The generalized Busemann-Petty problem with weights
高考英语拔高试题解析（二）
高考英语拔高试题解析（二）高考英语拔高试题解析（二）Section I: Structure and V ocabularyIn each question, decide which of the four choices given will most suitably complete the sentence if inserted at the place marked. Put your choice in the brackets on the left. (10 points) EXAMPLE:I was caught ________ the rain yesterday.[A] in[B] by[C] with[D] atANSWER: [A]1. The skyscraper stands out ________ the blue sky.[A] in[B] against[C] under[D] beneath2. They have always been on good ________ with their next-door neighbors.[A] friendship[B] relations[C] connection[D] terms3. Hello! Is that 21035? Please put me ________ to the manager.[A] across[B] up[C] through[D] over4. Why do you look so ________? You never smile or look cheerful.[A] miserable[B] unfortunate[C] sorry[D] rude5. Eggs, though nourishing, have ________ of fat content.[A] large number[B] a large number[C] the high amount[D] a high amount6. Jim always ________ his classmates in a debate.[A] backs out[B] backs away[C] backs up[D] backs down7. Most of the people who ________ two world wars are strongly against arms race.[A] have lived out[B] have lived through[C] have lived on[D] have lived off8. There are many inconveniences that have to be ________ when you are camping.[A] put up[B] put up with[C] put off[D] put away9. Is it true that those old houses are being pulled down ________ new office blocks?[A] to accommodate[B] to provide for[C] to increase[D] to make room for10. Being in no great hurry, ________.[A] we went the long route with scenery[B] the long, scenic route was our preference[C] we took the long scenic route[D] our preference was taking the long, scenic routeSection II: Reading ComprehensionEach of three passages below is followed by five questions. For each question there are four answers, read the passage carefully and choose the best answer to each of the question. Put your choice in the ANSWER SHEET. (15 points)Text 1For centuries men dreamed of achieving vertical flight. In 400 A.D. Chinese children played with a fan-like toy that spun upwards and fell back to earth as rotation ceased. Leonardo da Vinci conceive the first mechanical apparatus, called a “Helix,” which could carry man straight up, but was only a design and was never tested.The ancient-dream was finally realized in 1940 when a Russian engineer piloted a strange looking craft of steel tubing with a rotating fan on top. It rose awkwardly and vertically into the air from a standing start, hovered a few feet above the ground, went sideways and backwards, and then settled back to earth. The vehicle was called a helicopter.Imaginations were fired. Men dreamed of going to work in their own personal helicopters. People anticipate that vertical flight transports would carry millions of passengers as do theairliners of today. Such fantastic expectations were not fulfilled.The helicopter has now become an extremely useful machine. It excels in military missions, carrying troops, guns and strategic instruments where other aircraft cannot go. Corporations use them as airborne offices, many metropolitan areas use them in police work, construction and logging companies employ them in various advantageous ways, engineers use them for site selection and surveying, and oil companies use them as the best way to make offshore and remote work stations accessible to crews and supplies. Any urgent mission to a hard-to-get-to place is a likely task for a helicopter. Among their other multitude of used: deliver people across town, fly to and from airports, assist in rescue work, and aid in the search for missing or wanted persons.11. People expect that ________.[A] the airliners of today would eventually be replaced by helicopters[B] helicopters would someday be able to transport large number of people from place to place as airliners are now doing[C] the imaginations fired by the Russian engineer’s invention would become a reality in the future[D] their fantastic expectations about helicopters could be fulfilled by airliners of today12. Helicopters work with the aid of ________.[A] a combination of rotating devices in front and on top[B] a rotating device topside[C] one rotating fan in the center of the aircraft and others at each end[D] a rotating fan underneath for lifting13. What is said about the development of the helicopter?[A] Helicopters have only been worked on by man since 1940.[B] Chinese children were the first to achieve flight in helicopters.[C] Helicopters were considered more dangerous than the early airplanes.[D] Some people thought they would become widely used by average individuals.14. How has the use of helicopters developed?[A] They have been widely used for various purposes.[B] They are taking the place of high-flying jets.[C] They are used for rescue work.[D] They are now used exclusively for commercial projects.15. Under what conditions are helicopters found to be absolutely essential?[A] For overseas passenger transportation.[B] For extremely high altitude flights.[C] For high-speed transportation.[D] For urgent mission to places inaccessible to other kinds of craft.Text 2In ancient Greece athletic festivals were very important and had strong religious associations. The Olympian athletic festival held every four years in honor of Zeus, king of the Olympian Gods, eventually lost its local character, became first a national event and then, after the rules against foreign competitors had been abolished, international. No one knows exactly how far back the Olympic Games go, but some official records date from 776 B.C. The games took place in August on the plain by Mount Olympus. Many thousands of spectators gathered from all parts of Greece, but no married woman was admitted even as aspectator. Slaves, women and dishonored persons were not allowed to compe te. The exact sequence of events uncertain, but events included boy’s gymnastics, boxing, wrestling, horse racing and field events, though there were fewer sports involved than in the modern Olympic Games.On the last day of the Games, all the winners were honored by having a ring of holy olive leaves placed on their heads. So great was the honor that the winner of the foot race gave his name to the year of his victory. Although Olympic winners received no prize money, they were, in fact, richly rewarded by their state authorities. How their results compared with modern standards, we unfortunately have no means of telling.After an uninterrupted history of almost 1,200 years, the Games were suspended by the Romans in 394 A.D. They continued for such a long time because people believed in the philosophy behind the Olympics: the idea that a healthy body produced a healthy mind, and that the spirit of competition in sports and games was preferable to the competition that caused wars. It was over 1,500 years before another such international athletic gathering took place in Athens in 1896. Nowadays, the Games are held in different countries in turn. The host country provides vast facilities, including a stadium, swimming pools and living accommodation, but competing courtiers pay their own athletes’ expenses.The Olympics start with the arrival in the stadium of a torch, lighted on Mount Olympus by the sun’s rays. It is carried by a succession of runners to the stadium. The torch symbolized the continuation of the ancient Greek athletic ideals, and it burns throughout the Games until the closing ceremony. The well-known Olympic flag, however, is a modern conception: the fiveinterlocking rings symbolize the uniting of all five continents participating in the Games.16. In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games ________.