新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

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新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。

本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记，旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。

本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。

一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和接收。

在英语语音学中，我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念，以及发音方式和音系结构。

其中，音素是语音的最小单位，音节是由音素组成的单位，音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。

在语音学的学习中，我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。

国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。

通过学习国际音标，我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。

二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。

在形态学中，我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。

英语中的词缀是词的构成要素，可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。

词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。

此外，我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则，如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。

了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。

三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。

在句法学的学习中，我们学习了句子的基本成分，如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。

我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系，以及句法规则的应用。

在英语句法学中，我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。

通过短语结构分析和句子树，我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。

四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。

在语用学的学习中，我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。

我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则，如请求、邀请、命令等。

了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。

结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本重要的英语语言学教材，其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。

本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结，并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课程设计

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课程设计1. 课程背景与目标英语作为全球通用的语言之一，在全球范围内都广泛应用。

掌握英语语言学知识，有助于提高人们的英语水平，建立坚实的英语语言基础，更好地适应国际化发展的需要。

本课程旨在通过深入浅出的教学方式，帮助学生更好地掌握英语语言学的基本知识，提高英语语言能力和语言思维能力。

2. 课程设置2.1 课程名称新编简明英语语言学教程第二版2.2 课程学时本课程为学期课程，总学时为48学时。

每周2学时。

2.3 课程内容本课程的主要内容包括：•语音学：英语语音的基本概念和理论，音位、音素、音节的基本单位和特征等。

•词汇学：英语词汇的基本概念和分类，词义、词源、词形变化等。

•句法学：英语句子的基本成分和结构，句子类型、语法关系等。

•语义学：英语语义的基本概念，意义的表示和匹配等。

•话语分析：英语话语的类型、结构和功能，语用学的基本原理等。

2.4 课程教材•教材：《新编简明英语语言学教程（第二版）》（张三主编，出版社，2021）•辅助教材：《英语语音学教程》（李四著，出版社，2021）、《英语词汇学教程》（王五著，出版社，2021）2.5 课程方法本课程采用讲授、课堂讨论、小组研讨等方式进行教学。

以问题为核心，以学生为主体，深入浅出地介绍语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和话语分析等方面的基本概念和理论，帮助学生掌握英语语言学的核心知识和方法，提高英语语言能力和语言思维能力。

3. 课程评估3.1 课程作业本课程的作业包括：•课堂笔记：学生对每堂课上的重要内容进行记录，总结、归纳并反思自己的收获；•课外阅读：学生选择相关教材或者资料，深入研究课程内容，自己探索问题；•小组研讨：学生自行组织小组，开展研讨活动，以小组报告的形式汇报整理的成果。

3.2 课程考核本课程考核方式采取闭卷考试和开卷论文两种形式，占比各50%。

•闭卷考试：所考考试内容以教学大纲为基础，涵盖课程的重点内容和难点问题，考察学生对于英语语言学基本概念的掌握和应用。

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习试题参考答案解析

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is o nly the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of unitsof meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the spe aker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? 答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is neededto indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of anorganized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (st h.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案word文档，精心编排整理，均可修改你的满意，我的安心《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be includedin a good, comprehensive definition of language答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Thisis what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibrationof the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used indictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Thelatter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound thatfollows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spitthe puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p]sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims todiscover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation;in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motionpictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamp les: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “withoutsex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”di shonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “oppose d or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those inte nded”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phraseis called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category isinflection. Words of different categories take different inflections.Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories thatcan appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head,specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles.Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of thehead. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide informationabout entities and locations whose existence is implied by themeaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formedby the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement(against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement(thewindow)NP d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses thatfunction as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition ora noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each ofthese sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structureof each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the partyHelen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the windowwho broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第1章导言——第3章

第1章导言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2. 有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。

本章内容索引：I. The definition of linguisticsII. The scope of linguistics1. Micro-linguistics2. Macro-linguisticsIII. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Speech vs. Writing4. Langue vs. Parole5. Competence vs. Performance6. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics IV. The definition of languageV. The design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Productivity3. Duality4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityVI. Functions of language1. Main functions2. Basic functions3. MacrofuntionsI. The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。

General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。

（language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ）nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。

4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。

5。

prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。

i.e。

what they should say and what they should not to say.6。

synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7。

diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语)These the two media of communication。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with theability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it isrepresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows i t. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which candistinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N,3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay andwill go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrow。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
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第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical plementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic munication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in munication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and bined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are bined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic munication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of humanlanguage for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday munication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between petence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him petence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, prehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are bined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the munication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal munication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some c ases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic munication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic munication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound binations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound bination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription thediacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. T o further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all thespeech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic munication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible binations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may bee regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound binations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound binations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallyrepresented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. T ones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telemunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + municate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a pany”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an orga nized munity. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The f armer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are bined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and plements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.T o determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaningsassociated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take parative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take parative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior tothe conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of theelements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and plement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.plement:plements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure(or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a plement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + plement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +plement (detective stories) NP c) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +plement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +plement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefullyyesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的X畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as plements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you e tomorrow?you would e tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?。

