A methodology for the behavioral-level event-driven power management of digital receivers
人们的行为的英语作文
Peoples behavior is a complex and multifaceted subject that can be explored from various angles in an English essay.Here are some key points that could be included in an essay about peoples behavior:1.Cultural Influence:Discuss how cultural norms and values shape the behavior of individuals within different societies.For example,the concept of respect for elders in Asian cultures versus the more egalitarian approach in Western societies.2.Social Conditioning:Explore the idea that peoples behavior is often a result of social conditioning from an early age.This could include the influence of family,peers,and media.3.Personality Traits:Analyze how individual personality traits,such as introversion or extroversion,can affect behavior in different social situations.4.Emotional States:Discuss the impact of emotions on behavior.For instance,how anger can lead to aggressive behavior or how happiness can make someone more sociable.5.Situational Factors:Examine how the context or situation can influence behavior.For example,people might act differently in a professional setting compared to a casual social gathering.6.Ethical Considerations:Reflect on the role of ethics in guiding behavior.Discuss how moral values can influence decisionmaking and actions.7.Conformity and NonConformity:Explore the concept of conformity,where individuals behave in a manner that aligns with the group,and nonconformity,where individuals choose to act differently.8.The Role of Education:Discuss how education can influence behavior by imparting knowledge,values,and critical thinking skills that shape decisionmaking.9.Behavioral Psychology:Delve into psychological theories that explain human behavior, such as operant conditioning,cognitive dissonance,or the stages of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg.10.The Impact of Technology:Consider how technological advancements,particularly in the realm of social media,have changed the way people interact and behave.11.Stress and Coping Mechanisms:Discuss how stress can affect behavior and thecoping mechanisms people use to deal with challenging situations.12.Behavioral Change:Explore the process of behavioral change,including the factors that motivate individuals to change their behavior and the strategies that can support lasting change.13.Legal and Moral Boundaries:Discuss the intersection of legal and moral boundaries in shaping behavior,and how societal expectations and laws can influence what is considered acceptable behavior.14.The Influence of Role Models:Reflect on the impact that role models,such as celebrities,athletes,or political figures,can have on shaping the behavior of others.15.Future Predictions:Speculate on how behavior might evolve in the future, considering factors such as technological advancements,globalization,and changing societal values.When writing an essay on peoples behavior,its important to provide specific examples, cite relevant research or theories,and maintain a clear and logical structure.Additionally, a balanced perspective that acknowledges the complexity of human behavior and the various factors that influence it will make the essay more compelling and insightful.。
Philosophy and Educational Research 教育的哲学取向
Philosophy and Educational Research D Bridges,University of Cambridge,Cambridge,UKã2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.GlossaryAction research–Research carried out bypractitioners in the sites of their practice and designedto improve that practice through a repeated cycle of reflection,research and change in the practice.Empirical–as in‘empirical enquiry’–Based on observation and experience(and contrasted withmore abstract thought characteristic of philosophy, mathematics,and more speculative aspects of science).Epistemology–or theory of knowledge–A branch of philosophy concerned with the natureand justification of belief,truth claims,etc.Ethics–A branch of philosophy concerned with thenature and justification of beliefs about the right and the good,sometimes referred to as moral philosophy.But ethics is also used to refer to codes of(moral)practice governing,for example,professional lives or,asdiscussed in this article,the conduct of research. Normative–Related to norms,in this case thevalues and principles which underpin educationalpolicy and practice.Phenomenography–Enquiry aimed at eliciting and describing the ways in which people experience theworld–an attempt to access,for example,the learner’sor the teacher’s subjective experience of education. Postmodern–Refers to a body of thought andliterature which challenges a whole range of assumptions associated with,in particular,the aspirations of modern science and technology.It is a notion which rather eludes definition(and most ofthose who espouse its various forms would seek toelude definition),but the paragraph in the text seeksto explain what it means in this context.Practitioner research–Research(usually smallscale)carried out by practitioners,most commonly inthis context teachers(see also action research above).The Contributions of Philosophy to Educational ResearchThis encyclopedia will itself bear witness to the fact that the field of educational research is enormously diverse. Education is not a single form of disciplined enquiry:rather,it is a field of enquiry which draws on a wide range of the intellectual resources of the academy as well as the accumulation of practical wisdom drawn from the experience of educational practitioners.(There are of course interesting philosophical questions about the rela-tionship between these two sources which are commented on briefly below).Its intellectual resources and its methods of enquiry are drawn from disciplines as diverse as history and neuroscience,literary theory and philosophy,behav-iorist psychology and ethnography,law and economics, and museology and the creative arts.This(in part philosophical)picture of the nature of educational research itself points to three kinds of contribu-tion which philosophy can and does make to this endeavor. First,philosophy is itself among the scholarly,systematic, and sustained disciplines which can–and many would argue must–be drawn upon to contribute to educational enquiry.This is philosophy as educational research.Second, the claims and limitations of all of the other forms of enquiry which offer contributions to educational research need to be examined and understood,and this is philosoph-ical work of an epistemological character,that is,rooted in theory of knowledge.This is referred to as philosophy of educational research.Third,any research which requires engagement with human participants and the redistribution of their knowledge and of knowledge about them raises issues of an ethical and political character which have their roots in a long-standing tradition of philosophical ethics and social and political philosophy.The remainder of this article on the contribution of philosophy to educa-tional research is organized under these three headings. Philosophy as Educational Research Philosophers may feel a little uncomfortable about their work being described as research,because this term is more commonly applied in contexts in which people are seeking evidence or data of one kind or another.Philoso-phers tend to be more comfortable with the language of scholarship or enquiry.This is not to say that philosophers have to stay removed from the grounded world of practice or empirical enquiry,though they are sometimes criticized for failure to engage directly with these worlds(Phillips, 2005).It is rather that what they do with such material–as philosophers–is to reflect upon it,analyze it,and interpret it drawing on the rich tradition of philosophical writing which is at the heart of the subject.However,they have on29the whole accepted their role as educational researchers as the price of a seat at the table of the national and interna-tional educational-research community.Their presence in the educational-research community is an essential one,because philosophical questions are central to the theory and practice of education itself.You cannot go far in the consideration of educational policy and practice without engaging with fundamental questions about the aims of education and about the values and principles which ought to govern this policy and practice. These are themselves rooted in conceptions of human being and flourishing,about the individual and society,and about the lives we want to lead–all of which are at the core of the philosophical tradition.You cannot go far in consideration of the curriculum without engaging in these issues but also with questions about the nature and structure of knowledge itself,about what it is to know or understand something, about the relationship between knowledge and skilled per-formance,about the authority which can be claimed for different kinds of belief–and about the implications of all of these considerations for what we teach and how we teach it. You cannot go far in pursuit of the social-justice agenda in education without encountering contested interpretations of social justice and conflicts with other social principles and values.How far should the state intervene in the name of justice and at what price to individual freedom and responsibility?How compatible is a pursuit of equality with the pursuit of excellence?How far ought one to respect the rights of minority communities to maintain traditional practices which appear to disadvantage women?(A fuller account of the contribution of philosophy of education to educational enquiry is discussed in the BERA website and elsewhere in the encyclopedia.)It is not that philosophy will necessarily provide sim-ple answers to such questions:it is perhaps more likely to reveal further layers of complexity.The point is that the questions that are illustrated and many like them are questions which have been and continue to be refined, analyzed,discussed,and substantially investigated in a long tradition of philosophical writing,and if any educa-tional practitioner or enquirer ignores this work,they are destined to rehearse simplistic responses which have long been discredited.A research community which claims to represent the highest standards of intellectual endeavor and whose authority lies precisely in its commitment to critical,systematic,and sustained enquiry cannot restrict these requirements to the empirical aspect of enquiry in a field which,as illustrated above,depends significantly upon philosophical considerations.Philosophy of Educational Research Philosophical considerations underpin all or most of the central debates about educational research methods and methodology,for they are all at base about how we can best know about or understand educational policy and practice in their many shapes and forms.In this section this point is illustrated with reference to four of these debates,though this is by no means a comprehensive treatment of the field.Research and Educational PracticeA large proportion of academic research in education seeks to inform educational practice–in schools,colleges, and universities in professional training environments like hospitals and also in nonformal settings in the workplace, the home,and the community.However,we have to ask whether all these need research as the academy under-stands it at all or should we have confidence in the kind of situated practical judgment(a notion derived from Aristotle)and the tacit knowledge(as Polanyi,1966might call it)developed by teachers and other practitioners?If some further investigation needs to be done,might this best be in the form of practitioner research or action research developed in the classroom and in intimate relationship with the sites in which change is expected to take place and under the control of those responsible for any such change? Such questions are essentially philosophical ones which require answers rooted in an understanding of the nature of practice and the ways in which it can be informed and transformed;of the extent to which general educational prescriptions can be applied to particular situations;of the relationship between theory and practice.In this last case it is not just a question of whether and how theory can inform practice but also of whether that dichotomy does not already distort a proper understanding of the nature of practical judgment.All of this is well-worn philosophical territory,which nevertheless continues to excite contem-porary debate(see,e.g.,Carr(1986),Elliott(2001)and the last part of Hammersley(1993)).Research and Educational PolicySimilarly,we may asks questions about the sort of knowl-edge which ought to inform wider educational policy(as distinct from questions about the often bizarre considera-tions which do,as a matter of fact appear to inform the decisions of policymakers).If,as philosophers would cer-tainly argue,policy is always driven by normative con-siderations,where does this leave us in terms of the contribution which educational research can make?