[A] were merely national athletic festivals[B] were in the nature of a national event with a strong religious colour[C] had rules which put foreign participants in a disadvantageous position[D] were primarily national events with few foreign participants17. In the early days of ancient Olympic Games ________.[A] only male Greek athletes were allowed to participate in the games[B] all Greeks, irrespective of sex, religion or social status, were allowed to take part[C] all Greeks, with the exception of women, were allowed to compete in Games[D] all male Greeks were qualified to compete in the Games18. The order of athletic events at the ancient Olympics ________.[A] has not definitely been established[B] varied according to the number of foreign competitors[C] was decided by Zeus, in whose honor the Games were held[D] was considered unimportant19. Modern athletes’ results cannot be com pared with those of ancient runn ers because ________.[A] the Greeks had no means of recording the results[B] they are much better[C] details such as the time were not recorded in the past[D] they are much worse20. Nowadays, the athletes’ expenses are paid for ________.[A] out of the prize money of the winners[B] out of the funds raised by the competing nations[C] by the athletes themselves[D] by contributionsText 3In science the meaning of the word “explain” suffers with civilization’s every ste p in search of reality. Science cannot really explain electricity, magnetism, and gravitation; their effects can be measured and predicted, but of their nature no more is known to the modern scientist than to Thales who first looked into the nature of the electrification of amber, a hard yellowish-brown gum. Most contemporary physicists reject the notion that man can ever discover what these mysterious forces “really” are. “Electricity,” Bertrand Russell says, “is not a thing, like St. Paul’s Cathedral; it is a way in which things behave. When we have told how things behave when they are electrified, and under what circumstances they are electrified, we have told all there is to tell.” Until recently scientists would have disapproved of such an idea. Aristotle, for example, whosenatural science dominated Western thought for two thousand years, believed that man could arrive at an understanding of reality by reasoning from self-evident principles. He felt, for example, that it is a self-evident principle that everything in the universe has its proper place, hence one can deduce that objects fall to the ground because that’s where they belong, and smoke goes up because that’s where it belongs. The goal of Aristotelian science was to explain why things happen. Modern science was born when Galileo begantrying to explain how things happen and thus originated the method of controlled experiment which now forms the basis of scientific investigation.21. The aim of controlled scientific experiments is ________.[A] to explain why things happen[B] to explain how things happen[C] to describe self-evident principles[D] to support Aristotelian science22. What principles most influenced scientific thought for two thousand years?[A] the speculations of Thales[B] the forces of electricity, magnetism, and gravity[C] Aristotle’s natural science[D] Galileo’s discoveries23. Bertrand Russell’s notion about electricity is ________.[A] disapproved of by most modern scientists[B] in agreement with Aristotle’s theory of se lf-evident principles[C] in agreement with scientific investigation directed toward “how” things happen[D] in agreement with scientific investigation directed toward “why” things happen24. The passage says that until recently scientists disagreed with the idea ________.[A] that there are mysterious forces in the universe[B] that man cannot discover what forces “really” are[C] that there are self-evident principles[D] that we can discover why things behave as they do25. Modern science came into being ________.[A] when the method of controlled experiment was firstintroduced[B] when Galileo succeeded in explaining how things happen[C] when Aristotelian scientist tried to explain why things happen[D] when scientists were able to acquire an understanding of reality of reasoningSection III: Structure and V ocabularyFill in the blanks with the words which best complete the sentence. Put your choices in the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) EXAMPLE:It was the largest experiment we have ever had, it ________ six hours.[A] ended[B] finished[C] was[D] lastedANSWER: [D]26. As scheduled, the communications satellite went into ________ round the earth.[A] circle[B] orbit[C] path[D] course27. When I saw Jane, I stopped and smiled, but she ________ me and walked on.[A] refused[B] ignored[C] denied[D] missed28. It was a good game, and at the end the ________ wasArgentina 3, West Germany 2.[A] mark[B] account[C] record[D] score29. George took ________ of the fine weather to do a day’s work in his garden.[A] chance[C] advantage[D] charge30. Is there anyone who ________ the plans put forward by the committee?[A] differs[B] opposes[C] disagrees[D] refuses31. All too ________ it was time to go back to school after the summer vacation.[A] often[B] quick[C] fast[D] soon32. In an accident when two cars run into each other, they ________.[A] hit[B] knock[C] strike[D] collide33. The noise was caused by a boy ________ a cat through the garden.[A] catching[B] fighting[C] following[D] chasing34. He drove fast and arrived an hour ________ of schedule.[A] in advance[B] ahead[C] abreast[D] in front35. This ticket ________ you to a free meal in our new restaurant.[A] gives[C] grants[D] creditsSection IV: Close TestFor each numbered blank in the following passage there are four choices labeled [A], [B], [C] and [D]. Choose the best one and put your choice in the ANSWER SHEET. Read the whole passage before making your choice. (10 points)EXAMPLE:For instance, the automobile tunnel might ________ huge ventilation problems.[A] make[B] bring[C] raise[D] createANSWER: [D]Cheques have __36__ replaced money as a means of exchange for they are widely accepted everywhere. Though this is very convenient for both buyer and seller, it should not beforgotten that cheques are not real money: they are quite valueless in themselves. A shop-keeper always runs a certain __37__ when he accepts a cheques and he is quite __38__ his rights if on occasion, he refuses to do so.People do not always know this and are shocked if their good faith is called __39__. An old and very wealthy friend of mine told me he had an extremely unpleasant experience. He went to a famous jewelry shop which keeps a large __40__ of precious stones and asked to be shown some pearl necklaces. After examining several trays, he decided to buy a particularly fine string of pearls and asked if he could pay by Cheques. The assistant said that this was quite __41__ but the moment my friend signed his name, he was invited into th e m anager’s office.The manager was very polite, but he explained that someone with exactly the same name had presented them with a worthless Cheque not long ago. My friend got very angry when he heard this and said he would buy a necklace somewhere else. When he got up to go, the manager told him that the police would arrive at any moment and he had better stay __42__ the wanted to get into serious trouble. __43__, the police arrived soon afterwards. They apologized to my friend forthe __44__, but explained that a person who had used the same name as his was responsible for a number of recent robberies. Then the police asked my friend to copy out a note which had been used by the thief in a number of shops. The note __45__: “I have a gun in my pocket. Ask no questions and give me all the money in the safe.” Fortunately, my friend’s handwriting was quite unlike the thief’s. He was not only allowed to go without further delay, but to take the string of pearls with him.