Loneliness and social uses of the Internet

Loneliness and social uses of the Internet §Janet Morahan-Martin a,1,*,Phyllis Schumacher b,1a Department of Psychology,Bryant College,1150Douglas Pike,Smithfield,RI 029171284,USA bDepartment of Mathematics,Bryant College,1150Douglas Pike,Smithfield,RI 029171284,USAAbstractLoneliness has been associated with increased Internet use.Lonely individuals may be drawn online because of the increased potential for companionship,the changed social inter-action patterns online,and as a way to modulate negative moods associated with loneliness.Online,social presence and intimacy levels can be controlled;users can remain invisible as they observe others’interactions,and can control the amount and timingof their interactions.Anonymity and lack of face-to-face communication online may decrease self-consciousness and social anxiety,which could facilitate pro-social behavior and enhance online friendship formation.Support for this model was found in a survey of 277undergraduate Internet users that was used to assess differences between lonely and not-lonely individuals in patterns of Internet use.Loneliness was assessed on the UCLA Loneliness Scale;students in the highest 20%(Lonely)were compared with all other students (Non-lonely).Lonely individuals used the Internet and e-mail more and were more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than others.Social behavior of lonely individuals consistently was enhanced online,and lonely individuals were more likely to report makingonline friends and heig htened satisfac-tion with their online friends.The lonely were more likely to use the Internet to modulate negative moods,and to report that their Internet use was causing disturbances in their daily functioning.#2003Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Internet;Loneliness;CMC;Disturbed use of Internet;Social behaviors§Portions of this paper were presented at the 107th Convention of the American Psychological Asso-ciation,August 1999,Chicago,IL.This study involved a re-analysis of data published earlier by the same authors:Morahan-Martin,J.,and Schumacher,P.(2000).Incidence and Correlates of pathological internet use amongcolleg e puters and Human Behavior,16,13–29.*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+1-401-232-6268;fax:+1-401-232-6319.E-mail address:jmorahan@ (J.Morahan-Martin).1Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript.660J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–6711.IntroductionAlthough the Internet is widely used to communicate with others(Pew Internet& American Life,2002),loneliness has longbeen associated with excessive use of the Internet.Many early Internet users were computer hackers,who were characterized as preferringthe machine to people.Often social outcasts,they turnedfirst to the computer and then to the Internet in lieu of people(Shotten,1991;Turkle,1984).‘‘The Internet gave them a vehicle for both communication and recreation,often providinga safe and fun social life that was denied in real life’’(Morahan-Martin, 1999,p.431).Many turned to the Internet to escape from the pressures and dis-comfort of their lives.Online,they found a world where they could be accepted and where their technical skills could be used to gain prestige.As use of the Internet spread to a broader population,early chroniclers of life online,such as Rheingold (1993)and Turkle(1995),continued to draw anecdotal links between loneliness and Internet use and abuse.Quantitative studies that followed confirmed that loneliness was associated with both increased Internet use(Kraut,Patterson,Landmark, Kiesler,Mukophadhyay,&Scherlis,1998;Lavin,Marvin,McLarney,Nola,& Scott,1999)and compulsive use of the Internet(Loytskert&Aiello,1997;Morahan-Martin&Schumacher,2000;Young,1998).However,the direction of this rela-tionship is uncertain.Two opposinghypotheses have been proposed to explain the relationship between loneliness and Internet use:excessive Internet use causes lone-liness vs.lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet excessively.1.1.Internet use causes lonelinessThose who accept thefirst hypothesis and view the Internet as causingloneliness argue that time online interrupts real life relationships.Internet use isolates indivi-duals from the real world and deprives them of the sense of belonging and connec-tion with real world contacts.Thus,loneliness can be a byproduct of excessive Internet use because users are spendingtime online,often investingin online rela-tionships,which are artificial and weak,at the expense of real life relationships. Further,online