向 列车到达β。
?
Theory
• Syntactic Structures (1957): 乔姆斯 基革命 • 儿童为什么能够很容易地习得第一语言？ • 为什么语言使用者可以说出无限的合乎语 法的句子，并且说出并听懂以前从未说出 和听过的句子？
语言观
• 天赋论（innateness hypothesis） • 语言习得机制（LAD）
笛卡尔 洪堡特 索绪尔
• 语言：(有限的成分集合构成的)句子的集合 • 语言能力(competence)与语言运用(performance)
目 的
• 用于描写各种语言的普遍语法（UG） • 思维的本质和机制
grammar
?
发展阶段
1. 经典理论（ 1950s）建立了生成语法的概念，以及短语 结构规则和转换的概念。 2. 标准理论（ 1960s）确立了与转换相关的深层结构和表 层结构，并且为了限制生成不合形式的句子，在深层结 构中引入了语义成分。 3. 扩展的标准理论（ 1970s）提出表层结构决定了语义解 释，并且引入了语迹理论。 4. 管辖和约束理论（ 1980s），也称作原则与参数理论， 引入了规则和规范的概念，包括X-语杠理论，θ 理论， 格理论，约束理论，移位理论。 5. 最简方案（ 1990s及以后），核心假设是应该用最少的 理论和描写工具对语法进行描写。
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Complements 补语
Complements can be phrases Providing information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head Attached to the right of the head
Adv.: to denote property of verbs e.g., Jenny left quietly.
Not always reliable: He stands still. love – hate be aware of – know about
syntax组句
syntax组句一、“syntax”的中文翻译及英语解释1. 中文翻译- “syntax”的中文是“句法；语法结构；语句结构”。
2. 英语解释- Syntax refers to the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language. It determines how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and ultimately complete sentences. For example, in English, the basic word order in a simple declarative sentence is usually subject - verb - object (SVO). So, a correct sentence like “I love apples” follows this syntax, where “I” is the subject, “love” is the verb, and “apples” is the object.二、运用“syntax”组句的情况及10个例子1. 描写客观事实或陈述观点时- Example 1: She reads books every day. (Subject - Verb - Object structure. Here “She” is the subject who performs the action of “reads”, and “books” is the object of the action. This simple sentence structure is used to state a habitual action.)- Example 2: They like music. (Subject - Verb - Object. “They” is the subject, “like” is the verb expressing preference, and “music” is the object of that preference.)2. 描述动作的发生顺序时- Example 3: First, he wakes up, then he brushes his teeth. (Here, we use a sequence of simple sentences following the subject - verb - object syntax. “He” is the subject in both sentences, and “wakes up” and “brushes” are the verbs respectively. This shows the order of actions.) - Example 4: After she finishes her work, she goes home. (The main clauses “she goes home” follows the SVO syntax. The sub - clause “After she finishes her work” also has a proper syntax with “she” as the subject, “finishes” as the verb, and “her work” as the ob ject. This is used to show the time sequence of events.)3. 进行人物或事物的特征描述时- Example 5: The dog is big and friendly. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “The dog” is the subject, “is” is the verb, and “big and friendly” is the complement, which describes the c haracteristics of the dog. This syntax is used to give details about the subject.)- Example 6: My sister is smart. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “My sister” is the subject, “is” is the linking verb, and “smart” is the complement that describes the quality of the sister.)4. 表达存在关系时- Example 7: There are many flowers in the garden. (The “there be” structure is a special syntax in English to express existence. “There” is the dummy subject, “are” is the verb, and “many flowers” is the real subject. “In the garden” is the prepositional phrase indicating the location.)- Example 8: There is a book on the table. (Similar to the above, “There” is the dummy subject, “is” is the verb, “a book” is the real subject, and “on the table” is the prepositional phrase showing the loc ation.)5. 