[B] really[C] largely[D] thoroughly37. [A] danger[B] chance[C] risk[D] opportunity38. [A] within[B] beyond[C] without[D] out of39. [A] in difficulty[B] in doubt[C] in earnest[D] in question40. [A] amount[B] stock[C] number[D] store41. [A] in order[B] in need[C] in use[D] in common42. [A] whether[B] if[C] otherwise[D] unless43. [A] Really[B] Sure enough[D] However44. [A] treatment[B] manner[C] inconvenience[D] behaviour45. [A] read[B] told[C] wrote[D] informedSection V: Verb FormsFill in the blanks with the appropriate forms of the verbs given in the brackets. Put your answer in the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points)EXAMPLE:It is highly desirable that a new president ________ (appointed) for this college.ANSWER: (should) be appointed46. With all factors (consider) we think this program may excel all the others in achieving the goal.47. They had been working round the clock for a couple of days (hope) to get the design out before their competitors did.48. There’s a general underst andin g among the members of the Board of Directors that chief attention (give) to the undertaking that is expected to bring in highest profit.49. If we don’t start out now, we must risk (miss) the train.50. This test (intend) to reinforce what you have learnt in the past few weeks.51. The members of the delegation were glad (stay) longer than originally planned.52. With full knowledge of his past experience, we knew all along that he (succeed).53. (Know not) what appropriate measures to be taken to cope with the situation, he wrote to his lawyer for advice.54. It’s no good (write) to him, he never answers letters. The only thing to do is to go and see him.55. (Come) what may, we’re not going to make any concessions to his unreasonable demands. Section VI: Error-detection and CorrectionEach question consists of a sentence with four underlined parts (words or phrases). These parts are labeled [A], [B], [C], and [D]. Choose the part of the sentence that is incorrect and put your choice in the ANSWER SHEET. Then, without altering the meaning of the sentence, write down the correct word or phrase on the line in the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points)EXAMPLE:You’ve to hurry up if you want to buy something because [A] there’s [B] hardly something [C] left.[D]ANSWER: [C] anything56. In [A] his response to [B] the advertisement, Ed. replied that he was looking for a full-time position [C] not a part-time [D] one.57. No one who has seen [A] him work [B] in the laboratory can deny [C] that William has great capabilities of [D] research.58. Neither of the alternatives that had been outlined [A] at the last meeting [B] were [C] acceptable to [D] the executive committee.59. Airline companies today require [A] that all luggage’s [B] be inspected [C] before passengers are admitted into [D] thewaiting rooms.60. Although Alice has been [A] to the mountains many times[B] be fore, she still [C] loves visiting it. [D]61. An important function of the World Health Organization is to improve [A] the healthy [B] and living conditions for the sick and the poor of [C] world [D]62. The element carbon is widely [A] found [B] in nature [C] in many forms including both diamonds as well as [D] coal.63. While still a young boy [A] Bizet knew to play [B] the piano well and as [C] he grew older, he wrote operas, the most famous of which [D] is Carmen.64. Despite the fact that [A] the South Pole is as snow-covered [B] and stormy-weathered [C] as the North Pole, it is colder [D] than the North Pole.65. Climate [A] conditions vary widely [B] from place to place and from season to season, but a certain order and pattern [C] can be identifiable. [D]Section VII: Chinese-English TranslationTranslate the following sentences into English (15 points)66. 所有那些努力工作的人都应得到鼓励。
信阳师范学院成人教育学位英语考试真题
信阳师范学院成人教育学位英语考试真题Yanshan University Adult Education Degree English Exam QuestionsPart I Reading Comprehension (40 points)Directions: This part is to test your reading ability. There are 4 passages in this part. Each passage is followed by 5 questions or unfinished statements. For each of them, there are 4 choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage:It is said that a university education in China is worth more every day, but only for men. The author of a book on the subject, Dr. Bianca P. Seabra dos Reis, reports, "Women work like men, but everything is harder for them. Men have more time to study because they are expected to study. Most women come to university only because their boyfriends or husbands do. They are not taken seriously." She is quick to add that women with a degree do get better jobs than others. They just have to work harder to get through the university system.1. According to the passage, who comes to university only because their boyfriends or husbands do?A) womenB) menC) neitherD) both2. It is implied in the passage that women students _______.A) have to work harder to get through the university systemB) are more serious than menC) study better than menD) are not taken seriously3. The author of the passage is a _______.A) manB) womanC) doctorD) professor4. What does the author mean by saying everything is harder for women in universities in China?A) they have more difficult assignmentsB) they experience discriminationC) they are not as intelligent as menD) they are too busy studying5. According to the passage, women students must work harder because _______.A) they are not as intelligent as menB) they are not taken seriouslyC) they don't care about studyingD) they have more difficult assignmentsPassage TwoQuestions 6 to 10 are based on the following passage:Small talk is often seen as a way to avoid more serious topics of conversation. People often talk about the weather, their jobs, their hobbies, etc. without really saying anything important. Nevertheless, small talk can be very useful in building relationships. For example, if you are at a meeting or a party and don't know anyone there, you can start a conversation with someone by talking about something simple. It can help to breakthe ice and make people feel more comfortable. In this way, small talk can actually lead to more meaningful conversations.6. Why do people often engage in small talk?A) to avoid serious topicsB) to annoy othersC) to show offD) to make themselves feel important7. According to the passage, why is small talk useful in building relationships?A) it helps to avoid awkward silencesB) it breaks the ice and makes people feel more comfortableC) it shows that you are intelligentD) it impresses other people8. What does the phrase "break the ice" mean?A) to make people feel comfortableB) to end the conversationC) to start the conversationD) to avoid talking9. According to the passage, small talk can lead to _______.A) argumentsB) more meaningful conversationsC) gossipD) silence10. The passage suggests that small talk is _______.A) unimportantB) only for extrovertsC) necessary for building relationshipsD) a waste of timePassage ThreeQuestions 11 to 15 are based on the following passage:As the weather gets warmer, people start to spend more time outside doing physical activities. Running, biking, hiking, and swimming are all popular choices. Many people find that exercising outdoors is more enjoyable than going to the gym. They can breathe in the fresh air, enjoy the sunshine, and appreciate the beauty of nature. It can also be a great way torelax and reduce stress. So, if you want to get in shape, consider taking your workout outside.11. According to the passage, what are some popular outdoor activities?A) painting and knittingB) reading and