communication fosters technological alienation,creating barriers between participants,even those who know each other in other contexts.The implicit assumption of those supportingthis hypothesis is that online relationships are weak and superficial compared with those in real life.Support for this argument is found in the HomeNet study,which documented increases in loneliness resultingfrom Internet use(Kraut et al.,1998).This study provided free or reduced cost computers,training,and Internet access for two years to93families consistingof169individuals.Participants allowed their Internet use to be monitored and provided self-reports on their psychological and social character-istics before beginning Internet use as well as at1-year intervals after they began usingthe Internet.Participants’reported loneliness at the beg inningof the study did not predict amount of subsequent Internet use,but greater Internet use was asso-ciated with increased levels of loneliness.The authors attribute the increases in loneliness to decreases in family communication,social activities,happiness,and theJ.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671661 number of individuals in one’s social network,which also were associated with increased Internet use.Additional confirmation of the adverse effect of Internet use on social relationships has been found in other studies as well.A study by Stanford Institute for the Quantitative Study of Society of a representative sample of4113 American adults found social isolation increased with Internet use.A quarter of respondents who use the Internet more than5hours a week believe their time online reduces their time with friends and family either in person or on the phone,and10% say they spend less time attendingsocial events outside the home(O’Toole,2000). Another,smaller study of adolescents found greater Internet use associated with weaker relationships with their parents and friends,although directionality could not be determined(Sanders,Field,Diego,&Kaplan,2000).Two limitations should be noted.First,the results of other studies contradict these findings.Two studies of representative samples of the US population found no decline amongInternet users either in pro-social behavior or in communication with family,friends or professional colleagues(Robinson,Kestnbaum,Neustadtl,& Alvarez,2000;UCLA Center for Communication Policy,2000),and other research has found that Internet use improves existingrelationships and builds new social networks(Activmedia,1998,Katz&Aspden,1997).Yet,even these studies have documented a negative social impact of the Internet for a small percentage of users.Second,it may be inappropriate to causally associate reduced social contact with loneliness.Research on loneliness has found that loneliness is not related to the degree of social contact and activity.Typically,loneliness is not defined in terms of an individual’s social network,but as the subjective experience associated with a perceived lack of interpersonal intimacy(Chelune,Sultan,&Williams, 1980).1.2.Lonely drawn to the InternetThe second hypothesis is that lonely individuals are more likely to be drawn to the Internet and to use the Internet excessively because of the expanded social networks provided online and the altered patterns of online communication.Lonely indivi-duals may be drawn to some forms of interactive social activities online because of the possibilities of belonging,companionship,and communities that they provide. Social interaction is altered online in ways that may be particularly attractive to those who are lonely.For some lonely individuals,this may lead to increased Inter-net use,and even to the development of Internet-related problems in their lives (Morahan-Martin,1999).What about Internet use may be appealingto those who are lonely?‘‘Loneliness occurs when a person’s network of social relationships is smaller or less satisfying than the person desired’’(Peplau,Russell,&Heim,1979,p.55).Although being lonely can be a transient state,considerable research has documented it also is a stable personality trait,i.e.loneliness is a chronic state(Weeks,Michela,Peplau,& Bragg,1980).To some extent,arguments that excessive Internet use causes lone-liness are more state dependent in their view of loneliness while arguments that lonely people are drawn to the Internet are more trait dependent in their view of662J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671loneliness.Research on chronically lonely people has documented characteristic behavioral and cognitive factors that may contribute to their loneliness and:...explain why feelings of loneliness tend to be stable over time.Lonely people fail to develop close friendships because they approach conversations with negative expectancies and because they lack the necessary social skills.