(Just possibly with the conclusion that we had better build in some philosophical consideration of this normative framework.)But,clearly,policy needs to be grounded in evidence of some kind about the actual or likely effects and the consequences of doing this rather than that.This in turn prompts the question‘‘so to what sort of research should we look to provide such evidence?’’30Philosophy of Education–Contemporary IssuesThis is a question which has provoked enormous debate in both educational policy and educational-research com-munities.At one end of the spectrum,it has been answered in very restrictive terms.The What W orks Clearing House in the United States has set as the gold standard for what it calls evidenced-based practice research which conforms to the standards of the double-blind controlled experiment which has achieved preeminence in medical research.In the UK,the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information (EPPI)Centre established to conduct systematic reviews of educational research operates with criteria which are not quite so restrictive,but which nevertheless exclude large swathes of the research which is carried on across the educational community.(For a fuller discussion of these issues see Bridges et al.(2009)and Hammersley(2007)).At the same time,as steps are being taken to restrict the range of research which is supposed to inform policy, the wider educational-research community itself has expansively embraced a wider and wider range of intel-lectual resources drawn from almost every corner of the academy–not only from the social sciences(which have themselves extended and hybridized their repertoire) but from the humanities(biography and autobiography, discourse analysis)and,as Elliott Eisner encouraged in his presidential address to the American Educational Research Association,the creative arts(Eisner,1993).It is not proposed to enter these debates in this context. The point to be made is that such debates about what kind of knowledge can and should inform educational policy-making are essentially philosophical ones.The claim that only research which adopts successfully the experimental design of the double-blind controlled experiment and, equally,the claim that educational research can benefit from the contribution of the creative arts are both philo-sophical claims which require not empirical evidence but careful philosophical argumentation and critique if they are to be sustained.The irony for the What W orks movement is that no double-blind experiment will ever demonstrate that the experiment should be the preferred form of educational enquiry.The Qualitative/Quantitative DebateA third and related area of essentially philosophical debate about educational research is closely related to this last one insofar as it is another example of argument about what kind of research can best illuminate educational policy, practice,and experience.The debate which is often couched in terms of the opposition between qualitative and quantitative research paradigms is referred to here, though most sophisticated contributors to this debate immediately point out that this is both a crude and mis-leading dichotomy.It is crude because both terms pick out what are in fact some very diverse forms of enquiry:both large population studies in sociology and small controlled experiments in classrooms,for example,might come under the quantitative label,just as a long-term ethnographic study of playground rituals,a piece of autobiographical writing by a teacher,and a piece of applied critical theory might all be called qualitative.They are misleading because quantitative data might very well have a place in the sort of thick description of,for example,a school or its neighbor-hood provided in what are normally thought of as qualita-tive case studies.Equally,some researchers will subject what might otherwise be regarded as qualitative data,for example a careful transcription of a lesson or an interview, to quantitative analysis while others could apply a different, interpretative analysis to the same data.Such disassembling of the dichotomy has not,however, ended controversy which is seen by some to have ramifi-cations which extend far beyond the educational-research community and into the very fabric of what is presented by some as a modern(ist)world bent on reducing the social world to a technology whose functioning can be rationally managed,controlled,and(the key to all of this) measured(Smith,2007)and by others as a postmodern world,fractured,a-rational,defeating(happily perhaps) centralized,technocratic management,a world in which notions of truth and certainty are replaced by a mixture of social relativism,nihilism,fancifulness,irony–or none of these because it refuses to be captured in any of these ways(Stronach and MacLure,1997;Peters,2004).If not all researchers(nor even all philosophers)iden-tify fully with either of these theoretical camps,this wider argument nevertheless adds an intellectual and political frisson to more modest debates–all of which are similarly philosophically rooted.To take what must surely be a central concept in any educational research agenda:‘‘What learning is taking place in this setting?’’Drawing on the contemporary range of educational research we might find at least the following illustrative range of responses.1.An old style behaviorist psychologist interprets learningas a relatively stable change in behavior.(S)he needs to do some systematic observation of the pupils’behavior and probably conduct a test devised to quantify the learning which has taken place.2.A neuroscientist(and neuroscience is an increasinglyinfluential source of educational research)will need some more sophisticated observational techniques,in-volving technology which will enable him or her to observe(and again probably measure)changes in the structure or activity of the brain.3.A phenomenologist will probably want to conduct anextended interview with a selection of the pupils,ex-ploring their experience of the lessons in questions and their own self-reporting on what they felt they may or may not have been learning,what they benefited from and why.Philosophy and Educational Research31There may be several different reasons why someone might prefer in general to adopt one of these approaches over another.In part the preference will depend on what one means by learning,though an answer to this question will almost certainly depend on how we think of human beings:Are they reducible to their behavior?Do we want to get rid of what Gilbert Ryle referred to as the ghost in the machine(Ryle,1973)?What is the relationship between activity of the brain and activity of the mind? How important is it to think of and to relate to human beings as experiencing beings and to understand the world through their eyes?Beyond these fundamental philosophical questions,there are some more practical ones:How useful is it to whom to know about,for exam-ple,electrical signals in the brain as compared with a child’s own perception of his or her own learning?What can a teacher do with such knowledge?Objectivity and Subjectivity in Educational ResearchThe contrasting styles of enquiry illustrated above also raise issues which are sometimes expressed in terms of objectivity and subjectivity(although again this dichot-omy is probably too crude–at very least,we need to add the notion of intersubjectivity,of the social character of the construction of knowledge,to the spectrum).This distinction operates at two levels at least.First,we might apply it to the objects of our enquiry,so that the behav-iorist and the neuroscientist might claim to be observing the objective world of human behavior and of brain activ-ity,respectively.By contrast,the phenomenologist might be said to be investigating the subjective world of human experience.The distinction gets blurred when,for exam-ple,we attempt to describe human behavior,which is almost impossible without reference to the individual and social significance which human beings attach to different forms of behavior(Is the child who holds two fingers up to his teacher indicating a numerical quantity or something rather ruder?)and to human intentionality, both of which are embedded in the kind of perceptions which the phenomenologist seeks to describe and inter-pret.However,the objectivity/subjectivity distinction continues to frame a lot of educational debate and again we are dealing with matters which are essentially philo-sophical in character.The language of objectivity and subjectivity also serves to distinguish the aspirations of different educational researchers and the way in which they deal with the presentation of their research to a readership.At one end of the spectrum,researchers seek to go as far as they can to eliminate through their methodology and their style of presentation the effect,the visibility,and indeed,the very presence of the researcher.This is indeed one of the aspirations of the double-blind controlled experiment which has been referred to already.Such research goes to great lengths to reduce any impact which the presence of the researcher might have on the research site or partici-pants;it seeks objectivity in the reporting and interpreting of the data;the hand of human authorship is concealed by stylistic devices which replace the first person(I did this and then I observed that...’’)by the third person(The researcher used a standardized test...),or employs the passive voice(the students were observed)rather than the active voice(I observed the students...).Elsewhere on the spectrum are advocates of the view that this search after objectivity is ultimately doomed to failure:subjectivity will always enter into educational research,perhaps through the definition of the research agenda or the research questions;through the selection of research methods and methodology;subtly through what is not asked or noted as well as what is,in the collection of data;in the observation;in the analysis;and in the report-ing.W e deceive ourselves,it is claimed,if we imagine that we can escape such subjectivity.It is‘‘a garment which cannot be removed’’(Peshkin,1988:7).This skepticism with respect to the possibility of objec-tivity is closely linked to a second opinion that,rather than trying to eliminate subjectivity it is better way to enable a reader of research to take account of such sub-jectivity by providing sufficient information about the researcher–his or her background,interests,ideological attachments,etc.(his or her biographical positioning as it is sometimes called)–and thus enable the reader to take this into account in evaluating the import of the research (see,e.g.,Atkinson,2000).This still,in a sense,represents a search after a kind of objectivity,a version of what things are really like,lying behind what is acknowledged to be one human rendering of this reality.A third and more radical position suggests that even this kind of access to reality is illusory.All we have are people’s subjective experience of the social world, people’s perceptions,and people’s narratives.These can enlarge our imaginative understanding of possible ways of seeing the world,and some may appeal to us more than others for a variety of reasons,but none can command special authority.The concern here is not to offer a conclusion to a debate which continues to run through the education research community,but to point out the nature of the argument. These and other related questions about the nature of our knowledge of the social world,about the possibility of and limitations on such knowledge,about the sense in which we can(or cannot)talk about truth and falsity with respect to the claims issuing from educational research–all of these are the very stuff of philosophical writing over two millen-nia.The debates which rang through Socrates’chambers and the halls of medieval disputations between nominalists and realists are as alive today as they ever were.The passing32Philosophy of Education–Contemporary Issuescenturies may sophisticate the terms in which they are constructed,but they do not seem to resolve them in a way that conclusively sets them aside.In this context are illustrated only some of the issues in the methodology of educational research(and in this section the focus is on epistemological questions)which invite and have received substantial philosophical atten-tion.There are many more.Indeed lying behind any disciplined form of enquiry whose resources are drawn into educational research,there is a body of literature which relates to the philosophy of this discipline and which addresses issues to do with,for example,the kind of confidence which might be attached to findings gener-ated by that particular form of enquiry,the extent to which one might generalize from such findings,or the extent to which one might confidently apply these find-ings in a single particular setting.Without making some attempt to engage with these philosophical questions in any research setting,one cannot confidently know how to interpret the research which one reads.The Ethics and Politics of Educational ResearchEducational researchers have become increasingly aware over recent decades of the ethical and,more widely, social and political significance of their interaction with research participants(some of who are of course chil-dren),research users,and research sponsors(who include powerful government and corporate organizations).This has been reflected in the establishment within profes-sional research organizations like the American Educa-tional Research Association and the British Education Research Association of ethical codes to which their mem-bership is expected to subscribe.Individual higher edu-cation and research institutions have similarly adopted ethical codes governing the conduct of research with human participants and ethics committees tasked with overseeing conformity with these codes.Of course,this process has required considerable debate about