writingC) running and bikingD) cooking and cleaning12. Why do many people find exercising outdoors more enjoyable?A) they can meet new peopleB) they can breathe in fresh air, enjoy the sunshine, and appreciate the beauty of natureC) it is more convenientD) it is cheaper13. What can outdoor exercise help to do?A) reduce stressB) increase stressC) improve memoryD) make you gain weight14. According to the passage, where is it preferable to exercise?A) in a fitness centerB) at homeC) outdoorsD) in a library15. The passage suggests that exercising outdoors can help you _______.A) socializeB) relax and reduce stressC) become more intelligentD) make more moneyPassage FourQuestions 16 to 20 are based on the following passage:Each year, thousands of people around the world take part in marathons. Some do it for charity, some for fun, and some forthe challenge. Whatever the reason, completing a marathon is an amazing accomplishment. The training required is rigorous and time-consuming, but many find it to be a rewarding experience. Whether you are an experienced runner or just starting out, running a marathon can be a life-changing event.16. Why do some people take part in marathons?A) for charityB) for funC) for the challengeD) all of the above17. According to the passage, what is required to complete a marathon?A) strict dietB) rigorous and time-consuming trainingC) team of coachesD) years of experience18. What is the reward for completing a marathon?A) a medalB) a trophyC) self-satisfactionD) money19. The passage states that whether you are experienced or not, running a marathon can be _______.A) a disappointmentB) an unpleasant experienceC) a life-changing eventD) a waste of time20. According to the passage, how many people around the world take part in marathons each year?A) thousandsB) millionsC) hundredsD) onePart II Vocabulary (20 points)Directions: There are 20 sentences in this part. For each sentence, there are 4 choices marked A), B), C) and D). Choosethe one that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.21. We must pay _______ attention to our health.A) closeB) closedC) closingD) closely22. Can you _______ what you said? I didn't quite catch it.A) repeatB) refuseC) renewD) revolt23. The company has decided to _______ the new product launch until next month.A) deferB) defeatC) departD) declare24. The evidence proves that he is _______ of the crime.A) innocenceB) innocentC) innocentlyD) inn25. Please remind me to _______ an appointment with the dentist.A) arrangeB) adjustC) activateD) amend26. My daughter is very _______ in science fiction movies.A) interestingB) interestedC) interestinglyD) interests27. The meeting has been _______ until next Tuesday.B) carryingC) carriedD) carries28. The manager asked his assistant to _______ the report by noon.A) finishB) finishedC) finishingD) finishes29. It's _______ good idea to go hiking on such a hot day.A) aB) theC) anD) one30. Smoking is not only bad for your health, but it also_______ others.A) affectingC) affectedD) affectPart III Cloze Test (10 points)Directions: There are 10 blanks in the following passage. For each blank, there are 4 choices marked A), B), C) and D). Choose the one that best fits the context and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the centre.Marie Curie was a _______1_______ scientist known for her work on radioactivity. She was born in Warsaw, Poland in 1867, but moved to France to study at the Sorbonne University in Paris. In 1903, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, making her the first woman to win the award. In 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, becoming the first person (and still the only woman) to win the award _______2_______ times. Unfortunately, her work with radioactive materials caused her to develop leukemia, and she _______3_______ died in 1934.1. A) famousB) fameC) famouslyD) fameless2. A) threeB) twoC) oneD) four3. A) suddenB) suddenlyC) suddentlyD) suddenlessPart IV Writing (30 points)Directions: This part is to test your ability to write. Use no less than 100 words to write an essay on the following topic.Topic: Describe your dream vacation destination and explain why you want to go there.Remember to organize your writing logically and clearly, and provide examples and reasons to support your opinions.---This document provides a glimpse into the types of questions that may be expected in the English exam for adult education degree students at Yanshan University. These questions cover a range of topics, including reading comprehension, vocabulary, and writing skills. It is important for students to practice regularly in preparation for this exam to ensure success. Good luck!。
TOEFL托福阅读真题整合
TOEFL托福阅读真题整合托福阅读真题1__ 31Rent control is the system whereby the local government tells building owners how much they can charge their tenants in rent. In the United States, rent controls date back to at least World War II.In 1943 the federal government imposed rent controls to help solve the problem of housing shortages during wartime. The federal program ended after the war, but in some locations, including New York City, controls continued. Under New York's controls, a landlord generally cannot raise rents on apartments as long as the tenants continue to renew their leases. In places such as Santa Monica, California, rent controls are more recent. They were spurred by the inflation of the 1970's, which, combined with California's rapid population growth, pushed housing prices, as well as rents, to record levels. In 1979 Santa Monica's municipal government ordered landlords to roll back their rents to the levels charged in 1978. Future rents could only go up by two-thirds as much as any increase in the overall price level.In any housing market, rental prices perform three functions: (1) promoting the efficient maintenance of existing housing and stimulating the construction of new housing, (2) allocating existing scarce housing among competing claimants, and (3) rationing use of existing housing by potential renters.One result of rent control is a decrease in the construction of new rental units. Rent controls have artificially depressed the most important long-term determinant of profitability —rents. Consider some examples. In a recent year in Dallas, Texas, with a 16 percent rental vacancy rate but no rent control laws, 11,000 new housing units were built. In the same year, in San Francisco, California, only 2,000 units were built. The major difference? San Francisco has only a 1.6 percent vacancy rate but stringent rent control laws. In New York City, except for government-subsidized construction, the only rental units being built are luxury units, which are exempt from controls. In Santa Monica, California, new apartments are not being constructed. New office rental space and commercial developments are, however. They are exempt from rent controls.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The construction of apartments in the United States.(B) Causes and effects of rent control(C) The fluctuations of rental prices(D) The shortage of affordable housing in the United States.2. The word They in line 9 refers to(A) the tenants(B) their leases(C) places(D) rent controls.3. Which of the following was NOT a reason for the introduction of rent controls in Santa Monica,California?(A) rapid population growth(B) inflation(C) economic conditions during wartime(D) record-high housing prices4. The phrase roll back in line 11 is closest in meaning to(A) credit(B) measure(C) vary(D) reduce5. The word stimulating in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) experimenting with(B) identifying(C) estimating(D) encouraging6. It can be inferred that the purpose of rent control is to(A) protect tenants(B) promote construction(C) increase vacancy rates(D) decrease sales of rental units7. The word depressed in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) saddened(B) created(C) lowered(D) defeated8. The information in the last paragraph supports which of the following statements?