构建复合句时（以状语从句为例）- Example 9: When it rains, the ground gets wet. (The “When it rains” is an adverbial clause of time, following the subject - verb syntax with “it” as the subject and “rains” as the verb. The main clause “the ground gets wet” also fol lows the subject - verb - complement syntax. This is used to show the causal relationship between the two events.)- Example 10: Because he is ill, he doesn't go to school. (The “Because he is ill” is an adverbial clause of reason, with “he” as the subj ect, “is” as the verb, and “ill” as the complement. The main clause “he doesn't go to school” follows the subject - verb - object - adverbial structure. This is used to explain the reason for the action in the main clause.)三、个人观点Syntax is of fundamental importance in language learning and communication. A correct understanding and application of syntax rules allow us to form clear, accurate, and effective sentences. It serves as the backbone of language construction, enabling speakers and writers to convey their intended meanings precisely. Moreover, different languages may have different syntactic structures, and learning the syntax of a foreign language can help us gain deeper insights into the way that languagefunctions and the cultural background it reflects. However, while syntax provides the framework, it should not be overly rigidly adhered to in creative writing or in some forms of informal communication, where a certain degree of flexibility can add expressiveness and uniqueness to the language use.。
SYNTAX评分系统说明
【3】病变不良特征评分
病变不良特征
血管狭窄* —完全闭塞 —有意义的病变（50-99%狭窄） 完全闭塞（TO） —＞3个月或闭塞时间不祥 —钝性残端 —桥侧支 —闭塞后第一可见节段 —边支（SB） —边支＜1.5mm**
—二边支，一支＜1.5mm， 一支≥1.5mm
三叉病变
—1个病变节段 —2个病变节段 —3个病变节段 —4个病变节段 双分叉病变
**如果边支直径为1.5mm，病变不加分，因为会作为分叉病变进行加分
【注释】
注 1：多个前后病变 如果多个前后病变的距离小于 3 个参考血管的直径，可以把它们作为一个病变看待来记分。如果每 个病变的闭塞病变 闭塞病变的长度通过闭塞点和侧枝可见的第一个血管节段来计算。
左优势型
0 0 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 6 3.5 2.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 1 1
12b Obtuse marginalb 13 Distal circumflex artery 14 Left posterolateral 14a Left posterolaterala 14b Left posterolateralb 15 Posterior descending
定义 1. 冠脉优势型：a）右优势型：后降支由右冠发出（第 4 节段）b）：左优势型：后降支由左冠发
出（第 15 节段）。在 SYNTAX 评分中无均衡型冠脉的选择。 2. 完全闭塞：TIMI 血流 0 级：在闭塞处无顺行血流。 3. 桥侧支：平行血管的连接近远端的小通道 4. 三分叉病变：三根血管交汇一起，一根主支和 2 根边支。只有下述分支才定义为三分叉病变：
举例 1：
举例 2：
注 3：分叉病变分型 边支血管直径至少 1.5mm 以上才构成分叉病变。采用 Duke 分型法（如下图）。
Lecture 7 Syntax
A). Number, gender and case
Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun, e.g. a book, some books; I, we; he, they.
Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. e.g. actor, actress; hero, heroine; prince, princess; lion, lioness
The country has not undergone any war since 1815. She was shopping in town.
Running a hotel isn’t as easy as it might look. Ted wouldn't’t have married her.. It’s pouring down outside.
There should be another one like this.
11
Object
It refers to the receiver of goal of an action and it is further classified into direct object and indirect object. It can be checked by a passive transformation. Object is optional in a sentence.
2). Syntactic function
Subject Predicate object
9
Syntax
The Grammatical Categories of Nouns (P85)
1. NUMBER a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes (N, V, Adj) displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, (单数，双数，复数) etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog/ dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs/ They laugh, this man/ these men.