what are the duties and rights of researchers,of participants in the research,and of sponsors of the research. Among the central issues,perhaps are the following:The issue of informed consent.To what extent does educa-tional research require the informed consent of those who are going to participate in it?Is covert research excluded?Is the answer the same if one is doing re-search with vulnerable people or in the setting of pow-erful government or corporate organizations?Who needs to give consent?If I want to do research in a classroom,is it sufficient to have the agreement of the head teacher or do I also need the agreement of the teacher?The children?The children’s parents? The issue of confidentiality.To what extent can and should the researcher guarantee confidentiality to an institu-tion or individual involved in the research?How does one balance considerations of confidentiality with the public right to know and indeed with participants’rights to acknowledgment of their contribution?The issue of control over data and its interpretation.To what extent should researchers allow participants to,for ex-ample,amend a transcript of a recorded interview or to control the way in which their contribution is inter-preted in a research report?Should researchers pay for contributions to their research?Is research a form of theft of other people’s knowledge?The issues indicated thus far generally assume a sit-uation in which participants’rights need to be protected from an unscrupulous researcher.There are other issues framed by situations in which the researcher’s own hon-est enquiry is threatened by the power of controlling organizations–especially,perhaps,where these organiza-tions are paying for the research:The issue of the level of control and censorship which those paying for research can exercise over what is researched,how it is researched,and how and where it is reported–and hence...The issue of the responsibility of higher education insti-tutions with respect to the kinds of contract which they enter into and the support they give to their researchers.There are two things to note,in particular,about these issues.First,it is easy to see how what at first might be thought of as more narrowly ethical issues carry important social and political significance.Research is about the creation and redistribution of knowledge,which is itself an act with political consequences insofar as it involves a redistribution of power.Such a redistribution has even weightier conse-quences when,as in the field of education,you are dealing with a social practice which itself carries such a high level of public and political investment and which is itself a matter of intense political controversy.So,beyond the narrower construction of an ethics of educational research,we have to engage with the political principles which should govern such research in a democratic setting.Considerations of social justice and the requirement for informed public opinion jostle with each other and also with considerations about,for example,the right to privacy or confidentiality or at least some kind of credit for the knowledge that partici-pants are sharing(see Griffiths,1998;Smith,1999).Second,although all or most of these issues are ad-dressed in the sort of ethical codes referred to,this does not mean that they are now settled.Many remain contro-versial.Others,which might appear to be agreed at the level of general principle,turn out to be much more complex when one has to operationalize them in the field–and this Philosophy and Educational Research33experience has led to a flurry of debate around the situated-ness of ethical judgment and the relationship between gen-eral principles,embodied perhaps in ethical codes and the resolution of issues in the field.Both of these sets of considerations drive educational researchers into the philosophical territory,which is al-ways close to the surface in ethical argument.How are we properly to understand these ethical claims?By reference to what principles can we resolve conflicts between these ethical principles?What is the relationship between gen-eral principle and situated judgment?All of this is well-worn ground in philosophy and an essential resource for educational researchers seeking to engage seriously and systematically with the sort of issues described. ConclusionThese last two sections describe some examples of the sort of issues which arise out of the endeavor of educational research.It has been argued that these are inescapably philosophical in character and that they are indeed the sorts of questions which philosophers have engaged with and continue to engage with in their academic work. Educational researchers,like any other citizens can,of course,lead their lives without any attention to the litera-ture which engages in a serious,sustained,and systematic way with these issues,but at enormous cost.After all,are not researchers’particular claims to authority and their claims on public attention based precisely on the expec-tation that their enquiry is more serious,sustained,and systematic than that which ordinary citizens or even jour-nalists can normally afford?If philosophical questions are, then,central to the research enterprise,then these too must receive the same rigorous attention as is given to the gathering and analysis of empirical data.However,this argument does not only place an onus of responsibility on educational researchers,but it also points to the importance of philosophers of education engaging in a practical way with the work and life of the wider educational research community–as not only researchers in their own right(as indicated in the first section above)but also as co-workers engaged in a con-tinual conversation about the meaning,justification,and right conduct of the research.See also:Philosophy of Education:Overview. BibliographyAtkinson,E.(2000).Behind the enquiring mind:Exploring the transition from external to internal inquiry.Reflective Practice1(2),149–164. Bridges,D.,Smeyers,P.,and Smith,R.D.(2009).Evidence based Educational Policy.What Evidence?What Basis?Whose Policy?Oxford:Blackwell.Carr,W.(1986).Theories of theory and practice.Journal of Philosophy of Education20(2),177–186.Eisner,E.(1993).Forms of understanding and the future of educational cational Researcher22(7),5–11.Elliott,J.(2001).Doing action research–Doing practical philosophy.Prospero6(3/4),82–100.Griffiths,M.(1998).Educational Research for Social Justice:Getting off the Fence.Buckingham:Open University Press.Hammersley,M.(1993).Educational Research(Volume One):Current Issues.London:Paul Chapman.Hammersley,M.(2007).Education Research and Evidenced Based Practice.London:Sage.Peshkin,A.(1988).In search of subjectivity–One’s cational Researcher17(7),17–21.Peters,M.(2004).Derrida,Deconstruction and Education:Ethics of Pedagogy and Research.Oxford:Blackwell.Phillips,D.C.(2005).The contested nature of empirical educational research(and why philosophy of education offers little help).Journal of Philosophy of Education39(4),577–597.Polanyi,M.(1966).The Tacit Dimension.New York:Doubleday. Ryle,G.(1973).The Concept of Mind.London:Penguin Books. Smith,L.T.(1999).Decolonising Methodologies:Research and Indigenous Peoples.London:Zed Books.Smith,R.D.(2007).As if by machinery:The leveling of educational research.In Bridges,D.and Smith,R.D.(eds.)Philosophy,Methodology and Educational Research,pp31–42.Oxford:Blackwell.Stronach,I.and MacLure,M.(1997).Educational Research Undone:The Postmodern Embrace.Buckingham:OpenUniversity Press.Further ReadingBibby,M.(1997).Using a code of research cational Philosophy and Theory15(1),49–64.Bridges,D.(2003).‘Fiction Written under Oath?’Essays in Philosophy and Educational Research.Dordrecht:Kluwer.Bridges,D.and Smith,R.D.(2007).Philosophy and Methodology of Educational Research.Oxford:Blackwell.Burbules,N.(1998).Principle and process in the ethics of educational research,reply to Robin Small.Australian Journal of Education42(1),116–123.Hammersley,M.(2002).Educational Research,Policy Making and Practice.London:Sage.Homan,R.(1991).The Ethics of Social Research.Harlow:Longman. Howe,K.R.(2003).Closing Methodological Divides:Towards Democratic Educational Research.Dordrecht:Kluwer. McNamee,M.and Bridges,D.(eds.)(2002).The Ethics of Educational Research.London:Blackwell.Paul,J.(2004).Introduction to the Philosophies of Research and Criticism in Education.New York:Prentice-Hall.Pring,R.(2004).Philosophy of Educational Research.London: Continuum.Sikes,P.,Nixon,J.,and Carr,W.(eds.)(2003).The Moral Foundations of Educational Research:Knowledge Enquiry and Values.Maidenhead/Philadelphia,PA:Open University Press/McGraw-Hill. Small,R.(2001).Codes are not enough:What philosophy can contribute to the ethics of educational research.Journal ofPhilosophy of Education35(3),345–360.Relevant Websites–American Educational Research Association, Ethical Standards.–American Educational Research Association, Journal of the American Educational Research Association,Educational Researcher.34Philosophy of Education–Contemporary Issues。
上海外语口译证书考试：2022英语中级口译岗位资格证书考试真题模拟及答案(2)
上海外语口译证书考试：2022英语中级口译岗位资格证书考试真题模拟及答案(2)1、The author has written the passage mainly for ______.（单选题）A. general readersB. power brokersC. economistsD. decision makers试题答案：A2、According to the passage, which exits should an airline passenger locate before takeoff?（单选题）A. The front one and the back one.B. The two closest to the pilot seat.C. The ones that can be found in the dark.D. The ones with counted rows of seats between them.试题答案：C3、The best title for the Text may be ______.（单选题）A. Use Humor EffectivelyB. Various Kinds of HumorC. Add Humor to SpeechD. Different Humor Strategies试题答案：A4、We can conclude from the passage about nuclear fusion EXCEPT ______.（单选题）A. it has great potential to produce abundant clean energyB. NIF has just finished constructing a practical fusion reactorC. extreme temperatures are needed to work itD. it has not been successfully used to produce net energy gain in labs试题答案：B5、Which of the following statements is true?（单选题）A. Developing fever is the privilege of warm-blooded animals, so sick lizards cannot run a fever.B. Invertebrates also have the ability to raise their temperature.C. The internal temperatures of warm-blooded creatures are independent of the weather, so are the cold-blooded animals.D. Sick lizards move into the sun to develop fever.试题答案：B6、It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that Christopher Lash is most probably ______.（单选题）A. a reform advocateB. a senior psychologistC. a reputed poetD. a social historian试题答案：D7、Not being able to sleep can be dangerous if we ______.（单选题）A. are feeling wellB. worry about it too muchC. repair our bodies by restingD. plan our sleeping lives carefully试题答案：B8、Researchers in behavioral psychology are divided with regard to ______.（单选题）A. how dreams are modified in their coursesB. the difference between sleep and wakefulnessC. why sleep is of great benefit to memoryD. the functions of a good night’s sleep试题答案：C9、The word “imprimatur” in Paragraph 2 most probably means ______.（单选题）A. dislikeB. betrayalC. approvalD. suspicion试题答案：C10、According to Hudson Institute researchers, the effect of the early retirement of qualified workers in the U. S. economy is ______.（单选题）A. constructiveB. significantC. inconclusiveD. detrimental试题答案：D11、We may infer from the second paragraph that ______.（单选题）A. gas price has no influence on drivers.B. Toyota Yaris is not welcome in Manhattan.C. Nissan Versa has already been well selling for its six-speed transmission.D. Honda Fit is more economical than Chevy Suburban SUV.试题答案：D12、It seems that the author of this passage ______.（单选题）A. is one of Freud’s devoteesB. believes in both Animism and ZoroastrianismC. thinks that Freudian theory is soundD. thinks that the truth is not in the hand of Freud试题答案：D13、From Heilman’s remark, we can see that ______.（单选题）A. full use has been made of the wisdom of older peopleB. the wisdom of older people is not valued by American societyC. older people are no less intelligent than young peopleD. the wisdom of older people is of great value to American society试题答案：C14、The passage implies that ______.（单选题）A. the fever process is widespread because moderate fevers have benefitsB. the reduction of fevers can inhibit bacterial growthC. man can use sun lamp to raise lizards’ temperatureD. Crayfish injected with bacteria have a purpose for moving to hot areas试题答案：D15、According to the author, the most effective way to decrease the rate of population growth is ______.（单选题）A. by making it a national policy that each couple must not give birth to more than three childrenB. by exerting more international pressure upon those high-fertility regionsC. by modifying the widely held values which guide the actions of many individuals and couplesD. by providing the rural poor with means for limiting the family size试题答案：C16、According to the passage, which of the following statements is true?（单选题）A. School phobia, which is widespread in many countries, is no cause for alarm.B. The problem of school phobia in Japan can not be solved unless it gets rid of its social evils.C. Despite school phobia the Japanese educational system remains on of the best in the world.D. Unrelenting pressures in the Japanese society contribute greatly to success.试题答案：B17、The main idea of this passage is ______.（单选题）A. how to distinguish people’s facesB. how to describe people’s personalityC. how to distinguish people both inwardly and outwardlyD. how to tell good persons from bad persons without wearing masks试题答案：C18、We may infer from the fourth paragraph that ______.