(A) San Francisco has eliminated its rent control laws.(B) Rent control leads to a reduction in the construction of housing units(C) Luxury apartments are rarely built when there is rent control(D) There is a growing need for government-subsidized housing.9. According to the passage , which of the following cities does NOT currently have rent controls?(A) Santa Monica(B) Dallas(C) San Francisco(D) New York City10. The word stringent in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) straightforward(B) strict(C) expanded(D) efficient11. According to the passage , which of the following is NOT exempt from rent control?(A) Luxury apartments(B) Commercial development(C) Moderately priced apartments(D) Office space.__ 31 BDCDD ACBBB C托福阅读真题232By 1776 the fine art of painting as it had developed in western Europe up to this time had been introduced into the American colonies through books and prints, European visitors andimmigrants, and traveling colonists who brought back copies (and a few original) of old master paintings and acquaintance with European art institutions.By the outbreak of the Revolution against British rule in 1776, the status of the artists had already undergone change. In the mid-eighteenth century, painters had been willing to assume such artisan-related tasks as varnishing, gilding teaching, keeping shops, and painting wheel carriages, houses, and signs. The terminology by which artists were described at the time suggests their status: limner was usually applied to the anonymous portrait painter up to the 1760's; painter characterized anyone who could paint a flat surface. By the second half of the century, colonial artists who were trained in England or educated in the classics rejected the status of laborer and thought of themselves as artists. Some colonial urban portraitists, such as John Singleton Copley, Benjamin West, and Charles Wilson Peale, consorted with affluent patrons. Although subject to fluctuations in their economic status, all three enjoyed sufficient patronage to allow them to maintain an image of themselves as professional artists, an image indicated by their custom of signing their paintings. A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of Boston, William Byrd of Virginian, and the Aliens andHamiltons of Philadelphia introduced European art traditions to those colonists privileged to visit their galleries, especially aspiring artists, and established in their respective communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions devoted to its encouragement.Although the colonists tended to favor portraits, they also accepted landscapes, historical works, and political engravings as appropriate artistic subjects. With the coming of independence from the British Crown, a sufficient number of artists and their works were available to serve nationalistic purposes. The achievements of the colonial artists, particularly those of Copley, West, and Peale, lent credence to the boast that the new nation was capable of encouraging genius and that political liberty was congenial to the development of taste — a necessary step before art could assume an important role in the new republic.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) European influence on colonial American painting(B) The importance of patronage to artist(C) The changing status of artists in the American colonies in the eighteenth century(D) Subjects preferred by artists in the American colonies in theeighteenth century.2. The word outbreak in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) cause(B) beginning(C) position(D) explanation3. The word undergone in line 6 is closest in meaning to(A) led to(B) transformed(C) preferred(D) experienced4. According to the passage , before the American Revolution the main task of limners was to(A) paint wheel carriages(B) paint portraits(C) varnish furniture(D) paint flat surfaces5. I t can be inferred from the passage that artists who were trained in England(A) considered artists to be superior to painters(B) barely painted portraitists(C) were often very wealthy(D) imitated English painters6. The word consorted in line 14 is closest in meaning to(A) made decisions(B) studies(C) agreed(D) associated7. The word sufficient in line 16 is closest in meaning to(A) adequate(B) temporary(C) friendly(D) expensive8. According to the passage , artists such as Copley, West and Peal signed their paintings(A) increased the monetary value of the paintings(B) made it more difficult for other artists to copy the paintings(C) supported the artists' image of professionalism(D) distinguished colonial American artists from European artists9. The author mentions James Bowdoin III and William Byrd in line 17 as examples of which ofthe following?(A) Art gallery owners who displayed only European art(B) Art collectors who had a profound influence on American attitudes toward art(C) Artists who gave financial support to other artists(D) Patrons whose helped to encourage artisans to become artists10. With which of the following would the author be most likely to agree?(A) Countries that have not had a political revolution are unlikely to develop great art.(B) The most successful art collectors are usually artists themselves.(C) The value of colonial American paintings decreased after the Revolution.(D) Colonial artists made an important contribution to the evolving culture of the new nation.__ 32 CBDBA DACBD托福阅读真题3__ 33Researchers in the field of psychology have found that one of the best ways to make an important decision, such as choosing auniversity to attend or a business to invest in, involves the utilization of a decision worksheet. Psychologists who study optimization compare the actual decisions made by people to theoretical ideal decisions to see how similar they are. Proponents of the worksheet procedure believe that it will yield optimal, that is, the best decisions. Although there are several variations on the exact format that worksheets can take, they are all similar in their essential aspects. Worksheets require defining the problem in a clear and concise way and then listing all possible solutions to the problem. Next, the pertinent considerations that will be affected by each decision are listed, and the relative importance of each consideration or consequence is determined. Each consideration is assigned a numerical value to reflect its relative importance. A decision is mathematically calculated by adding these values together. The alternative with the highest number of points emerges as the best decision.Since most important problems are multifaceted, there are several alternatives to choose from, each with unique advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of a pencil and paper decision-making procedure is that it permits people to deal with more variables than their minds can generally comprehend and remember.On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds at once. A worksheet can be especially useful when the decision involves a large number of variables with complex relationships. A realistic example for many college students is the question What will I do after graduation? A graduate might seek a position that offers specialized training, pursue an advanced degree, or travel abroad for a year.A decision-making worksheet begins with a succinct statement of the problem that will also help to narrow it. It is important to be clear about the distinction between long-range and immediate goals because long-range goals often involve a different decision than short-range ones. Focusing on long- range goals, a graduating student might revise the question above to What will I do after graduation that will lead to successful career?1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) A tool to assist in making complex decisions.