传统语法把句子看成是词的序列，所以对句子 构成的研究很大一部分涉及词的研究，如词的 词性分类、词在句中主谓宾功能的划分等。词 的词性和词在句子中的功能都叫做范畴。 范畴是一个意义广泛的句法学概念，指的是在 语言结构某一层面上、能够区分开的语法单位 或词汇单位的任何类和任何系统。范畴有时候 指词类，有时候指和具体词类有关的语法特征 。
The word “syntax” is from the Ancient Greek sý ntaxis, is made up of two morphemes syn and tax . The former means “together” and the latter “to arrange”, hence the literal meaning “arrangement” or “a setting out together”. The core of syntax is the study of the structures of sentences. Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structures.
syntax 翻译
syntax 翻译syntax是指语法或句法，在语言学中是指一种规则体系，用于组织单词、短语和句子，以形成有意义的语言表达。
它是语言的基本构成要素之一，帮助人们理解和表达信息。
在英语中，syntax通常涉及词序、句子结构、句子成分和语法规则等方面。
下面是一些关于syntax的用法和中英文对照例句：1. Syntactic rules determine the order of words in a sentence. (语法规则决定句子中单词的顺序。
)2. In English, the basic sentence structure follows the subject-verb-object (SVO) syntax. (在英语中，基本的句子结构遵循主谓宾（SVO）的语法。
)3. The syntax of a programming language dictates how code is written and organized. (编程语言的语法规定了代码的书写和组织方式。
)4. It is important to follow correct syntax to ensure clear and effective communication. (遵循正确的语法对于确保清晰有效的沟通很重要。
)5. The professor explained the syntax of the new grammar rule. (教授解释了新语法规则的句法。
)6. The syntax of this programming language is quite different from the one I'm familiar with. (这种编程语言的语法与我熟悉的那种非常不同。
)7. The book provides a detailed analysis of English syntax. (这本书提供了对英语语法的详细分析。
SYNTAX积分及应用
S Y N T A X积分及应用1前言近年来，随着人民生活水平的不断提高，我国冠心病的发病率和死亡率也逐年升高，并呈现患者年轻化趋势。
目前的主要治疗手段包括生活方式干预、药物治疗、器械治疗即血管成形术[1]。
在血管成形术中，包括经皮冠状动脉介入术（PCI）和冠状动脉旁路移植术（CABG）两种主要手段[2]。
在部分冠脉病变的血管成形术术式的选择上，PCI与CABG的选择问题一直存在争论。
随着药物支架的广泛应用，PCI的治疗范围不断突破禁区[1]，而微创技术、更加完善的术后护理，也使得部分病人对CABG的接受度得以提高，应该说两种手术方法都是安全和有效的，但又有各自的优缺点。
因此，对于部分病人如何选择术式的争论从未停止。
到目前为止，何种病人适合何种术式，尚无定论[4]。
如何正确的选择术式，提高成功率，减少并发症，内外科的争论急需一种方法进行引导。
在欧洲心脏病学会（ESC[5]）2008年会上公布的心脏外科与介入治疗狭窄冠脉研究（SYNTAX），就是针对上述问题进行选择及立项设计的，是首个针对左主干病变和/或三支病变的随机对照试验。
结果一经公布，立即受到世界的瞩目[6,7]。
SYNTAX研究的一项重要贡献，是提出了SYNTAX积分的概念，这是一种新的根据冠状动脉病变解剖特点进行危险分层的积分系统，根据病变位置、严重程度、分叉、钙化等解剖特点定量评价冠脉病变的复杂程度，以期作为手术方式选择的初步判断手段[1,2]。
？SYNTAX积分已越来越广泛地引起人们的关注，自其一年和两年结果公布后已引起广泛的讨论。
我们预测SYNTAX积分将对今后我国血管成形术的选择与预后判断产生重要的影响。
因此，本文将就SYNTAX的实验设计、计分方法、主要试验结果及其局限性进行综述，以期为正确解读和应用SYNTAX 积分方法和为我国血管成形术的选择有一个较客观的标准提供理论依据。
2SYNTAX实验设计？研究在欧美84家医院进行，共入选来自欧洲和美国的3075例左主干和/或三支病变患者。
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The logic here !!!
If there is an element which lacks GC, problem solved because neither Condition A nor Condition B applies and that element is neither free nor bound. PRO: admitted or licensed if ungoverned The PRO Theorem PRO must be ungoverned.