（单选题）A. humans have been growing food crops more than ten thousand years.B. humans have learned how to produce biofuels for a long time.C. humans are just on the beginning of making biofuels.D. a cell wall includes four hemicellulose.试题答案：C19、According to the author, seniority pay favors ______.（单选题）A. good teachers’ with master’s degreesB. young and effective teachersC. experienced and effective teachersD. mediocre teachers of average quality试题答案：D20、In bringing up the concept of GASP the author is making the point that ______.（单选题）A. shareholders interests should be properly attended toB. information protection should be given due attentionC. businesses should enhance their level of accounting securityD. the market value of customer data should be emphasized试题答案：B21、It can be learned from the passage that the British author Salman Rushdie ______.（单选题）A. lived in hiding under the protection of Scotland Yard for a decadeB. had spent the decade living in Scotland Yard until 1998C. lived in hiding in New York for one decadeD. had moved from place to place since the publication of The Satanic Verses试题答案：A22、In their study, researchers led by Pierre Maquet took advantage of the technique of ______.（单选题）A. exposing a long-held folk wisdomB. clarifying the predictions on dreamsC. making contrasts and comparisonsD. correlating effects with their causes试题答案：C23、The author cites the dog as an example of artificial selection because of all the following statements EXCEPT that ______.（单选题）A. Dogs are domestic animalsB. The dog is one of nature’s survivorsC. Breeders register dogs to obtain a pedigreeD. Humans have been the primary agents in dog evolution试题答案：B24、All of the following are mentioned as sources of energy of rural agricultural societies EXCEPT ______.（单选题）A. firewoodB. dung cakeC. solar powerD. agricultural waste试题答案：C25、According to the passage, which of the following is NOT true about Andry Rajoelina?（单选题）A. He represents Antananarivo’s poor urban residents.B. He is not accepted by most countries.C. He was mayor of Antananarivo.D. He has been a famous orator throughout Madagascar.试题答案：D26、It seems that the author of this passage ______.（单选题）A. is one of Freud’s devoteesB. believes in both Animism and ZoroastrianismC. thinks that Freudian theory is soundD. thinks that the truth is not in the hand of Freud试题答案：D27、Mount Rushmore needs to be ______.（单选题）A. protected from air pollutionB. polished for touristsC. closed during the winterD. repaired periodically试题答案：D28、The author of the text is primarily concerned with ______.（单选题）A. advancing a new methodology for changing a monkey’s social behaviorB. comparing the methods of several research studies on aggression among monkeysC. explaining the reasons for researcher’s interest in monkey’ s social behaviorD. discussing the development of investigators’ theories about aggression among monkeys试题答案：D29、The author has written the passage mainly for ______.（单选题）A. general readersB. power brokersC. economistsD. decision makers试题答案：A30、The first paragraph tells us that African Americans ______.（单选题）A. have been trying hard to be socially acceptedB. have been changing their value about beautyC. have maintained their identity of traditional AfricansD. have modified their hairstyles to fit into the society试题答案：A31、Which of the following is the figure provided of the attackers in the passage?（单选题）A. Four men wearing backpacks scaled the academy’s walls according to a construction worker.B. Punjab police chief said there were about 8 to 10 attackers.C. Some injured police recruits at the hospital claimed there must have been more than 10 attackers.D. Army official claimed 95 recruits were injured.试题答案：B32、It can be inferred that the author of the text most likely regards the criticism of methanol as ______.（单选题）A. flawed because of the assumptions on which it is basedB. inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics’ argumentsC. misguided because of its exclusively technological focusD. inaccurate because it ignores consumers’ concerns试题答案：A33、Why does Seattle have a better survival rate of cardiac arrest than other cities?（单选题）A. People in Seattle are probably better off than people in many other states.B. Seattle participates in a government-funded medical research network.C. All medical centers in Seattle are the most high-powered.D. Seattle tracks outcomes of cardiac-arrest cases to judge their performance.试题答案：D34、The word “xenophobia” (para. 2) means “______.”（单选题）A. partialityB. arbitarinessC. discriminationD. antipathy试题答案：D35、The demonstrations ______.（单选题）A. which once supported Andry Rajoelina have been replaced by the ones against himB. are spreading nationwideC. are being cracked down by the militaryD. show most people in Madagascar don’t accept the new president试题答案：A36、One of Freudian theories is that ______.（单选题）A. humans are half beast and half angelB. sexual and aggressive impulses are the basic human drivesC. humans always fight with the complicated natureD. sex is only part of human bewilderments试题答案：B37、The author cites the dog as an example of artificial selection because of all the following statements EXCEPT that ______.（单选题）A. Dogs are domestic animalsB. The dog is one of nature’s survivorsC. Breeders register dogs to obtain a pedigreeD. Humans have been the primary agents in dog evolution试题答案：B38、The underlined word “screenings”in Paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ______.（单选题）A. projectionsB. revelationsC. demonstrationsD. diversions试题答案：A39、起吊过程中，在起重机（）等动作前，起重司机应鸣声示意。
英语哲学思想解读50题
英语哲学思想解读50题1. The statement "All is flux" was proposed by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. HeraclitusD. Socrates答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学思想家的观点。
赫拉克利特提出了“万物皆流”的观点。
选项A 柏拉图强调理念论；选项B 亚里士多德注重实体和形式；选项D 苏格拉底主张通过对话和反思来寻求真理。
2. "Know thyself" is a famous saying from _____.A. ThalesB. PythagorasC. DemocritusD. Socrates答案：D。
此题考查古希腊哲学家的名言。
“认识你自己”是苏格拉底的名言。
选项A 泰勒斯主要研究自然哲学；选项B 毕达哥拉斯以数学和神秘主义著称；选项C 德谟克利特提出了原子论。
3. Which philosopher believed that the world is composed of water?A. AnaximenesB. AnaximanderC. ThalesD. Heraclitus答案：C。
本题考查古希腊哲学家对世界构成的看法。
泰勒斯认为世界是由水组成的。
选项A 阿那克西美尼认为是气；选项B 阿那克西曼德认为是无定；选项D 赫拉克利特提出万物皆流。
4. The idea of the "Forms" was put forward by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. EpicurusD. Stoics答案：A。
这道题考查古希腊哲学中的概念。
柏拉图提出了“理念论”，即“形式”。
选项B 亚里士多德对其进行了批判和发展；选项C 伊壁鸠鲁主张快乐主义；选项D 斯多葛学派强调道德和命运。
5. Who claimed that "The unexamined life is not worth living"?A. PlatoB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Epicurus答案：C。
心理学英语测试题及答案
心理学英语测试题及答案一、选择题1. Which of the following is NOT a branch of psychology?a) Cognitive psychologyb) Social psychologyc) Clinical psychologyd) Biological psychology答案：d) Biological psychology2. According to Sigmund Freud, which part of the mind operates on the pleasure principle?a) Idb) Egoc) Superegod) None of the above答案：a) Id3. Which of the following is NOT a type of psychological disorder?a) Depressionb) Schizophreniac) Bipolar disorderd) Archimedes' syndrome答案：d) Archimedes' syndrome4. Which theorist is associated with the concept of self-actualization?a) B.F. Skinnerb) Carl Rogersc) Abraham Maslowd) Ivan Pavlov答案：c) Abraham Maslow5. What is the primary focus of industrial-organizational psychology?a) Treating mental disordersb) Studying individual behaviorc) Optimizing workplace productivityd) Analyzing dreams and unconscious desires答案：c) Optimizing workplace productivity二、填空题1. The __________ is responsible for processing sensory information.答案：brain2. __________ is a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward.答案：Dopamine3. __________ is a defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are pushed into the unconscious mind.答案：Repression4. The __________ perspective emphasizes the influence of genes and biological processes on behavior.答案：Biological5. The __________ is a part of the brain that is important for memory and learning.答案：hippocampus三、简答题1. What is the nature-nurture debate in psychology?答案：The nature-nurture debate in psychology is the argument about whether human behavior is determined by genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture). Some psychologists believe that behavior is primarily influenced by genetics, while others believe that environmental factors play a larger role. The debate seeks to understand the relative contributions of nature and nurture in shaping human behavior.2. Explain the concept of classical conditioning.答案：Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response through repeated pairings withan unconditioned stimulus. The classic example is Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs, where a bell (neutral stimulus) was paired with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus). Over time, the dogs learned to associate the bell with the food and began to salivate (conditioned response) at the sound of the bell alone (conditioned stimulus).3. What is the difference between operationalization and measurement in psychological research?答案：Operationalization refers to the process of defining and specifying the variables or concepts being studied in a way that can be measured or observed. It involves turning abstract concepts into concrete, measurable variables or indicators. Measurement, on the other hand, refers to the actual process of assigning numerical values or categories to the operationalized variables in order to collect data. In psychological research, operationalization and measurement are crucial steps in designing studies and collecting meaningful data.四、问答题1. How does cognitive psychology contribute to our understanding of human behavior?答案：Cognitive psychology explores how people perceive, think, and solve problems. It focuses on mental processes such as attention, memory, language, and decision-making. By studying these cognitive processes, cognitive psychologists aim to understand how they influence human behavior. For example, cognitive psychology has provided insights into how people encode and retrieve information, make judgments and decisions, andprocess emotions. This knowledge can be applied to various fields, such as education, marketing, and therapy, to improve human performance and well-being.2. Describe the main elements of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs.答案：Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology that proposes that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, with basic physiological needs at the bottom and higher-level needs at the top. The main elements of Maslow's hierarchy include:- Physiological needs: These are basic survival needs, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep.- Safety needs: Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek security, stability, and protection from harm.- Belongingness and love needs: People have a need for social connections, love, and a sense of belonging in relationships and communities.- Esteem needs: This refers to the need for self-esteem, respect from others, and recognition of one's achievements.- Self-actualization: At the top of the hierarchy, self-actualization represents a need for personal growth, fulfillment, and reaching one's fullest potential.According to Maslow, individuals strive to meet these needs in a sequential order, with each level building upon the previous one.五、综合题1. Discuss the main ethical considerations in psychological research.答案：Ethical considerations are important in psychological research to protect the rights and well-being of participants. Some main ethical considerations include:- Informed consent: Researchers must inform participants about the nature and purpose of the study, any potential risks or benefits, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time.- Confidentiality: Researchers should ensure that participants' personal information and data remain confidential and are not disclosed without consent.- Deception: If deception is necessary for the study, researchers must debrief participants afterward and ensure that they do not experience any harm or negative consequences as a result of the deception.- Protection from harm: Researchers should minimize any physical or psychological harm to participants and take steps to ensure their well-being throughout the study.- Voluntary participation: Participation in research should be voluntary, and participants should not be coerced or manipulated into taking part.By following these ethical considerations, researchers can uphold the integrity and trustworthiness of psychological research.。
formative assessment and the design of instructional systems
120 linkages are then identified. These in turn are shown to have implications for the design of instructional systems which are intended to develop the ability of students to exercise executive control over their own productive activities, and eventually to become independent and fully self-monitoring.
Introduction