(B) A comparison of actual decisions and ideal decisions(C) Research on how people make decisions(D) Differences between long-range and short-range decision making2. The word essential in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) introductory(B) changeable(C) beneficial(D) fundamental3. The word pertinent in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) relevant(B) preceding(C) insightful(D) responsive4. Of the following steps, which occurs before the others in making a decision worksheet?(A) Listing the consequences of each solution(B) Calculating a numerical summary of each solution(C) Deciding which consequences are most important(D) Writing down all possible solutions5. According to decision-worksheet theory, an optimal decision is defined as one that(A) has the fewest variables to consider(B) uses the most decision worksheets(C) has the most points assigned to it(D) is agreed to by the greatest number of people6. The author develops the discussion in paragraph 1 bymeans of(A) describing a process(B) classifying types of worksheets(C) providing historical background(D) explaining a theory7. The author states that On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds atonce (lines 17-18) to explain that(A) most decisions involve seven steps(B) human mental capacity has limitations(C) some people have difficulty making minor as well as major decisions(D) people can learn to keep more than seven ideas in their minds with practice8. The word succinct in line 24 is closest in meaning to(A) creative(B) satisfactory(C) personal(D) concise9. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage(A) Proponents (line 5)(B) Optimal (line 5)(C) Variables (line 17)(D) Long-range goals (line 25)10. The word it in line 24 refers to(A) worksheet(B) problem(C) distinction(D) decision11. The word revise in line 26 is closest in meaning to。
4.2_The population ecology of organization
AJS Volume 82 Nnloaded from 143.89.105.150 on Sat, 23 Nov 2013 21:28:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
American Journal of Sociology to the adaptation perspective, subunits of the organization, usually managers or dominant coalitions, scan the relevant environment for opportunities and threats, formulate strategic responses, and adjust organizational structure appropriately. The adaptation perspective is seen most clearly in the literature on management. Contributors to it usually assume a hierarchy of authority and control that locates decisions concerning the organiation as a whole at the top. It follows, then, that organizations are affected by their environments according to the ways in which managers or leaders formulate strategies, make decisions, and implement them. Particularly successful managers are able either to buffer their organizations from environmental disturbances or to arrange smooth adjustments that require minimal disruption of organizational structure. A similar perspective, often worded differently, dominates the sociological literature on the subject. It plays a central role in Parsons's (1956) functional analysis of organization-environmentrelations and it is found in the more strictly Weberian tradition (see Selznick 1957). It is interesting to note that, while functionalists have been interested in system effects and have based much of the logic of their approach on survival imperatives, they have not dealt with selection phenomena. This is probably a reaction against organization theory which reflects social Darwinism. Exchange theorists have also embraced the adaptation perspective (Levine and White 1961). And it is natural that theories emphasizing decision making take the adaptation view (March and Simon 1958; Cyert and March 1963). Even Thompson's (1967) celebrated marriage of open-systems and closed-systems thinking embraced the adaptation perspective explicitly (see particularly the second half of Thompson's book). Clearly, leaders of organizations do formulate strategies and organizations do adapt to environmental contingencies. As a result at least some of the relationship between structure and environment must reflect adaptive behavior or learning. But there is no reason to presume that the great structural variability among organizations reflects only or even primarily adaptation. There are a number of obvious limitations on the ability of organizations to adapt. That is, there are a number of processes that generate structural inertia. The stronger the pressures, the lower the organizations'
克鲁格曼英文第七版3
1. A Two-Factor Economy Model
MODEL: two countries A and B, produces two goods X and Y, with two mobile factors of production M and N. Assumes two goods are cloth (C) and food (F), two two mobile factors of land (T) and labor (L). Definition: A country's land productivity of cloth shows by αTC, labor productivity αLC; the land productivity of food by αTF, labor productivity αLF; a country's aggregate supply of labor is L, the total land supply is T.
Quantity of food, QF Isovalue lines Q
PPF Quantity of cloth, QC
Factor Input of Unit Product
Input possibilities in food production:
Land input Input combinations per unit of food
foodintensiveandclothintensive?在要素价格比一定的情况下不同的产品生产所需要的要素投入组合是不一样的此时更多地需要某种生产要素的产品称为这种要素生产地需要某种生产要素的产品称为这种要素生产密集型产品xxintensivegoods
英语语用学课程教学大纲
《英语语用学》课程教学大纲课程编码：30615002 学分：2 总学时：36说明【课程性质】《英语语用学》是英语专业的专业任意选修课。
【教学目的】其主要目的在于培养学生在适合的语境中可以运用适合的语句的能力，从而摆脱单纯的对语言的静态研究，了解并建立语用规则，最终使自然语言取代符号语言，最大程度缩减语言与实际生活的距离。
【教学任务】本课程主要通过语用学中两个重要的概念“言语行为”和“语境”使学生掌握其相互作用和构成在话语交际中的核心作用，通过对语用学中“指示、预设、言语行为理论、会话合作原则、话语逻辑”等若干论题的研究，使学生可以从说话者和听话者的角度，知晓语言行为是受各种社会规约制约的行为，并可以运用社会规约结合语用知识去解释某些语言现象。
让语言研究变成“语言—使用者—语境”这样一个三位一体的立体研究，对语言的认识从必然性跨越到自由性，从静态到动态，从单向分析向整体扩展，凝结出跨文化交际行为适合性的精髓。
【教学内容】课程内容包括：指示、指称与推论，预设、会话合作原则和蕴涵，言语行为理论，礼貌原则。
【教学原则和方法】教学原则：讲授知识与培养语用学理论运用能力相结合，寓学于研。
教学方法：以学生为教学主体，着重培养学生认知能力和语用能力，发挥学生的能动性和创造性，引导学生主动积极思维，采用探究式教学方法。
【先修课程要求】必须具备一定的语言学基础知识。
【教材与主要参考书】教材：Yule, George 《语用学》上海外语教育出版社, 2000年。
参考书：何兆熊《新编语用学概要》上海外语教育出版社，2002年。
Verschueren，Jef 《语用学新解》语教学与研究出版社，2003年。
Jaszczolt，K.M. 《语义学与语用学》北京大学出版社，2006年。
大纲内容第一部分绪论【教学目的和要求】教学目的：使学生了解语用学的起源和发展，并初步了解语用学中的几个基本概念及语用学同其它交叉学科的关系与学习意义。
老托福阅读100篇passage33试题及答案
老托福阅读100篇passage33试题及答案为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面小编给大家带来老托福阅读100篇passage 33试题及答案，希望大家喜欢!