简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? 答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the de ntal sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of anorganized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “produc ing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools. Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。

新编简明英语语言学(第二版)学习笔记

1、 Linguistics studies languages in general, but nit any particular language ,eg .English,Chinese,Arabic,and Latin,etc.2、 By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.3、 Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.4、The meaning of the word “seal” in the sentence “the seal could not be found” cannot be determined unless the context in which the sentence occurs is restored.5、 An lnnatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmedfor language.6、 The same word may stir up different association in people under different cultural background.7、 A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learnthe new language without the trace of an accent,8、Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.9、Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principle and theories to language teaching and learning.10、A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.11、All the affixes belong to bound morphemes.12、A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.13、When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific cultureand becomes socialized in certain way.14、Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.15、Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme16、The meaning of an utterance is ,in a sense, richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived.17、People in the west tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese do.18、Auditory phonetics studies the perception of sound s by the human ear.19、Synonymy and polysemy are relations between form and meaning.20、People in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese.21、A broad transcription is used generally in dictionaries and language textbooks.22、The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.23、Strictly speaking, according to F.palmer, there are no real synonyms and no two words have exactly the same meaning.24、The standard dialect is not related to any particular group of language users.25、A children who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four learns the new language without the trace of an accent.26、One learns his first language directly from relity.1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as the natural or primary medium of human language.2.In narrow transcription, we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols only while in broad transcription we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.3.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.4.According to co-operative principle, the conversational participants have to strictly observe the four maxims, so that the conversation can go on successfully.5.In communication it will never be the case that what is grammatical is not acceptable, and what is ungrammatical may not be inappropriate.6.Since there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, language is absolutely arbitrary.7.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to the manner of articulation.8.Accoring to the innatist view of language acquisition, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.9.According to Austin, the performative utterance is used to perform an action, it also has truth value.10,Children can learn their native language well whenever they start and whatever kinds of language samples they receive.11.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.12.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13.More than often we use bound morpheme alone.14.Human children everywhere develop a language with instruction, unless they suffer from extreme mental deficiency.15.The first language is acquired consciously.16.All vowels in English are voiceless.17.The inflectional morphemes are morphemes which add lexical meaning to the words they are attached.18.According to semantic theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.19.In acquiring their first language. children always concentrate on structure.20.Children must have parents to instruct them in order to learn to speak.第一章语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of study of language.语音学phonetics:it studies of sounds used in linguistic communication音位学phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to conveymeaning in communication语言学内部形态学morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds 的主要分支are arranged and combined to form words句法学syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to fromgrammatically permissible sentences in languages.语义学semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language.语用学pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.社会语言学sociolinguistics:The studies of all these social aspects of language and itsrelation with society form the core of the branch call sociolinguistics. 跨学科分支心理语言学psycholinguistics:relates the study of language to psychology.应用语言学applied linguistics:The study of such applications is generally known asApplied linguistics.规定性与描写性Prescriptive & DescriptivePrescriptive:If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.Descriptive:If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language.共时性与历时性Synchronic & DiachronicSynchronic:The description of a language at some point of time in history is asynchronic study.Diachronic:The description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic study.言语与文字Speech & Writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. 语言学中的一些重要语言与语言Langue & Parole区分Langue:refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:refers to the realization of language in actual ues.语言能力与语言运用Competence & PerformanceCompetence:is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance:is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.传统语法与现代语言学Traditional grammar & Modern linguisticsThe different between Traditional grammar and Modern linguistics1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it 语言的识别from any animal system of communication.的特征作者：Charles Hockett (查尔斯·霍凯特)（1）Arbitrariness:It means that there is no logical connection between meaningsand sounds（2）Productivity:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.（3）Duality:Linguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels（4）Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.（5）Cultural transmission:While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.语言的功能Three main functions are often recognized of language:(1) The descriptive function,also referred to differently as the cognitive,or referential,orpropositional ,is assumed to be the primary function of language.Eg.The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.(2) The expressive function, supplies information about the user’sfellings.preformances,prejudices ,and values.Eg.I will never go camping with Mike again.(3) The social function,also referred to as the interpersonal funcation,seves to establishand maintain social relations between people.Eg.How can I help you,sir?There are six elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson are:Addresser,Addressee,Context,Message,Contact,Code.They are associated with six basic functions of language as shown below:(1)Addresser---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Eg.I hate whatever they are planning for me.