This article is about the nature and function of formative assessment in the development of expertise. It is relevant to a wide variety of instructional systems in which student outcomes are appraised qualitatively using multiple criteria. The focus is on judgments about the quality of studentts, how they are made, how they may be refined, and how they may be put to use in bringing about improvement. The article is prompted by two overlapping concerns. The first is with the lack of a general theory of feedback and formative assessment in complex learning settings. The second concern follows from the common but puzzling observation that even when teachers provide students with valid and reliable judgments about the quality of their work, improvement does not necessarily follow. Students often show little or no growth or development despite regular, accurate feedback. The concern itself is with whether some learners fail to acquire expertise because of specific deficiencies in the instructional system associated with formative assessment. The discussion begins with definitions of feedback, formative assessment and qualitative judgments. This is followed by an analysis of certain patterns in teacher-student assessment interactions. A number of causal and conditional
人文英语4形考作业及答案
最新国家开放大学电大《人文英语4》网络核心课形考网考作业及答案考试说明：2018 年秋期电大把《人文英语4》网络核心课纳入到“国开平台”进行考核，它共有八个形考任务(单元自测)。
针对该门课程，本人汇总了该科所有的题，形成一个完整的标准题库，并且以后会不断更新，对考生的复习、作业和考试起着非常重要的作用，会给您节省大量的时间。
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本课程考核采用形成性考核与终结性考试相结合的方式。
形成性考核占课程综合成绩的50%，终结性考试占课程综合成绩的50%。
课程考核成绩统一采用百分制，即形成性考核、终结性考试、课程综合成绩均采用百分制。
课程综合成绩达到60 分及以上（及格），可获得本课程相应学分。
单元自测1一、选择填空，从A、B、 C 三个选项中选出一个能填入空白处的最佳选项。
（每题10 分）题目1– Thank you for your invitation. _______________A. I'll appreciate it.B. It's a pleasure.C. It doesn't matter.题目2– Good afternoon. Can I help you? ______________A. Yes, I think so, too.B. I need to buy a birthday present for my son.C. I don't think I need any of your help.题目3On average, a successful lawyer has to talk to several________ a day.A. customersB. clientsC. guests题目4Both the kids and their parents __________English, I think. I know it from their accent.A. beenB. areC. is题目5John's father _________ mathematics in this school ever since he graduated from Harvard University.A. taughtB. has taughtC. teaches题目1– Do you think I can borrow your bike for a few hours?________A. I'm sorry, but I really need it this afternoon.B. I don't think so.C. I am afraid you can.题目2– Excuse me, could you tell the time? _________A. You'd better buy a watch.B. Can you see the clock?C. It's three thirty by my watch.题目3Professor Smith promised to look ________ my paper, that is, to read it carefully before the defence.A. overB. afterC. onNever before _________ see such a terrible car accident on the road!A. have IB. I haveC. did I题目5Both the kids and their parents __________English, I think. I know it from their accent.A. beenB. isC. are题目1– Do you think I can borrow your bike for a few hours?_________________A. I don't think so.B. I am afraid you can.C. I'm sorry, but I really need it this afternoon.题目2– Thank you for your invitation. _________A. I'll appreciate it.B. It doesn't matter.C. It's a pleasure.题目3As the bus came round the corner, it ran ________ a big tree by the roadside.A. overB. intoC. on题目4Never before _________ see such a terrible car accident on the road!B. I haveC. did I题目5Did you notice the guy _________head looked like a big potato?A. whoB. whoseC. which二、阅读理解：选择题（每题10 分）Graffiti painting is traditionally a daredevil pursuit.Teenagers dodge security guards to put their names on trains and buses. But over the past decade, graffiti has all but disappeared from Britain's cities. Between 2007 and 2012 the number of incidents of graffiti recorded by the British Transport Police fell by 63%. A survey by the Environment Ministry shows that fewer places are blighted by tags than ever. Graffiti are increasingly confined to sanctioned walls, such as the Stockwell ball courts. In time the practice may die out entirely.The most obvious reason for the decline in tagging and train-painting is better policing. Numerous CCTV cameras mean it is harder to get away with painting illegally. And punishments are more severe. A generational shift is apparent, too. Fewer teenagers are getting into painting walls. They prefer to play with iPads and video games. Some have gone to art school and want to make money from their paintings. The Internet means that painters can win far more attention by posting pictures online than they can by breaking into a railway yard.Taggers and graffiti artists mostly grew up in the 1980s and 1990s. Those men—and almost all are men—are now older and less willing to take risks. Graffiti may eventually disappear. But for now the hobby is almost respectable. The former graffiti artists paint abandoned warehouses at the weekend. It has become something to do on a Sunday afternoon—a slightlyhealthier alternative to sitting and watching football.1.Teenagers are not afraid of being caught by security guards when they put their names on trains and buses. F2.Less tags can be found in public places nowadays. T3.Because of better policing graffiti decreases. T4.Some teenagers go to art school in order to learn to paint walls. F5.Taggers and graffiti artists are still willing to take risks.F选择题（每题10 分）Jim Thorpe was a Native American. He was born in 1888 in an Indian Territory(印第安人保护区)that is now Oklahoma. Like most Native American children then, he liked to fish, hunt, swim, and play games outdoors. He was healthy and strong, but he had very little formal education. In 1950, Jim Thorpe was named the greatest American football player. He was also an Olympic gold medal winner. But Thorpe had many tragedies in his life.Jim had a twin brother who died when he was nine years old. By the time he was 16, his mother and father were also dead, Jim then went to a special school in Pennsylvania for Native American children. There, he learned to read and write and also began to play sports. Jim was poor, so he left school for two years to earn some money. During this time, he played on a baseball team. The team paid him only $15 a week. Soon he returned to school to complete his education. Jim was a star athlete (运动员) in several sports, including baseball, running, and football. He won many awards for his athletic ability, mainly for football. In many games, he scored all or most of the points for his team.In 1912, when Jim Thorpe was 24 years old, he became part of the U.S Olympic team. He competed in two very difficult events: the pentathlon and the decathlon. Both require great ability and strength. The pentathlon has five track and field events, including the long jump and the 1500-meter race. The decathlon has ten track and field events, with running, jumpingand throwing contests.People thought it was impossible for an athlete to compete in both the pentathlon and the decathlon. So everyone was surprised when Thorpe won gold medals in both events. When the King of Sweden presented Thorpe with his two gold medals, he said, “Sir, you are the greatest athlete in the world.”Thorpe was a simple and honest man. He just answered, “Thanks, King.”1. From the passage we learn that Jim Thorpe was born in CA. IndiaB. PennsylvaniaC. Oklahoma2. According to the passage, most American Indian children loved all the following EXCEPT BA. fishingB. singingC. swimming3. Jim Thorpe started to play sports BA. before he was 9 years oldB. when he was 16 years oldC. when he was 24 years old4. The word decathlon in paragraph 3 probably means CA. jumpingB. five track and field eventsC. ten track and field events5. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? AA. In 1912, Thorpe went back to finish his college education.B. Thorpe won two gold medals in the 1912 Olympic Games.C. Thorpe once played on a baseball team for money.选择题（每题10 分）排序题A. Does it cost the same for every household?B. You can pay right here, on the Internet!C. Just go ahead.D. We do for the live Cable TV programs.E. Exactly, even digital boxes.Liu Hui: Gordon, may I ask you a question?Gordon: Hi, Liu Hui. CLiu Hui: Do I need to pay for a TV license if I only watch TV online in the UK?Gordon: Yes, indeed. You need to be covered by a TV license if you watch or record programs as they're being shown on TV or live on an online TV service.Liu Hui: Including watching TV on computers and mobile phones? Gordon: EIt is the law.Liu Hui: I see. How much is the license fee?Gordon: It costs £145.50 for a color TV license and £49.00 for a black and white TV license.Liu Hui: That's a lot of money for a year. AGordon: It costs the same for all applicants under 75. When you reach the age of 75, you may apply for a free Over 75 TV License.Liu Hui: I see.Gordon: Do you need such a license in China?Liu Hui: DGordon: Oh, it sounds similar. But for BBC, the license fee is the main source of income. There is no advertising on the BBC channels.Liu Hui: By the way, where should I go to pay for mylicense?Gordon: BLiu Hui: Well, sure! Thank you!单元自测2一、选择填空，从A、B、 C 三个选项中选出一个能填入空白处的最佳选项。
学校文化英语作文
School culture is the essence of a schools spirit and values,shaping the environment and atmosphere in which students learn and grow.It encompasses a variety of elements that contribute to the overall experience of the school community.cational Philosophy:The educational philosophy of a school is the foundation of its culture.It guides the teaching methods,curriculum development,and the overall approach to student learning.A school with a strong culture will have a clear mission statement and educational goals that are communicated to all members of the school community.2.Faculty and Staff:The attitudes and behaviors of teachers and staff play a significant role in shaping school culture.A positive and supportive faculty can create an environment where students feel encouraged to learn and express themselves.Professional development opportunities for staff can also contribute to a culture of continuous improvement and innovation.3.Student Engagement:Active student participation in school activities,clubs,and organizations is a key aspect of a vibrant school culture.When students are engaged,they are more likely to feel a sense of belonging and take pride in their school.4.Extracurricular Activities:Offering a wide range of extracurricular activities allows students to explore their interests and develop new skills outside of the classroom.This can include sports teams, music and arts programs,debate clubs,and community service initiatives.5.School Traditions:Traditions,such as annual events,ceremonies,and celebrations,help to create a sense of continuity and identity within the school.They provide opportunities for students,staff, and the wider community to come together and celebrate shared experiences.6.Parental and Community Involvement:Involvement from parents and the local community can greatly enrich school culture. Parentteacher associations,community partnerships,and open school events can foster a sense of community and support for the schools mission and goals.7.Safe and Inclusive Environment:A school culture that prioritizes safety and inclusivity ensures that all students feel welcome and respected.This includes implementing antibullying policies,providing support for students with diverse needs,and promoting diversity and tolerance.8.Academic Excellence:A commitment to academic excellence is often a hallmark of a strong school culture.This involves setting high expectations for student performance,offering a rigorous curriculum,and celebrating academic achievements.munication and Collaboration:Effective communication and collaboration between all members of the school community are crucial for a positive school culture.This includes open lines of communication between teachers,students,and parents,as well as collaborative efforts to address challenges and celebrate successes.10.Physical Environment:The physical environment of a school,including its facilities,layout,and aesthetics,can also contribute to its culture.A wellmaintained and inviting campus can enhance the learning experience and foster a sense of pride among students and staff.In conclusion,a strong school culture is multifaceted and requires the collective effort of students,staff,parents,and the community.It is an ongoing process that evolves with the changing needs and dynamics of the school population.By nurturing a positive school culture,we can create an environment where students thrive academically,socially,and emotionally.。
考研6000词汇超纲词汇
6000词汇超纲词汇出现次数大于5次1.according 依照2.casino 赌场; 娱乐场3.gambling赌博4.advantage 有利条件, 有利因素, 优势Her Olimpic experience gave her a big advantage over the other contestants for the final victory.她的奥运会参赛经历使她比起其他竞技对手在争取最后获胜上具有很大的优势。
益处, 利益There are advantages to not having servants.不用仆人有不用仆人的优越性。
5.cultural文化的6.homeless无家可归的7.leader领袖, 领导人8.media媒体9.shipper托运人,发货人10.technological技术上的11.businessman商人12.intellect智力, 理解力Newton is a man of great intellect.牛顿有非凡的才智。
才智非凡的人; 知识分子He was one of the most formidable intellects of his time.他是他那时代的盖世奇才。
test最新的，刚发生的14.online (计算机)联机的, (与计算机)联线的We planned to build an online database.我们计划建一个联机数据库。
15.cloning无性(繁殖)系化,纯系化16.listener倾听者, 收听者Her voice thrilled the listeners.她的声音使听者悚然。
17.reasoning运用思考、理解、推想等能力的做法或过程; 推理Your clear reasoning is quite correct.你的条理清楚的推论非常正确。
18.suffering身体或心灵的痛苦, 苦难The medication should ease the suffering.这种疗法能减轻痛苦。
认同还是承诺?国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为
认同还是承诺？国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为郭晟豪;萧鸣政【摘要】基于社会认同理论和社会交换理论,文章关注管理实践中的工作偏离行为,探讨员工在组织中的组织认同、团队认同、关系认同以及组织承诺的影响.采用三个时点追踪并结合他评的形式对394名国企员工及其对应主管领导进行问卷调查,使用潜变量结构方程进行效应检验.研究发现:认同不同于承诺,认同均有助于提升组织承诺,组织认同、团队认同抑制了人际指向偏离行为,组织承诺对人际指向偏离行为影响不显著;但是,组织承诺却显著助长了组织指向偏离行为,具体地,控制组织承诺后,组织认同、团队认同、关系认同抑制了组织指向偏离行为,但在组织承诺的削弱下,即认同促进承诺,经承诺反而又促进了偏离,最终组织认同、团队认同对组织指向偏离行为的总效应不显著,关系认同的总效应尽管仍为显著抑制,但影响力也被减弱.【期刊名称】《商业经济与管理》【年(卷),期】2017(000)008【总页数】11页(P48-58)【关键词】组织认同;团队认同;关系认同;组织承诺;工作偏离行为【作者】郭晟豪;萧鸣政【作者单位】北京大学政府管理学院,北京100871;北京大学人力资源开发与管理研究中心,北京100871;北京大学政府管理学院,北京100871;北京大学人力资源开发与管理研究中心,北京100871【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F270郭晟豪,萧鸣政.认同还是承诺？国企员工组织中的认同、组织承诺与工作偏离行为[J].商业经济与管理，2017(8)：48-58.国有企业如今备受社会各界的关注[1]，对于国企员工，常有效率低下、人浮于事、勾心斗角的批评。