[These, in turn,cause them to]...have difficulty establishingsocial relations that mig ht help them develop their social skills and thereby break out of their loneliness cycle(Burger,1997,pp.372–373).Lonely people are more likely than the non-lonely to be socially inhibited and anxious,self-conscious(Solano&Koester,1989),and sensitive to rejection(Russell, Peplau,&Cutrona,1980).They have poor social skills(Vitkus&Horowitz,1987), have difficulty makingfriends,initiatingsocial activity,and participatingin g roups (Horowitz&de Sales French,1979),are less likely to be intimate and self-disclose (Berg&Peplau,1982;Williams&Solano,1983),and have low self-esteem(Burger, 1997).Not surprisingly,loneliness is associated with depression(Weeks et al.,1980) and other pathologies(Booth,2000).The Internet provides an ideal social environment for lonely people to interact with others.Not only does it provide a vastly expanded social network,but also it provides altered social interaction patterns online that may be particularly attractive to those who are lonely.Online anonymity,lack of physical presence and lurking allow users to control social interaction.They can choose not only with whom and when to communicate,but also have time to compose messages.Internet communication facilitates disinhibition,self-disclosure,intimacy,and enhanced self-presentation,as well as provides an arena for the practice and development of social skills.Much has been written about the phenomena of online disinhibition,i.e.wea-kened social restraints online(Joinson,1998).Online anonymity,lack of face-to-face and real world contact,and the online culture all promote disinhibition,defined by Joinson(1998)as‘‘an apparent reduction in concerns for self-presentation and the judgement of others’’(p.44).Enhanced disinhibition may counter factors associated with loneliness by reducingsocial inhibition,anxiety,and self-consciousness,thus promotingg reater levels of self-disclosure and intimacy.Self-presentation online is altered not only by disinhibition,but also by the reduction online of role constraints, social expectations,and interpersonal barriers found in face-to-face(ftf)communi-cation.These,combined with reduced social anxiety,can allow lonely individuals to self-present more idealized versions of self as well as role-play different online per-sonae,with individuals feelingmore themselves online than off(McKenna,1998). Altered self-presentations online in turn can lead to an altered and enhanced sense of self in real life.In this way,the Internet can be an‘‘identity workshop’’where lonely individuals work through issues in the safety of the online environment (Turkle,1995).Additionally,some lonely individuals may use the Internet as an escape:to reduce stress and alleviate negative feelings that are associated with loneliness(Booth,J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671663 2000).The Internet has a downside for the lonely as well.Despite the potential positive impact of Internet use for those who are lonely,they appear to be more vulnerable than others to developingproblems in their lives from Internet use such as work,school or social disruption(Loytskert&Aiello,1997;Morahan-Martin& Schumacher,2000;Young,1998).This study is a comparison of lonely and non-lonely individuals in their use of the Internet and how Internet use affects social interaction.It is hypothesized that, compared with others,lonely people are more likely to spend time online,use e-mail, and use the Internet for emotional support.Consistent with the model presented earlier,lonely people are predicted to prefer Internet communication to ftf communication,enjoy the anonymity of Internet communication,and lurk more than others do.Increased pro-social behavior and role playingof lonely people is anticipated,resultingin their makingand enjoyingonline friendships and feeling more themselves online than offas compared with the non-lonely.Lonely people are predicted to be more likely than others to use the Internet to modulate negative moods that are associated with loneliness.Finally,it is anticipated that lonely people are more likely than others to report disturbances in their everyday functioning resultingfrom their use of the Internet.2.Method2.1.Participants and procedureA survey that included Internet use and behaviors as well as the UCLA Loneliness Scale(Russell,1996)was given to283undergraduates in courses requiring Internet use.Of these,277(97.88%)had Internet experience and were included in the study; 150(54.15%)were male and127(45.85%)were female.The sample included39 (14.1%)freshmen,52(18.8%)sophomores,94(33.9%)juniors,and92(33.2%) seniors.The average age of the participants was20.72years(S.D.