(2)Addressee---ConativeThe addressee aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.Eg.Why not go and see another doctor?(3)Context---ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Eg.As far as I know,(4)Message---PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty oflanguage itself. Eg.poetry.(5)Contact---Phatic communionThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee.Eg.Hi.How are you this morning?(6)Code---Metalinguistic’s experience of the real or第二章语音学的定义:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Three branches of phonetics articulatory phonetics语音学分支：auditory phoneticsacoustic phoneticsThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:Organs of speech: pharyngeal cavity----the throatOral cavity---the mouthNasal cavity---the noseOrthographic representation of speech sounds:Broad transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.Narrow transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics iscall narrow transcriptionThe speech sounds in English into two broad categories: Vowels and Consonants音素phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.音位phoneme:A phoneme is a phonological unit.it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位对立phonemic contrast:[pit]和[bit]，[rəup]和[rəub] 中的/p/./b/互补分布complementary distribution:清晰的舌边音[ l ],模糊舌边音[ㄨ]最小对立体minimal pair:pill&bill,除了词首的辅音外形式完全相同序列规则Sequential rules：This indicates that there are rules that governthe combination of sound in a particular language.Some rules in phonology 同化规则Assimilation rules:This assimilation rule assimilates one soundto another by “copying” a sequential phoneme,thus making thetwo phones similar.省略规则Deletion rule:Another phonological rule is the deletion rule.Ittells us when a sound is to be deleted although it isorthographically represented.Suprasegmental features---The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments arecalled suprasemental features;these are the phonological properties ofsuch units as the syllable ,the word,and the sentence.(1) Stress:(2) Tone: are pitch variations, which are called by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords(3) Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.第三章形态学morphology：refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Open class word: nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary.They are content words of a language.Closed class word:conj,perp.art and pron consist of the “grammatical” and “functional” words.free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morphemebound morpheme: A morpheme must attached to another one is a bound morpheme.Allomorphs定义:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.（The allomorphic variation involves different pronunciations of the plural morpheme –s.）–ic are thus called derivational morphemes.morphological rules: un + accept + able]Derivation定义：is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.Compounds复合词：Syntax定义：is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencs.Categories范畴：refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfil the name or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.句法范畴syntactic categories: A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Here word level categories are divided into Two kinds:1) major lexical categories 2)minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed:1)Namely, 2)meaning 3)inflection and distributionPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following element:1)head 2)specifier 3)complementThe word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiersThe words on the right side of the heads are complements.Phrase structure rule:Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.(specifier)X(complement)X*Con XPhrase elements1.specifiersplements3.modifiersSentencDes Transformations Auxiliary movement Do insertionDeep structure: The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub categorizationproperties, is called deep structure.(D-structure)Surface structure: The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which语义学的定义：1. The naming theorySome views concerning 2.The conceptualist viewthe study of meaning 3.Contextualism关于意义研究的一些观点 4.BehaviorismSense :is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic word of experience.,1.dialectal synonyms2.Stylistic synonymsSynonymy .3.emotive or evaluative meaning4.Collocational synonyms5.Semantically different synonymsPolysemy: While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.1.homophoneHomonymy 2.homographsplete homonyms1.superodinateHyponymy 2.hyponyms3.co-hyponyms1.Gradable antonymsAntonymy plementary antonyms3.relational opposites1.X与Y同义X is synonymous with Y句子之间的关系 2.X与Y不一致X is inconsistent with Y3.X预设Y X presupposes Y（Y是X的先决条件）Y is a prerequisite of X4.X自我矛盾X is a contradiction5.X语义反常X is semantically anomalous1.成分分析法Componential analysis-----is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyzeword meaning,意义分析 2.述谓结构分析法Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning.Pragmatics定义：A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication,Context定义：It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,Austin’s model of speech acts(论述)Eg.You have left the door wide open.1.Locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words“you”,have”,”door”,”open”,etc.thus expressing what the words literally mean,2.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i,e.asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.3.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real word he has intended to ,then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.Searle’s classification of speech acts(赛尔对言语行为的分类)The five types of illocutionary acts are:1.阐述类representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.2.指令类directive: trying to get the hearer to do something.3.承诺类commissive: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4.表达类expressive: expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.5.宣告类declaration: bring about immediate changes by saying something.(新内容-论述)Searle’s indirect speech actAccording to Searle,when a speaker is using indirect language,he is performing two speech acts simultaneously;One is the primary speech cat and the other is the secondary speech act.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication.The secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.The example provided by Searle to illustrate his idea is the following brief exchange between two students:Student X:Let’s go to the movies tonightStudent Y:I have to study for an examObviously, by saying“I have to study for an exam “student Y is saying ‘NO’ to student X’s suggestion to go to the movies. According to Searle’s indirect speech act theory. The primary speech act student Y performs with his utterance is the act of rejecting student X’s suggestion and the secondary speech act he performs is the act of making a statement about the fact that he has to study for an exam. So the relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The four maxims of the CP:1) the maxim of quantity2) the maxim of qyalityWhat is CP?In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP.（新内容）Pragmatic failure语用失误Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmatics failure may occur inintra-cultural background.Pragmatics is assumed to have two dimensions:Pragmalinguistics: is applied to the more linguistic and of pragmatics. i, e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes.Sociopragmatics：is the sociological interface of pragmatics; it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.第七章Historical linguistics: as a branch of linguistic, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.Morphological and syntactic change1)Addition of affixesFusion: refers to this type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.2) Loss of affixes3) Change of word order4) Change in negation ruleAddition of new words(要记例子)P981.创新词Coinage: A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects.2.缩写词Clipped words: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.3.紧缩词Blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4.词首字母缩略词Acronyms: are words derived from the initials of several words.5.逆词构法Back-formation：New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting ”an affix thought to be part of the old word.6.功能转换Functional shift: Word may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion.7.借用Borrowing: When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another.Semantic changes1. Semantic broadening2. Semantic narrowing3. Semantic shift第八章(定义)Sociolinguistics is the subfield of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(言语社区)speech community : the social group that singled out for any special study is called the speech community.(言语变体)speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.(地域方言)a regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(个人言语)idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.(语域)register: Thy type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:Field of discourse: refers to what is going on,Tenor of discourse: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question.Mode of discourse: refers to the means of communication.(标准方言)The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.(洋泾浜语)Pidgin: is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.(克里奥耳语)Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to that become a creole.(双语现象)Bilingualism: It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.第九章Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that Characterizes the life of the human community.Culture, in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(SWH): Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now knows as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways:A strong version and a weak one.While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak on holds that the former influence the later.Contacts: between peoples with different cultures usually lead to change in one or both systems. Traditionally, three forms of culture contact are indentified:1)acculturation: is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when on group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.2)assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society---not always completely.3)amalgamation: occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.(文化重叠)Cultural overlap: between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.(文化传播)Cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about culture diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly,(语言帝国主义)Linguistic imperialism: is a kind of linguicism which can be defined sa the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.(跨文化交际)Intercultural communication: also known as cross—cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.第十章(语言习得)Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.儿童语言习得理论（theories of child language acquisition）1)the behaviorist view行为主义者观Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.2)the innatist view天赋主义者观The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.3)the interactionist view互动主义者观The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and environment in which the child develops.Critical period Hypothesis(CPH)Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time---a specific and limited time period for language acquisition---which is refered to as the Critical Period Hypothesis.(外延缩小)Under-extension: Children do not learn the meaning of a word “all at once”. When a child learns a new word, he may well under-extend it or overextend it.(过度延伸)Over-extension: Overextension happens when a children takes a property of a object and generalizes it. It is likely to occur later rather than immediately following the acquisition of a word.(听力损伤)Hearing impairment:which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language.(智力障碍)Mental retardation：which may cause a delayed language acquisition(自闭症)Autism: language impairment from the very beginning(口吃)Stuttering:repetition of sound, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not “release” the words.(失语症)Aphasia: partial or total loss of language due to brain damage第十一章Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得Formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s,refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.(错误分析)Error analysis involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learner’s interlanguage.(that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself),then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches)(中介语)Interlanguage：is defined as an abstract system of learner’s target language system, it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones,.(过渡概括)Overgeneralization: is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situation.第十二章(神经语言学)Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language.(心理语言学)Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing.。

资料-戴炜栋新编简明英语语言学教程2版考点

第1章导言本章要点：1．The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2．Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3．The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4．Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。

本章内容索引：I.The definition of linguisticsII.The scope of linguistics1．Micro-linguistics2．Macro-linguisticsIII.Some important distinctions in linguistics1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic3．Speech vs. Writing4．Langue vs. Parole5．Competence vs. Performance6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern LinguisticsIV.The definition of languageV.The design features of language1．Arbitrariness2.Productivity3.Duality4．Displacement5．Cultural Transmission6．InterchangeabilityVI.Functions of language1．Main functions2．Basic functions3．MacrofuntionsI.The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版戴炜栋11 Second Language Acquisition

Overgeneralization
Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations. Walked, watched, washed… *rided, *goed, *doed, *eated… Jane advised me to give up smoking. Jane told me to give up smoking. *Jane hoped me to give up smoking. *Jane suggested me to give up smoking.
Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker) Interlanguage ---- learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.
Connections
between first language acquisition & second language acquisition

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Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

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