在学术研究中，上述行为属于工作偏离行为，一般而言，偏离行为关注的是员工在工作场所中的负面内容，即违反组织规范，并且影响组织和其他成员利益，可以具体为人际指向的偏离行为和组织指向的偏离行为[2]。
研究表明，偏离行为极大地影响着组织绩效[3]。
国开作业《人文英语4》 (30)
题目：– I didn't know my identity card was needed, sir. – ________________________________选项 A： I don't believe you.选项 B： How dare you say that?选项 C：Sorry, but that's no excuse.答案： Sorry, but that's no excuse.题目：– Do you think I can borrow your bike for a few hour?________________________________ 选项 A： I don't think so.选项 B： I am afraid you can.选项 C：I'm sorry, but I really need it this afternoon.答案： I'm sorry, but I really need it this afternoon.题目：— Would you like a tea?— _________________.选项 A： I like green tea选项 B：Yes, I prefer coffee选项 C：Yes, please答案： Yes, please题目： Before the final examination, some students have shown ______ of tension. They even have trouble in sleeping.选项 A：marks选项 B：anxiety选项 C：signs答案： signs题目： How can he _____________ if he is not _____________?选项 A：be listening; heard选项 B：listen; hearing选项 C：hear; listening答案： hear; listening题目： The student were all entertained in a Mexican restaurant, at Professor Brian's ________ 选项 A：expense选项 B：money选项 C：pay答案： expense题目：— Is it going to be warm next week?— _________________.选项 A： No, it hasn't选项 B： I don't believe it选项 C：Yes, it is答案： Yes, it is题目：— So sorry to trouble you.— _________________.选项 A： It's a pleasure选项 B： I don't think so选项 C：It's your fault答案： It's a pleasure题目： Jane's dress is similar in designher sister's.选项 A：to选项 B：with选项 C：like答案： to题目： There's lots of fruit _________ the tree. Our little cat is also in the tree.选项 A：at选项 B：on选项 C：in答案： on题目： _____________ no need _____________ the radio as I'm used to studying with it on.选项 A： It's; turning up选项 B： It's; to turn down选项 C：There's; turning off答案： There's; turning off题目： You shouldn't ________ your time like that, Bob; you have to finish your school work tonight.选项 A：cut选项 B：kill选项 C：do答案： kill题目： Did you notice the guy _________head looked like a big potato?选项 A：whose选项 B：which选项 C：who答案： whose题目： With his work completed, the manager stepped back to his seat, feeling pleased ____ he was a man of action.选项 A：which选项 B：What选项 C：that答案： that题目： The new order means _____ overtime.选项 A：working选项 B：to work选项 C：works答案： working题目： Important ________ his discovery might be, it was regarded as a matter of no accountin his time.选项 A：as选项 B：when选项 C：until答案： as题目： --Did the medicine make you feel better?--No. The more __________, ___________ I feel. 选项 A：medicine I take; and the worse选项 B： I take medicine; the worse选项 C：medicine I take; the worse答案： medicine I take; the worse题目： I was giving a talk to a large group of people， the same talk I ___to half a dozen other groups before.选项 A：had given选项 B：am giving选项 C：was giving答案： had given题目： The young ______ interested in pop music.选项 A：have选项 B：is选项 C：are答案： are题目： As the busiest woman there, she made ______________ her duty to look after all the other people's affairs in that town.选项 A：this选项 B：that选项 C：it答案： it题目：正误判断题 Liu Hui and Molly are discussing the issue of educational quality at a workshop.Liu Hui: Hi, Molly. Today's topic is educational quality. First, what does educational quality mean to you?Molly: As far as I'm concerned, quality education means good learning standards in educational institutions. So, educational quality ensures a desirable outcome for learners.Liu Hui: Sounds like after some serious thinking. However, many definitions of quality in education exist, testifying to the complexity and multifaceted nature of the concept. Molly: Definitely, establishing a contextualized understanding of quality means including relevant stakeholders. Key stakeholders often hold different views and meanings of educational quality.Liu Hui: There are many prestigious universities in the US. They all provide high-quality education. But some universities aren't known for their quality. It's hard to imagine the gap. Molly: Yes, in the US the quality in higher education is quite mixed. Universities like Harvard, Yale, MIT, etc., you know, are well-known all over the world. However, there are some institutions providing poor education, so called “diploma mills”.Liu Hui: In China, we have similar issues in educational quality. Some universities pay more attention to profits instead of quality.Molly: How to improve educational quality is an international issue. But, solutions are grounded in values, cultures and traditions and may be specific to a given nation as well.1. Molly thinks that educational quality ensures a satisfactory outcome for learners. ( )2. Liu Hui disagrees with Molly on the meaning of education quality. ( )3. All universities in the U.S. offer high-quality education. ( )4. Diploma mills cannot provide high-quality education. ( )5. In China, there isn't any diploma mill. ( )答案：答案： 1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. F 解析：1. 这是一道词义辨析题。
网路银行消费者行为之研究--创新扩散理论
網路銀行消費者行為之研究--創新擴散理論王文弘Wen-Hung Wang國立臺灣海洋大學、航運管理學系、助理教授林獻堂Hsien-Tang Lin國立臺灣海洋大學、航運管理學系、研究生摘要研究調查顯示，未來使用網路銀行人口有越來越多的趨勢。
本研究以創新擴散理論為基礎，並納入使用經驗與安全性等因素，探討消費者使用網路銀行的行為。
透過便利抽樣法發放網路問卷，本研究共蒐集有效問卷1030份。
本研究以結構方程模式為主要研究方法，採用LISREL8.80進行驗證性因素分析和結構模式分析。
研究結果顯示：「相對優勢」、「相容性」、「可試用性」、「可觀察性」、「安全性」及「使用經驗」均會顯著影響「態度」；「態度」和「使用經驗」會顯著影響「行為意圖」；「使用經驗」和「行為意圖」會顯著影響「實際使用行為」。
因此，銀行管理者可透過強化消費者使用網路銀行的相對優勢、相容性、可試用性、可觀察性、安全性及使用經驗等，進而影響消費者實際使用網路銀行之行為，並可作為推廣網路銀行及制定行銷策略時的依據。
關鍵詞：網路銀行、創新擴散、安全性、使用經驗A n E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h o f C u s t o m e rB e h a v i o r o f We b-B a n k i n g S e r v i c e,I n n o v a t i o n o f D i f f u s i o n T h e o r yAbstractWith the rapid growth internet users, the demand of web-banking is eager. Based on innovation of diffusion theory, this research wants to discuss the factors that influence consumer web-bank using behavior. Data collected from online survey and got 1030 usable samples.With the analysis of SEM, the analytic results showed that “Relative Advantage,” “Compatibility,” “Trialibility,” “Observability,” “Security,” and “Experience,” have positive significant effect on “Attitude;”in the meanwhile, both “Attitude,” and “E xperience” have positive significant on “Behavioral Intention;” furthermore, both “E xperience” and “Behavioral Intention” have positive significant effect on “Usage.”Based on the analytic results,suggestions are the managers of banks should enhance the attributes of web-bank by “Relative Advantage,”“Compatibility,”“Trialibility,” “Observability,” “Security” and “Experience,”in order to achieve both elevation of using behavior of web-bank and financial performance.Keywords: Web-Bank, Innovation of Diffusion, Security, Experience緒論現今台灣的金融環境，正面臨著一系列的改革與挑戰。
工作自主性、技能多样性与员工创造力:基于个性特征的调节效应模型
工作自主性、技能多样性与员工创造力：基于个性特征的调节效应模型王端旭;赵轶【摘要】基于工作特征模型合理优化工作设计是企业管理者提升员工创造力的重要途径,文章通过对236名企业员工的问卷调查,实证研究工作自主性和技能多样性对员工创造力的影响,并从“人一职”匹配理论视角探讨学习目标取向和创意自我效能感的调节效应.结果表明:工作自主性和技能多样性均对员工创造力有正向预测作用；创意自我效能感越强,工作自主性与创造力的正相关性越弱,技能多样性与创造力的正相关性越强.文章最后总结了研究结果的理论和实践意义,并指出了未来的研究方向.【期刊名称】《商业经济与管理》【年(卷),期】2011(000)010【总页数】8页(P43-50)【关键词】工作自主性;技能多样性;学习目标取向;创意自我效能感;员工创造力【作者】王端旭;赵轶【作者单位】浙江大学管理学院,浙江杭州310058;浙江大学管理学院,浙江杭州310058【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F270一、引言员工创造力(Employee Creativity)是指员工开发或改进新的产品、实践、服务和工作流程的能力[1-2]。
在日益激烈的市场竞争中，企业管理者已将自主创新能力视为企业核心竞争力的关键要素，并试图通过优化工作设计激发员工创造力以促进团队和组织创新[3-4]。
虽然近20年来学者们持续研究工作特征(Job Characteristics)与员工创造力之间的关系，并已经取得重要进展[5-7]，但仍存在有待回答的理论问题。
首先，即使工作特征中的工作自主性维度对于员工创造性绩效产出的促进作用已经得到广泛证实[8]，然而一直没有解释研究发现的企业员工特别是研发人员自身并不希望得到过多工作自主性的现象[9]。
其次，探讨技能多样性与员工创造力关系的文献较少，而技能多样性这一工作特征维度与Amabile(1996)提出的创造力构成成分中的相关领域技能和创造力相关技能都存在密切联系[1]。
[最新]1390国开电大本科《人文英语4》历年期末考试(第三大题阅读判断题)题库
![[最新]1390国开电大本科《人文英语4》历年期末考试(第三大题阅读判断题)题库](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/e2cd4815941ea76e59fa0424.png)
[最新]国开电大本科《人文英语4》历年期末考试(第三大题阅读判断题)题库2021年1月试题及答案三、阅读理解(共计40分，每小题2分)26-30题：请根据短文内容判断给出的语句是否正确，正确的写“T”，错误的写“F”，并将正确答案选项填写在答题纸上。
Passage 2All communication begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.The sender is responsible for successful conveyance.The sender’s personality， beliefs， cultural and educational background all influence the message and it is important for the sender to be aware of this as he or she is encoding the message.Simply put， encoding is translating information into symbols that represent the ideas or concepts of the message that needs sending.These symbols are usually words in written or spoken form.To ensure successful communication，the sender should know as much about his or her audience-the receiver-as possible in order to focus and support the encoding process.In addition to this awareness of self and encoding， the sender must choose the proper channel for conveying the ing the wrong channel may result in miscommunication.Like the sender， receivers are influenced by internal factors：theirpersonality，their receptivity to the message or their relationship to the sender.Additionally，their current feelings， mood， or state of mind can affect a message.Once the message moves through the channel， the receiver then decodes it.The receiver uses his or her own experience and the context of the message to interpret its meaning.Feedback is the return message from the receiver to the sender.It is feedback that enables the sender to know whether the message was received successfully or not.Therefore it is essential to the communication process.This process， though very common， is fraught with potential breakdown at every turn.Spoken or written language is inherently easy to misinterpret.In conclusion， effective and successful Communication takes place when the message is successfully received and the receiver provides the sender with desirable feedback.26.The sender's gender also influences the message.[答案]F27.Encoding is a process that translating information into symbols which serve as the ideas or concepts of the message that will be sent later.[答案]T28.These symbols are usually words and sentences in written form.[答案]F29.Channel is not crucial for conveying the message.[答案]F30.Feedbacks enable the sender to know whether the receiver has received the message successfully or not.[答案]T2020年9月试题及答案三、阅读理解(共计40分，每小题2分)26-30题：请根据短文内容判断给出的语句是否正确，正确的写“T”，错误的写“F”，并将正确答案选项填写在答题纸上。
cad_flows
BR 6/00
11
Formal Verification Categories
• Equivalence Checking – most widely used, easiest
– Use a mathematical approach to compare a reference design to a revised design (do two netlists implement the same boolean function?) – Reference design must be correct
IPO/Physical Hierarchy
Hale Waihona Puke BR 6/003“Timing Closure”
• “Timing Closure” refers to producing a design that meets timing specifications
– Want to verify that your design has timing closure before you fabricate
BR 6/00 10
Formal Verification
• Formal Verification means that mathematical techniques to prove that the hardware is correct as it progresses from one abstraction level to another (Behavioral to RTL to Gatelevel to Physical), etc. • Attraction is that circuit does not have to be simulated – no need for test vector generation
Communicative Language Teaching 沟通式教学
Changing educational realities in Europe
• interdependence of European countries; learning of the major languages of ECM; promoting language education; formation of the International Association of Applied Linguistics • 1971: a group of experts, develop language courses on a unit-credit system • 1972: Wilkins, a functional or communicative definition of language • Two types of meaning behind the communicative use of language: notional categories and categories of communicative function
Wilkins(1976) Brumfit(1980) Allen(1980)
Jupp and
Wilkins(1976) Widdowson(1979) Prabhu(1983) Candlin(1976), Henner Stanchina
Types of learning and teaching activities
• Piepho discusses the levels of objectives in a comunicative approach: 1. an integrative and content level 2. a linguistic and instrumental level 3. an affection level of interpersonal relationships and conduct 4. a level of individual learning needs 5. a general educational level of extra-
国家开放大学《人文英语4》单元自测4参考答案
国家开放大学《人文英语4》单元自测4参考答案一、选择填空，从A、B、C三个选项中选出一个能填入空白处的最佳选项。