=2.35).Partici-pants had used the Internet for an average of20.08months(S.D.=13.8)and reported average weekly use as3.45hours(S.D.=4.24).2.2.MeasuresThe questionnaire completed by the participants included sections assessing demographics,Internet experience,reasons for Internet use,Internet behaviors,and loneliness.Demographic characteristics.The demographics section of the questionnaire included questions on participants’gender,age,and year in college.Internet experience.Participants were asked if they had used the Internet.Those who had used the Internet were asked how many months they had used the Internet as well as how many hours per week they used the Internet and how many hours per week they spent usingthe Internet for e-mail.664J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671 Reasons for Internet use.Participants were asked to indicate how often they had used the Internet for17specific reasons:communicatingwith friends and family, required course work,recreation or relaxation,work,meetingnew people,talking to others who share common interests,stayingabreast of new developments in areas of interest,sharingideas or fantasies,wastingtime,findinginformation for own use,emotional support,gambling,net resources intended for adults only, games,Virtual Reality,and browsing.Frequency of use for each reason was rated from1to5(1=never,2=rarely,3=sometimes,4=often,5=always).Scale of Internet Behaviors.Internet behaviors were assessed by38Likert-type questions that explored social aspects of Internet use,feelings of competency online,and negative impact of Internet use.A four-point scale was used with 1=strongly disagree and4=strongly agree.UCLA Loneliness Scale.Loneliness was assessed usingthe UCLA Loneliness Scale,version3(Russell,1996).This scale includes20Likert-type questions on a four-point scale,with1=strongly disagree and4=strongly agree.The UCLA Loneliness Scale has a good reported validity and reliability with college students (Coefficient a=0.92)(Russell,1996).The total of the responses to the20questions was used to determine loneliness.The mean score was38.35(S.D.=8.51).Students in the top20%(n=55),scored47or higher and were considered lonely(L),were compared with all other students(n=217),who were considered non-lonely(NL). The mean score for the lonely was50.69(S.D.=3.66).For the non-lonely,the mean score was35.22(S.D.=6.25).There were no gender differences in loneliness.3.Results3.1.Internet use and experience and lonelinessNo difference was found between the lonely and the non-lonely in how many months they had been usingthe Internet(M=20.08,S.D.=13.8,t=0.17,P=0.87). However,the two groups differed significantly in the average weekly hours online (t=2.59,P=.012),with lonely users(M=5.39,S.D.=6.57)reportingg reater use than non-lonely users(M=3.00,S.D.=3.30).The lonely also used e-mail sig-nificantly more hours per week(M=3.58,S.D.=5.12)than the non-lonely (M=1.93,S.D.=2.56,t=À2.56,P=0.024).3.2.Reasons for use and lonelinessA MANOVA of reasons for use by loneliness found significant overall differences [F(16,173)=1.66,P=0.025],with significance found for six of the17given reasons for use.Lonely users were more likely than the non-lonely users to use the Internet for the followingreasons:to relax[F(1,188)=11,P=0.001],for work[F (1,188)=7.27,P=0.008],to meet people[F(1,188)=3.7,P=0.056],for emotional support[F(1,188)=10.04,P=0.002],talkingto others who share same interests[F (1,188)=6.81,P=0.01],and to waste time[F(1,188)=10.07,P=0.002].J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671665 3.3.Internet behaviors and lonelinessTo explore further differences in specific Internet behaviors between lonely users and others,a MANOVA was used for the38questions assessingInternet-related behaviors on the Scale of Internet Behaviors.The overall results were significant(F (38,199)=1.52,P=0.035).Follow-up univariate ANOVAs were significant on25of 38questions.The results are presented in Tables1–3.As can be seen in Table1, lonely users differed from others in social aspects of Internet use,with significance found in14out pared with others,lonely users were more likely to prefer communicatingonline to face-to-face communication,tofind online anonymity liberating,to like the speed of