(14) a. *PRO should take linguistics. b. *He suggested that [ PRO take linguistics ]. Not as subject of finite clauses. (15) a. *I'd like [ you to invite PRO ]. b. *I have invited PRO. Not at the object position. (16) a. *We all know [ PRO to be cunning]. b. *She prefers [for PRO to destroy the evidence]. Not every infinitival clause has PRO as subject.10
Logical reasoning
13
3.2 Interpretation How is PRO interpreted ? 3.2.1 Properties of control
Obligatory vs. optional control (p.277) Subject vs. object control (p.277) C-command and obligatory control (p.278) The controller: argument control (p.279)
Features of PRO:
[ +anaphoric, +pronominal]; [ +N, -V] (e.g. number, gender, person); [ +ANIMATE]
8
3. Control Theory
(13) a. Johni wondered whether [ PROi to go abroad ]. b. Shei forgot [ PROi locking/to lock the door ].
PRO (2)depends on ‘John’/ ‘she’ for
‘control’
interpretation. What does Control Theory do? Regulate the distribution and interpretation of PRO
9
3.1 Distribution Where does PRO (not) occur ? So far… ?
Session 7
Control Theory
1
Control Theory
1. Covert and non-overt categories
2. PRO
3. Control Theory
4. Summary
2
1. Overt and Non-overt categories
(1) a. Mary met her old friend yesterday. b. They enjoyed themselves. ‘Mary’, ‘they’, ‘her old friend’, ‘themselves’ :
14
3.2.3 Minimal Distance Principle
PRO must take the closest NP as its antecedent.
(18) a. John persuaded Maryi [ PROi to go ]. b. Johni promised Mary [ PROi to go ].
(10) a. [ PRO To praise themselves/*himself] is what they often do. b. He doesn't want [ PRO to kill himself/*herself]. 7 Number and gender
(11) a. It is not easy [ PRO to control oneself at home]. b. It is not easy [ PRO to control yourself at home].
11
Ungoverned
The logic here !!!
Features of the three types of overt NPs and PRO Anaphors: [+anaphor, -pronominal] Pronouns: [-anaphor, +pronominal] R-expressions: [-anaphor, -pronominal] PRO: [+anaphor, +pronominal] Anaphors must be bound in its GC; Binding Theory Pronouns must be free in its GC; What about PRO, [+anaphor, +pronominal]? It must be both bound and free in its GC. Logically, contradictory ! How can that be ???
(17) a. He remembers [ PRO seeing the film ]. b. He left without [ PRO saying goodbye ]. c. He died [ PRO waiting for Alice ]. d. He arrived [ PRO angry ]. As subject of other non-finite and small clauses.
PRO: phonetically null, syntactically significant
Arguments
for the proposition
(4) a. [ PRO To kill themselves/himself/oneself] was silly. b. [ PRO To praise each other/themselves] is what they often do.
6
2.2 Features of PRO
(8) a. She left him [ PRO to marry a man with more money]. b. He doesn't want [ PRO to kill himself]. c. One doesn't want [ PRO to kill oneself]. Like an anaphor: referentially dependent on an NP in S (9) a. [ PRO to quit the job] would be wrong. b. [ PRO to kill/themselves/himself/oneself] was silly. c. [ PRO To be polite] is a virtue. Like a pronominal: with a specific or arbitrary referent
Discuss.
15
A Minimalist program
empty
categories: categories which have no overt phonetic form.
16
PRO has null case, and has its case checked by infinitival to; by contrast, objective infinitive subjects have their case checked by an immediately preceding transitive verb or transitive complementizer. E.g. I expect him to win.
having phonetic content
Overt NPs/ categories Non-overt categories
3
2. Infinitival subject
(2) [IP To leave him] is silly/right. [Spec,IP]: occupied by nothing ? No. By an empty category (ec) Structure of IP? Draw a tree.
IP Spec I I’ VP
ec = PRO
ec PRO to ??
(3) a. [IP For her to leave him] is silly/right. b. [IP That she will leave him] is silly/right.
leave him
Compare.4
2.1 Arguments for proposing PRO
17
பைடு நூலகம்
IP can also be headed by a null INFL constituent. e.g. He could have seen her or she have seen him. She hates syntax. (The tense/agreement properties of verb hates percolate from V to INFL.)