（每题10分）1、—Sam, this is my friend, Jane.—_________________.A. Glad to meet you, JaneB. I'm JackC. Glad to meet you, Sam2、—Can you tell me where I can park the car?—_________________.A. Yes, pleaseB. It is made in AmericaC. Well, just over there3、She has two best friends. _____of them is in the country.A. AllB. BothC. Neither4、The new order means _____ overtime.A. to workB. workingC. works5、I was giving a talk to a large group of people，the same talk I ___to halfa dozen other groups before.A. had givenB. was givingC. am giving6、—What's the matter with you?—_________________.A. It matters with youB. I feel a bit sickC. Not too bad7、—Could I talk to Prof. Lee?—_________________.A. Yes, speakingB. I'm waiting for youC. Oh, it's you8、Jane's dress is similar in design her sister's.A. likeB. withC. to9、It is said that _____ boys in your school like playing football in their spare time, though others prefer basketball.A. quite a littleB. quite a lotC. quite a few10、Today's weather is _____worse than yesterday's.A. very muchB. muchC. very11、—I've got a bad cold today.—_________________.A. Oh, dear! I hope you get better soonB. Thank you for telling meC. It isn't serious12、The sports meeting was put off till the next week rain.A. soB. in spite ofC. because of13、With his work completed, the manager stepped back to his seat, feeling pleased ____ he was a man of action.A. WhatB. thatC. which14、Neither John his father was able to wake up early enough to catch the morning train.A. orB. butC. nor15、The atmosphere certain gases mixed together in definite proportions.A. consists ofB. is made upC. composes of二、阅读理解：选择题（每题10分）正误判断题Liu Hui and Molly are discussing the issue of educational quality at a workshop.Liu Hui: Hi, Molly. Today's topic is educational quality. First, what does educational quality mean to you?Molly: As far as I'm concerned, quality education means good learning standards in educational institutions. So, educational quality ensures a desirable outcome for learners.Liu Hui: Sounds like after some serious thinking. However, many definitions of quality in education exist, testifying to the complexity and multifaceted nature of the concept.Molly: Definitely, establishing a contextualized understanding of quality means including relevant stakeholders. Key stakeholders often holddifferent views and meanings of educational quality.Liu Hui: There are many prestigious universities in the US. They all provide high-quality education. But some universities aren't known for their quality. It's hard to imagine the gap.Molly: Yes, in the US the quality in higher education is quite mixed. Universities like Harvard, Yale, MIT, etc., you know, are well-known all over the world. However, there are some institutions providing poor education, so called “diploma mills”.Liu Hui: In China, we have similar issues in educational quality. Some universities pay more attention to profits instead of quality.Molly: How to improve educational quality is an international issue. But, solutions are grounded in values, cultures and traditions and may be specific to a given nation as well.1. Molly thinks that educational quality ensures a satisfactory outcome for learners.（T）2. Liu Hui disagrees with Molly on the meaning of education quality.（F）3. All universities in the U.S. offer high-quality education.（F）4. Diploma mills cannot provide high-quality education.（T）5. In China, there isn't any diploma mill.（F）二、阅读理解：选择题（每题10分）排序题A. even without international linksB. Chinese students and academicsC. the crisis on economic growthD. A strong research systemE. in part because of thisEducation and academic quality can mean different things to different people, depending on their perspective, role and context and, （E）, quality is notoriously difficult to evaluate. The question of how to do this has been pursued for many years.Nevertheless, the goal of improving educational quality is agreed by all and stimulated further by the recent worldwide economic downturn and the need to counteract the impact of（C）and prepare for economic recovery.As the World Bank and UNESCO said 10 years ago: “The quality of knowledge generated within higher education institutions, and its availability to the wider economy, is becoming increasingly critical to national competitiveness.”They also rightly emphasized that “（D）at the national level opens up the possibility that substantial additional public benefits can be realized through international links.”This is precisely why（B）should contribute to these global benefits, reforming and improving evaluation systems for educational and academic quality. Original and good research, especially in science, economics and social sciences, has a trickle-down effect on society. Andit offers additional benefits （A）, though international collaboration and exchange of the best evaluation policy and practice can bring substantial advantages to all partners in relation to lessons learned elsewhere.二、阅读理解：选择题（每题10分）选择题Babies who are breast-fed may be more likely to be successful in life, a new study published Tuesday suggests. The study followed more than 3,000 babies into adulthood in Brazil. The researchers found those who were breast-fed scored slightly higher in intelligence tests in their 30s, stayed in school longer and earned more money than those who were given formula（配方奶粉）.“Breast-feeding not only has short-term benefits, but also breast-feeding has long-term benefits, ”says Bernardo Lessa Horta of the Federal University of Pelotas in Brazil, who led the study being published in The Lancet Global Health.Doctors have long known that breast-feeding can be good for a baby's health. This is especially true in poor countries, where water can be contaminated. For instance, a baby given formula in developing countries is 14 times more likely to die in the first six months than one who's breast-fed. In the U.S., some research has suggested that breast-feeding may raise a baby's IQ（智商）by a few points. But a recent study with siblings（兄弟姐妹）found little advantage to breast-feeding.Horta says these previous studies didn't follow children into adulthood to see if breast-feeding had long-term effects. So Horta analyzed data collected from 3,493 volunteers he and his colleagues have been following since birth. They are now in their 30s. First, the researchers gave the subjects IQ tests. Those who were breast-fed for 12 months or more had IQ test scores that were 3.76 points higher than those who were breast-fed for less than one month, the team found.When Horta and his colleagues looked at how much education the subjects had gotten and how much money they were making, they also found a clear difference: Those who were breast-fed the longest stayed in school for about an extra year and had monthly salaries that were about a third higher.1. From the passage, we learn that HortaA. is from BrazilB. conducts his research in the U.S.C. has 30 researchers on his team2. Which of the following about those who were breast-fed is NOT mentioned?A. They stayed longer in schoolB. They were happierC. They were smarter3. Which of the following is TRUE?A. Doctors don't understand the benefits of breast-feeding.B. Horta is concerned with water contamination in poor countries.C. Horta's research project lasted about 30 years4. The word contaminated in Paragraph 3 is closest in meaning toA. finishedB. interestedC. polluted5. Which of the following is an appropriate title for this passage?A. Researchers Have Pointed Out the Disadvantages of Breast-feedingB. Researchers Have Found Out the Shortcomings of FormulaC. Breast-feeding Improves Chances of Success。
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*This work was supported by the project LPGD 25256 ESPRIT IV ofEuropean Union and INTRACOM S.A.A METHODOLOGY FOR THE BEHAVIORAL-LEVEL EVENT-DRIVEN POWERMANAGEMENT OF DIGITAL RECEIVERS *N. D. Zervas 1, D. Soudris 2, S. Theoharis 1, C.E. Goutis 1, and A. Thanailakis 21VLSI Design Lab, Dept. of Elec. & Comp. Eng., Univ. of Patras, 26110, Greece2VLSI Design and Testing Center, Dept. of Elec. & Comp. Eng., Democritus Univ. of Thrace, 67100 Xanthi, GreeceABSTRACTPower management is a low-power technique applicable in almost all design levels. Event-driven power management has been applied at the system-level. The same concept can be applied for receiver design at the behavioral-level. Power management involves a trade-off according to which on the one hand power is decreased by shutting-down parts of the circuit, but on the other hand power is increased by the insertion of the required logic for the generation of the shutdown signals. In this paper, receiver context characteristics are exploited in order to develop a methodology for the behavioral-level exploration of this trade-off. The efficiency of the proposed methodology is proven by its application on a real-life digital DECT receiver.1. INTRODUCTIONThe state-of-the-art technology on portable communications imposes strict constraints on power consumed and area occupied byreceiver circuits. Thus the development of low-power area-efficient strategies is of critical importance especially in the high levels where the most significant savings can be achieved [1].One of the most efficient low-power techniques applicable at all levels of abstraction of the design flow is the dynamic power management [2]. The basic concept, according to which a resource can be shutdown does not perform useful operations, has been applied at the RT and logic level [3, 4, 5, 6], but also at the systemlevel [7, 8]. However, it seems that none of these techniques has addressed the power management in the behavioral level. The design of digital receiver circuits starts usually in this level and, as reported in [9], if power management is postponed for the next design-levels, then it is possible for some power-management options to be disabled. In this paper, a methodology for the behavioral-level event-driven power management of digital receivers is presented. The methodology targets the exploration of the trade-off according to which on the one hand power consumption decreases because a resource is shutdown but on the other hand power consumption and area increases due to the presence of additional logic. In the general case this trade-off is very difficult to be explored in the behavioral-level since the necessary timing and structural information are not available at this level of abstraction. The exploitation of digitalreceiver special characteristics though enabled the development ofthis methodology.2. POWER MODELIn this section, the model used for the behavioral-level power estimation is described. The power dissipated in a CMOS circuit can be classified as static power and dynamic power dissipation. The dynamic power dissipation forms the dominant part of the totalpower and can be expressed by the following equation:∑⋅⋅⋅==Ni i dd load E f V C Power i 12 (2.1) wherei load C is the load capacitance at node i, V dd is the powersupply voltage , f is the frequency and E i is the activity factor at node i. The term f ⋅ E i of equation 2.1 is actually the number of transition from logic ‘1’ to logic ‘0’ per time unit for the node i, which is equal to the ratio of number of node transition from logic ‘1’ to logic ‘0’ divided by the total number of input vectors:vectors trans f E f i i #.#0101→→==⋅(2.2) (2.1)∧(2.2)⇒∑=→⋅⋅=Ni i load DDtrans C vectors V Power i 1012.##(2.3)The power estimation problem is actually a two-dimensional problem, since both number of transitions and load capacitance have to be estimated. Additionally behavioral-level power estimation has also to deal with the fact that the exact circuitstructure is not yet fixed. In this paper activity is estimated by calculating Hamming-distance at the output nodes of basic operations (e.g. addition, multiplication etc) during functionalsimulation. For the effective capacitance estimation the models presented in [10] some of which are also available on the web [11] are used. Even though the accuracy of this method is poor, the claim is that it suffices for the purpose of comparing alternative power management scenaria at the behavioral level. However, any other,behavioral-level power estimation method can be used for this purpose. 3. PROPOSED METHODOLOGYIn this section the behavioral-level power management methodology for digital receivers is described. Initially, some definitions are given for clarity reasons: • Unobservability characterizes a fraction of a behavior and refers to the situation where the output values of this fraction are not relevant to the correct operation of the entire behavior.• System period is the minimum fraction of time during which a sequence of events is not repeated. In general, the system period is different from the period of the imaginable outer loop of the Control/Data Flow Graph (CDFG). Actually system period is an integer multiple of the period of the imaginable outer loop of theCDFG. • Event window is a fraction of system period that lies betweentwo events.The proposed technique is based on the fact that unobservability at the behavioral level may be introduced after the occurrence of an event. In almost all behavioral descriptions of receivers, there are behavioral clusters that their goal is to check whether an event occurs or that do not modify their output variables between theoccurrences of two events. For example, a behavioral cluster responsible for synchronization does not change its outputs for a while after the synchronization is achieved, and is very commonly met in receivers.Thus for one or several event windows unobservability can characterize such behavioral clusters. The shutdown of such clusters can lead to significant power savings. In an abstract behavioral description (e.g. CDFG) it is not always clear whether a cluster performs useful computations or not. Thus a behavioral analysis is usually required in order to identify the clusters that can be shutdown and also the events that enable and disable these clusters.3.1 Step 1: Behavioral AnalysisBehavioral analysis indicates the candidate behavioral clusters for power management. This also involves the identification of the events that can trigger the shutdown of the behavioral clusters. The simplest way to perform behavioral analysis is simulation. However, simulation is not always needed, since behavioral analysis can also be performed manually by any designer familiar the behavioral description of the design.In any case, the behavioral analysis can be visualized by the use of an event graph. This is a two dimensional graph, the horizontal dimension of which represents the system period and in which the events are arranged with respect to their occurrence sequence. This way the system period is divided into several event windows. In the vertical dimension the behavioral clusters are contained. If a behavioral cluster is