communicating online,and to have lurked online.Lonely users were more likely than non-lonely users to agree that when online:they were more themselves than in real life,they opened up more to people than in other forms of communication,they were friendlier,they had shared inti-mate secrets,and they had pretended to be someone else.They also agreed more than the non-lonely that:their online friends understood them better,most of their friends they knew from online,going online made it easier to make friends,they had more fun with the people they met online,and they had a network of friends made online.The lonely also are more likely to use the Internet to modulate moods and be negatively impacted by their Internet use,as demonstrated in Table2.The lonely agreed more that they had gone online when they were down or anxious,and when they were feelingisolated,and that they felt totally absorbed when online.Internet behavior for the lonely was causingdisruptions in their life.Specifically,they ag reed more than the non-lonely that they:felt guilty about time spent online,had been told they spent too much time online,routinely cut short sleep to be online,had missed social engagements to be online,had missed work or school to be online,had been unable to cut back time online,found it hard to stop thinkingabout g oing online,and had tried to hide how much time they had spent online.However,as seen in Table3,there were no differences between the lonely and others associated with competency and convenience of Internet use.4.DiscussionThis study confirmed most hypotheses.Lonely individuals differed markedly from the non-lonely in how they used the Internet pared with others,they used the Internet and e-mail more and were more likely to use the Internet for emotional support,to meet new people and to interact with others with similar interests.Social behavior of the lonely consistently was enhanced online in ways consistent with the disinhibition effect.Lonely individuals were more likely to prefer online to ftf communication,to enjoy the anonymity of online communication,and to lurk.Online,they felt more themselves,opened up more,shared intimate secrets, were friendlier,and role-played more than pared with others,those who were lonely felt that going online had made it easier for them to make friends,that666J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671Table1Means,standard deviations,and F values of social aspects of Internet use by lonelinessIndividual items Group Mean S.D.FMy online friends understand me better than other people.L 1.580.0725.48**NL 1.200.03I am more myself online that in real life.L 1.710.0825.45**NL 1.250.04I open up more to people online than in other communication L 2.080.1118.69** modes.NL 1.570.05Most of my friends I know from online.L 1.580.0818.15**NL 1.210.04I prefer communicatingonline to face-to-face communication.L 1.830.1015.93**NL 1.400.05I am friendlier online than in real life.L 1.880.1015.39**NL 1.440.05The anonymity of beingonline is liberating.L 2.250.1215.12**NL 1.710.06I have shared intimate secrets online.L 1.730.1011.71**NL 1.350.05I have lurked online but never entered a conversation online.L 1.880.1110.49**NL 1.470.06 Goingonline has made it easier for me to make friends.L 1.790.099.21**NL 1.470.05I have more fun with the people I know online than others.L 1.500.08 6.80**NL 1.270.04I have a network of friends made online.L 1.790.11 6.51**NL 1.480.05 Sometimes I pretend I am someone I am not while online.L 1.750.11 5.93*NL 1.460.05I like the speed of communicatingonline L 2.850.12 4.33*NL 2.580.06I prefer telephoningto communicatingonline.(reverse)L 2.540.13 3.06NL 2.780.06Online communication lets me control when I want to L 2.830.12 3.05 communicate.NL 2.610.06I have pretended to be somebody of the opposite sex L 1.330.08 1.33 while online.NL 1.230.04 Beingonline has made it easier to communicate with people I know.L 2.750.14 1.50NL 2.560.07I feel less connected interpersonally when I communicate online.(reverse)L 2.400.11 1.00NL 2.270.06Items rated on a scale of1–4:1=strongly disagree and4=strongly agree.L=lonely(n=55);NL=non-lonely (n=217).*P<0.05.