老托福阅读100篇passage 33试题及答案PASSAGE 33Researchers in the field of psychology have found that one of the best ways to make an important decision, such as choosing a university to attend or a business to invest in, involves the utilization of a decision worksheet. Psychologists who study optimization compare the actual decisions made by people to theoretical ideal decisions to see how similar they are. Proponents of the worksheet procedure believe that it will yield optimal, that is, the best decisions. Although there are several variations on the exact format that worksheets can take, they are all similar in their essential aspects. Worksheets require defining the problem in a clear and concise way and then listing all possible solutions to the problem. Next, the pertinent considerations that will be affected by each decision are listed, and the relative importance of each consideration or consequence is determined. Each consideration is assigned a numerical value to reflect its relative importance. A decision is mathematically calculated by adding these values together. The alternative with the highest number of points emerges as the best decision.Since most important problems are multifaceted, there are several alternatives to choose from, each with unique advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of a pencil and paper decision-making procedure is that it permits people to deal with more variables than their minds can generally comprehend andremember. On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds at once. A worksheet can be especially useful when the decision involves a large number of variables with complex relationships. A realistic example for many college students is the question What will I do after graduation? A graduate might seek a position that offers specialized training, pursue an advanced degree, or travel abroad for a year.A decision-making worksheet begins with a succinct statement of the problem that will also help to narrow it. It is important to be clear about the distinction between long-range and immediate goals because long-range goals often involve a different decision than short-range ones. Focusing on long-range goals, a graduating student might revise the question above to What will I do after graduation that will lead to successful career?1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) A tool to assist in making complex decisions.(B) A comparison of actual decisions and ideal decisions(C) Research on how people make decisions(D) Differences between long-range and short-range decision making2. The word essential in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) introductory(B) changeable(C) beneficial(D) fundamental3. The word pertinent in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) relevant(B) preceding(C) insightful(D) responsive4. Of the following steps, which occurs before the others in making a decision worksheet?(A) Listing the consequences of each solution(B) Calculating a numerical summary of each solution(C) Deciding which consequences are most important(D) Writing down all possible solutions5. According to decision-worksheet theory, an optimal decision is defined as one that(A) has the fewest variables to consider(B) uses the most decision worksheets(C) has the most points assigned to it(D) is agreed to by the greatest number of people6. The author develops the discussion in paragraph 1 by means of(A) describing a process(B) classifying types of worksheets(C) providing historical background(D) explaining a theory7. The author states that On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds atonce (lines 17-18) to explain that(A) most decisions involve seven steps(B) human mental capacity has limitations(C) some people have difficulty making minor as well as major decisions(D) people can learn to keep more than seven ideas in their minds with practice8. The word succinct in line 24 is closest in meaning to(A) creative(B) satisfactory(C) personal(D) concise9. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage ?(A) Proponents (line 5)(B) Optimal (line 5)(C) Variables (line 17)(D) Long-range goals (line 25)10. The word it in line 24 refers to(A) worksheet(B) problem(C) distinction(D) decision11. The word revise in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) ask(B) explain(C) change(D) predictPASSAGE 33 ADADC ABDBB C托福阅读怎么抓住定位词首先介绍一下，什么是定位词?其实很简单，打个比方，你和朋友约好了去酒吧，朋友和你说酒吧在沈阳新东方正对面，这个酒吧你是不知道地点的，也就是你的目的地;而新东方却很熟知，那么你只需找到新东方便可以找到酒吧了。
Stoyan
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE BASIC PROBLEM
We introduce some notions and designations that are required later on. Let metric characteristics (sizes) h = (h1 , h2 , ..., hl ) of the domain T0 ⊂ R3 are variables and geometric objects Ti , i = 1, 2, ..., n, can be translated only by the vector ui = (xi , yi , zi ) in the space R3 , i. e. they can not be rotated. We designate a translation of Ti by vector ui = (xi , yi , zi ) as Ti (ui ), i = 1, 2, ..., n. Since the object T0 is fixed and u0 = 0 then the object T0 (u0 ) = T0 . Thus, the basic problem may be formulated as follows. BASIC PROBLEM . It is necessary to define a vector z = (u, h) = (u1 , u2 , ..., un , h) ∈ Rd , where d = 3n + l, so that geometric objects Ti (ui ), i = 1, 2, ..., n, are contained in the domain T0 without mutual intersections and the objective f (z ) reaches an extremal value. In order to utilize modern optimization methods to solve the problem stated the adequate and constructive mathematical models have to be built. When modelling 3D placement problems the most difficult and important are the description of the interaction between objects being placed and between each object and the domain in which one has to be placed. One of the opportunities to realize such modelling is to construct a function which depends on an location of the objects and characterizes these interactions in the following sense. The values of such function have to distinguish between the following three situations: 1) objects T1 and T2 intersect each other, i.e. they have common interior points, 2) objects T1 and T2 do not intersect, i.e. do not have common points, 3) objects T1 and T2 have only common frontier points, i.e. they are tangent. The required function values should be a measure of intersection of the objects in the first case, and as well as should define or at least estimate the distance between the objects in the second case. In the third case values of the function should be equal to zero. Such analytical description may be realized on the ground of the concept of Φ-functions. DEFINITION. Any everywhere defined and continuous function Φ12 (u1 , u2 ) : R6 → R1 which satisfies the characteristic properties > 0 if clT1 (u1 ) ∩ clT2 (u2 ) = ∅ = 0 if intT1 (u1 ) ∩ intT2 (u2 ) = ∅ (1) Φ12 (u1 , u2 ) = and f rT1 (u1 ) ∩ f rT2 (u2 ) 6= ∅ < 0 if intT1 (u1 ) ∩ intT2 (u2 ) 6= ∅
in a theoritical model, decision making
In a theoretical model of decision making, individuals are assumed to gather and process information in a rational and systematic manner in order to arrive at the best possible choice. This theoretical framework often involves weighing the costs and benefits of different options, considering various probabilities and potential outcomes, and evaluating the potential impact of each decision on one's goals and objectives.One common theoretical model of decision making is known as expected utility theory, which posits that individuals make choices based on the expected value of each option, taking into account both the potential gains and losses associated with each possible outcome. This model assumes that individuals are able to accurately assess the probabilities of different outcomes and are able to make decisions that maximize their expected utility or satisfaction.Another influential theoretical perspective on decision making is bounded rationality, which suggests that individuals do not always have the capacity to gather and process all relevant information when making decisions due to cognitive limitations and time constraints. Instead, individuals use heuristics and shortcuts to simplify the decision-making process and satisfice, or choose the first option that meets their criteria, rather than exhaustively searching for the best possible choice.Additionally, some theoretical models of decision making incorporate emotional and motivational factors, recognizing that individuals' choices areoften influenced by their desires, fears, and emotional responses to different options. This may involve considering the role of affective forecasting, or predicting one's emotional reactions to different outcomes, in decision making processes.Overall, theoretical models of decision making provide valuable frameworks for understanding and predicting how individuals make choices in various contexts, and serve as the foundation for further empirical research and practical applications in fields such as economics, psychology, and management.。