observable in an event window then a line is drawn in the corresponding window. The absence of a line in an event window means that during this event window the corresponding behavioral cluster is unobservable.A question that arises at this point is how the initial behavior is partitioned into behavioral clusters. The answer is simple; the event graph can be used in any level of granularity available. For example, a behavioral cluster can be a simple operation or a set of operations. If two or more operations or operations sets have common event windows during which they are unobservable, then they can be grouped to one behavioral cluster for the purpose of power management exploration. However, the original descriptions of receiver algorithms are partitioned into behavioral clusters (based on their functionality). The intuition is that this partitioning is in most cases convenient for the purpose of power management exploration.3.2 Step 2: Power Management Scenaria ExtractionThe usage of all event signals for the purpose of power management is not necessary. A power management scenario that does not use all the event variables available can be more power efficient than the one that uses all the event variables. Any possible combination of the event variables that does not violate their initial ordering corresponds to a different power management scenario.If there are n events that introduce or cease unobservability for m behavioral clusters, then there are 2n-1-1different power-management scenaria, each one corresponding to the use of a different set of events. Each power management scenario is characterized by different energy dissipation. This search space can become very large in cases that the number of events is large. However, in receiver applications the number of such events is small (usually 3-5) leading this way a manageable number of power management scenaria.3.3 Step 3: Cost function evaluationEach power-management scenario can be power-efficient or inefficient depending on the power consumed for the generation of the event variables and the power saved by the shutdown of the behavioral clusters. In order to decide whether a power-management scenario is efficient or not, the first step is to generate the logic that produces the event variables and insert them in the behavioral description of the algorithm. The generation of the event variables is not always needed since a variable that has identical behavior with an event variable may already exist in the original behavioral description. In such cases it is assumed that no power overhead is introduced.Behavioral clusters that are unobservable during same event-window(s) can share shutdown variables. Whether a power management scenario can lead to power savings or not depends on two factors: First, the time fraction during which the behavioral clusters is shut down and their power consumption determines the amount of saved energy. Second, the possible additional logic needed for the event signals generation consumes additional power and time fraction during which this additional logic is needed to operate relates to the energy consumed by it.In order to decide whether a power-management scenario is efficient or not, the power of the original and transformed (i.e. original + power management related logic) behavioral description should be compared. The condition is simple; the power consumed by the transformed behavioral description must be less than the power consumed by the original behavioral description. A mathematical expression of the above statement follows:..OrigTransfPP<⇒E Transf.⋅T System_Period < E Orig.⋅T System_Period..OrigTransfEE<⇔(3.1)−⋅+⋅=PeriodSystemAddPeriodSystemOrigTransfTPTPE_._..iiWindowEventi ClusterTP_⋅−∑(3.2)PeriodSystemOrigOrigTPE_..⋅=(3.3) (3.1)∧ (3.2)∧ (3.3)⇒∑⋅<⋅i WindowEventClusterPeriodSystemAdd iiTPTP__.(3.4) where T System_Period and T Event_Window are the duration of system period and event- window respectively, P Add..is the power consumed by the event-variables generation logic and P Cluster i is the power consumed by the behavioral cluster i.Eq. (3.4) denote that power savings are achieved if the power consumed by the additional circuit (for the event variables generation) multiplied by the duration of system period is less than the summation of the power saved by shutting down the behavioral clusters multiplied by the respective event-window duration.In other words, Eq. (3.4)describes the necessary condition for a power-management scenario to be valid (i.e. to be power efficient).A cost function that will help to choose among all valid power management scenaria can be derived directly from eq. (3.4):Unfortunately both event window and system period duration are not known because timing is fixed at a lower level of the design flow, during scheduling. But even if scheduling is performed, events do not always occur at a defined time instance. So in the general case the evaluation of the cost function of eq. (3.5)is infeasible at this level, and can be performed at the RT-level after the behavioral synthesis of both the alternative designs.It is feasible though to evaluate eq. (3.5) at the behavioral level in cases where time related information is part of the specifications.In this case the cost function must be evaluated for the worst case for each alternative power management scenario. The worst case for the cost function of eq. (3.5)is the one that the shorter possible∑⋅⋅=i iWindowEventiClusterPeriodSystemAddTPTPfunctionCost__._(3.5)duration for the event windows and the longest duration of the system period are considered. When the duration of either an event window or the system period is not fragmented then their average duration can be fed to eq. (3.5). In the receiver context such information is supplied by the telecommunication protocol, which is always part of the (if not whole the) specifications.Almost always an area overhead is paid due to the insertion of logic for the generation of the event signals. It is assumed here that regardless of the amount of this overhead the choice is always to trade area for power. If this is not the case then the cost function used during behavioral-level power-management exploration must be modified in order to take into account area. Area estimation though is very difficult to be made at this level of abstraction since it strongly depends on the decisions made in the next design steps during scheduling and binding.3.4 Step 4: ImplementationThis methodology for behavioral-level power management exploration can be proven to be useless if the decisions made are not passed as constraints to the next levels of the design flow. For example if behavioral synthesis allocates an operation contained in a behavioral cluster that was decided to shutdown for a certain time fraction, and an operation outside this behavioral cluster to the same resource then the power management for this resource is disabled. A behavioral synthesis algorithm that targets functional pipelined architectures and that takes into account the power-management decisions made by the proposed methodology has been developed [10]. Analysis of this algorithm is out of the scope of this paper.4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY APPLIED IN ADECT RECEIVERFor the implementation of a DECT receiver the behavior described by the block diagram of fig. 1 and the simplified CDFG of fig. 2 is considered. The behavior of the receiver is as follows [12]: The first levels calculate the phase difference of two consecutive samples (PDD cluster). The phase differences estimation is corrected by an automatic frequency correction cluster (AFC). The corrected phase difference is decoded (PDTM) and the transmitted sequence is recovered. Additionally the STE cluster is respon,sible for slot synchronization and symbol timing estimation.For the purpose of power management exploration the behavioral clusters taken under consideration is the PDD, AFC, PDTM and the STE. The behavioral analysis indicates that the STE behavioral cluster does not need to operate after the header (synchronization and preamble) detection and up to receiving the whole slot. Also the AFC in order to estimate the error computes a series, which ones converges does not modify its output for the rest of the slot. The corresponding event graph is shown in fig. 3. The events that divide the system period and define the event windows are the slot detection/ synchronization (e1), the error convergence (e2) and the end of slot (e3). None of the event variables are already present in the original CDFG. The additional logic for the generation of all the event variables is shown in the transformed CDFG of fig. 4.In the worst case (minimum duration) the event window between e2 and e3 is equal to the three-quarters of the duration 7of a slot. Also the event window between e1 and e3 is always equal tothe duration of a slot. The worst case (maximum duration) for system period is not fragmented but according to a probabilistic approach, the system period is on average 2,3 times the duration of the slot.In this case three candidate power- management scenaria exist. According to the first one all the event variables (e1, e2 and e3) are used. The second uses e1 and e3, while the third uses e2 and e3. In the case that all the event variables are used then STE behavioral cluster can be shutdown for the event-window between e1 and e3,%LW 6WUHDP3+$6(',))(5(1&('(7(&725$8720$7,&)5(48(1&<&255(&7253+$6(',))(5(1&(75$16,7,210$33(56<0%2/ 7,0,1*(67,0$7,216/276<1&+521,=$7,21,4Fig.1 The block diagram of the DECT receiverArcTanCosSin ->+<<+>>+ArcTan>F S MDDDDD D 22C2C1I QH DH DH DH DM I NC3C3C3C3M UX AFCS T EoutFig. 2. The simplified CDFG of the DECT receivere1:Slot-detection synchronizatione2: Error convergencee3: end of slote3P D D A F C P D T M STEFig. 3. The event graph for the DECT receiverAFC behavioral cluster can be shutdown for the event-window between e2 and e3 and additional logic is required for the generation of e1, e2 and e3. In the case that e1 and e3 are used then the only behavioral cluster that can be shutdown is the STE and obviously the additional logic that produces e1 and e3 is needed. In the case that e2 and e3 are used the STE and the AFC behavioral clusters can be shutdown during the event window between e2 and e3 and the logic that produces the event variables e2 and e3 is needed.None of the candidate power management introduces a power overhead. The cost function values corresponding to each one of the above-described scenaria are illustrated in figure 5. The more efficient power-management scenario is the one that uses e2 and e3 variables. This means that the presence of the logic that generates e1 introduces an energy overhead greater than the energy saved during the event window between e2 and e3. This is due to the relatively small duration of the event window between e2 and e3.5. CONCLUSIONSIn this paper a behavioral-level event-driven power management methodology applicable in the digital receiver context was proposed. This methodology targets the exploration of the trade-off according to which on the one hand power is saved by shutting-down parts of the circuit but on the other hand power is increased by the additional logic required. The application of the proposed methodology in a DECT receiver has proven that significant power savings can be introduced.6. REFERENCES[1] J. M. Rabaey and M. Pedram, ”Low Power DesignMethodologies”, Kluwer Academic Publishers 1995.[2] L. Benini, G. De Micheli, “DYNAMIC POWERMANAGEMENT. Design Techniques and CAD tools”, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998.[3] L. Benini, G. De Micheli, “Transformation and Synthesis ofFSMs for Low Power Gated Clock Implementation ”, IEEE Transaction on CAD, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 630-643, 1996.[4] L. Benini et al., “Symbolic Synthesis of Clock-Gating Logicfor Power Optimization of Control-Oriented Synchronous Networks ”, in Proc. of European Design and Test Conference, pp. 514-520, Paris, France, March 1997.[5] M. Aldina J. Monteiro et al., “Precomputation-BasedSequential Logic Optimization for Low Power ”, IEEE Trans. on VLSI Systems, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 426-436, 1994.[6] V. Tiwari, S. Malik, P. Ashar, “Guarded Evaluation: PushingPower Management in Logic Synthesis/Design ”, Int. Symp. on Low Power Design, pp. 221-226, Dana-Point, CA, April 1995.[7] S.C. Ellis, “Power management in notebook computers ”, inProc. of the Personal Computer Design Conference, pp. 749-754, July 1991.[8] E. P. Harris, S. W. Depp et al., “Technology directions forportable computers ”, in proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 83, no. 4, pp. 636-658, April 1995.[9] N. D. Zervas, D. Soudris, C.E. Goutis, and A. Thanailakis,“Low-Power Methodology for Transformations of Wireless Communications Algorithms ”, Deliverable report LPGD/WP2/DUTH/D2.2R1, Jan. 1999.[10] P. Landman, “Low power architectural designmethodologies ”, Ph.D. Dissertation, U.C. Berkeley, Aug. 1994.[11] D. Lidsky and J. Rabaey, “Early exploration – A World WideWeb application ”, in proc. of Design Automation Conference, pp. 27-32, June 1996. [12] M. Perakis, et al “The VLSI Implementation of a BasebandReceiver For DECT-Based Portable Applications ”, in proc. of ISCAS’99, vol. I, pp. 198-201, Orlando, Florida, USA, May-June 1999.ArcTanCosSin->+<<+>>+ArcTan>FSMDDDDD D&&,4H DH DH DH DMINMIN&&&& &MUXDDD=H:9+D=&HHHFig. 4. The transformed CDFGFig. 5. Cost function evaluationHHHHHHH。