**P<0.01.J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671667 Table2Means,standard deviations,and F values of negative impact of Internet use by lonelinessIndividual items Group Mean S.D.FI feel guilty about time spent online instead of at other required L 1.690.0915.12** work.NL 1.310.04I have been told that I spend too much time online.L 1.810.1013.66**NL 1.390.05I have routinely cut short on sleep to spend more time online.L 1.540.0811.96**NL 1.230.04I have gone online to make myself feel better when down or L 1.730.099.56** anxious.NL 1.400.05I have used online to talk to others when I was feelingisolated.L 1.710.109.38**NL 1.380.05I have missed social engagements because of online activities.L 1.420.078.48**NL 1.200.03I have missed classes or work because of online activity.L 1.460.078.40**NL 1.220.04I have attempted to spend less time online but have not been L 1.580.097.83** able to.NL 1.320.04When I am online,I feel totally absorbed.L 2.290.11 4.82*NL 2.020.06If it has been a long time since I last logged on,Ifind it hard L 1.770.11 4.46* to stop thinkingabout what will be waitingfor me when I do.NL 1.520.05I have tried to hide from others how much time I am actually L 1.440.07 3.92* online.NL 1.280.04I have gotten into trouble with my employer or school because L 1.400.08 3.32 of beingonline.NL 1.240.04I sometimes go online to escape from pressure.L 2.020.12 2.48NL 1.820.06I have never gotten into an argument with a significant other L 2.670.180.67 over beingonline.NL 2.500.09My work and/or school performance has not deteriorated L 2.850.170.10 since I started going online.NL 2.920.09Items rated on a scale of1-4:1=strongly disagree and4=strongly agree.L=lonely(n=55);NL=non-lonely(n=217).*P<0.05.**P<0.01.they had a network of online friends,and even that most of their friends are online friends.These online friendships were positive;lonely individuals were more likely than others to report that they have more fun with their online than ftf friends,and that their online friends understand them better.The lonely also used the Internet to modulate pared with others,they were more likely to go online when668J.Morahan-Martin,P.Schumacher/Computers in Human Behavior19(2003)659–671Table3Means,standard deviations,and F values of competency and convenience of Internet use by loneliness Individual items Group Mean S.D.FI avoid going online for information because there is L 2.990.11 1.83 too much to weed through.(reverse)NL 1.820.06I feel competent in my ability to use the online services.L 3.000.11 1.53NL 2.840.06I am comfortable usingonline services.L 3.000.110.11NL 2.960.06 Goingonline has made it easier for me to do research.L 2.830.140.07NL 2.800.07Items rated on a scale of1-4:1=strongly disagree and4=strongly agree.L=lonely(n=55);NL=non-lonely(n=217).feelingisolated,depressed or anxious,to use the Internet to waste time and relax, and to feel totally absorbed online.Finally,lonely individuals were more likely to report their Internet use was causingdisturbances in their RL functioning,including interferingwith social activities and work,and causingg uilt.Previous research has documented that intimacy and relationship formation can be heightened online(Parks&Floyd,1996;Walther,1996).Disinhibition is con-sidered key.Anonymity as well as loss of ftf contact and social context cues are generally credited with the loss of inhibition compared to ftf groups(Joinson,1998; Reid,1993).Additionally,absence of status,prestige,class and attractiveness cues create a safe,low risk social environment.Online,users frequently self-disclose more than in other contexts(Parks&Floyd,1996;Reid,1993).The climate of shared intimacies online facilitates‘‘personal relationships(which)...can often be deep and highly emotional’’(Reid,1993,p.64).Participants‘‘come to feel that their very best and closest friends are members of the electronic group whom they seldom or never see’’(Hiltz&Turoff,1978,p.101).For lonely people,who are likely to be socially inhibited and anxious,have problems with self-disclosure and intimacy,and feel isolated from others,these aspects of Internet communication provide an ideal social environment.This study confirms that those who are lonely were more likely than others tofind online anonymity liberating.Their behavior was less inhibited, they were friendlier,more intimate,and online friends were a source of emotional support and fun.Self-presentational styles can be altered online.‘‘Users can be,quite literally, whoever they wish’’(Reid,1993,p.63).Unhampered by normal constraints,users can self-present a more idealized self-image than they might otherwise.Additionally, lurkingallows them to choose optimal timingand their targ et audience to maximize acceptance.People engage in self-presentation‘‘as a means of constructing their public identities.Through self-presentational acts,people may attempt to make their public selves consistent with their ideal selves’’(Baumeister&Tice,1986,p.37).If the altered,ideal self is accepted by the target audience,the individual’s sense of self。