lecture5Bertrand Model of Duopoly Contributing to a Public Good(博弈论)
Nash Equilibrium
c
( c, c )
c
pm
p1
14
May 23, 2003
73-347 Game Theory--Lecture 5
Contributing to a public good
Two persons: person 1 and person 2. person 1 has
May 23, 2003
73-347 Game Theory--Lecture 5
4
Bertrand model of duopoly (differentiated products)
The normal-form representation:
Set of players: { Firm 1, Firm 2} Sets of strategies: S1=[0, +∞), S2=[0, +∞) Payoff functions: u1(p1, p2)=(a – p1 + bp2 )(p1 – c) u2(p1, p2)=(a – p2 + bp1 47 Game Theory--Lecture 5
5
Bertrand model of duopoly (differentiated products)
How to find a Nash equilibrium Find the price pair (p1*, p2*) such that p1* is firm 1’s best response to Firm 2’s price p2* and p2* is firm 2’s best response to Firm 1’s price p1* That is, p1* solves Max u1(p1, p2*) = (a – p1 + bp2* )(p1 – c) subject to 0 p1 +∞
6篇四级模拟阅读及答案汇总
Passage onePeople's tastes in recreation differ widely. At a recent festival of pop-music in the Isle of Wight, crowds of teenagers flocked to listen to their favorite singers and musicians. They went with single railway tickets and slept in the open, a very risky thing to do in the climate of Britain, even in August. They were packed together like sardines for four days. There were innumerable thieves, a gang of roughs tried several times to break things up, and police were everywhere. At the end of the festival many young fans found themselves broke, with no money left,and they had difficulty in getting back home. Most people would consider these conditions a nightmare of discomfort; the fans appeared to enjoy it all enormously. Even in the overcrowded United Kingdom there are large tracts of open un-spoilt country, where people with more traditional tastes can go for quiet, and for the sense of freedom they derive from contact with nature. In the national parks especially, modern development of housing and industry is strictly controlled. Visitors may walk for miles through landscape of the greatest beauty and wildness, and often of considerable historic or scientific interest. Along the coasts of some of the maritime counties, public pathways have been created; these paths stretch for many miles along cliffs that look out on the Atlantic Ocean or the English Channel. Another path,lying inland, goes along the range of mountains in the north of England. It is called the Pennine Way. Here, the long-distance waller and the nature-lover can find much to enjoy, without feeling disturbed by large numbers of their fellows.Yet few people make full use of the national parks established for everyone's benefit. The commonest thing nowadays is for family groups to motor out to a beautiful spot and park their cars in a lay-by ( 英国的路旁停车带). A picnic basket is produced, along with a folding table and chairs, a kettle and a portable stove. They then settle down to a picnic in the lay-by beside the car. Apparently their idea of enjoyment is to get into the fresh air and amongst the country sights and sounds without having to wall a yard. They seem almost to like to hear and to smell the traffic.56. In Britain it is very risky to __________.A．go with a single railway ticketB．listen to pop-music at the festivalC. sleep in the openD．pack together in crowds57. At the end of the festival, many young fans__________.A．were arrested by the policeB．had spent most of their moneyC．were sleeping outD．became quite penniless58. Even in the overcrowded United Kingdom there are large__________.A．tracks through the open countryB．areas of country without soilC．areas of countryside not developedD．expanses of land where nobody works59. Public pathways are created for people to__________.A．commute to workB．enjoy long-distance walkingC. wall to maritime countiesD．visit the historic or scenic sites60. Family groups nowadays like to__________.A．have meals out of doors by the road-sideB．go for a walk away from homeC．drive out past the beautiful placesD．hear and smell the animalsPassage TwoShopping for clothes is not the same experience for a man as it is for a woman. A man goes shopping because he needs something. His purpose is settled and decided in advance. He knows what he wants, and his objective is to find it and buy it; the price is a secondary consideration. All men simply walk into a shop and ask the assistant for what they want. If the shop has it in stock, the salesman promptly produces it, and thebusiness of trying it on proceeds at once. All being well, the deal can be and often is completed in less than five minutes, with hardly any chat and to everyone's satisfaction. For a man, slight problems may begin when the shop does not have what he wants, or does not have eactly what he wants. In that case the salesman, as the name implies, tries to sell the customer something else--he offers the nearest he can to the article required. No good salesman brings out such a substitute bluntly; he does so with skill and polish. "I know this jacket is not the style you want, sir, but would you like to try it for size? It happens to be the color you mentioned. " Few men have patience with this treatment, and the usual response is: "This is the right color and may be the right size, but I should be wasting my time and yours by trying it on. " Now how does a woman go about buying clothes? In almost every respect she does so in the opposite way. Her shopping is not often based on need. She has never fully made up her mind what she wants, and she is only"having a look around". She is always open to persuasion; indeed she sets great store by what the saleswoman tells her, even by what companions tell her. She will try on any number of things. Uppermost in her mind is the thought of finding something that everyone thinks suits her. Contrary to a lot of jokes, most women have an excellent sense of value when they buy clothes. They are always on the look-out for the unexpected bargain. Faced with a roomful of dresses, a woman may easily spend an hour going from one rail to another, to and fro, often retracing her steps,before selecting the dresses she wants to try on. It is a laborious process, but apparently an enjoyable one. So most dress shops provide chairs for the waiting husbands. 61. When a man is buying clothes, __________.A．he chooses things that others recormnendB．he buys cheap things, regardless of qualityC．he buys good things, so long as they are not too expensiveD. he does not mind how much he has to pay for the right things62. In commerce a good salesman is one who__________.A．sells something a customer does not particularly wantB．always has in stock the thing the customer wantsC．can find out quickly the goods requiredD．does not waste his time on difficult customers63. What does a man do when he cannot get exactly what he wants?A．He buys something that is similar enough to the ideal one.B．He usually does not buy anything.C．At least two of his reqnirements must be met before he buys.D．So long as the style is right, he buys the thing.64. According to this passage, when shopping for clothes, women__________.A．often buy things without thinkingB．seldom buy cheap clothesC．welcome suggestions from anyone D．never take any advice65. What is the most obvious difference between men and women shoppers'?A．The fact that men do not try clothes on in a shop.B．Women bargain for their clothes, but men do not.C．Women stand up while shopping, but men sit down.D. The time they take over buying clothes.Passage threeQuestions 56 to 60 are based on the following passage.Fried foods have long been frowned upon. Nevertheless, the skillet (长柄平底煎锅) is about our handiest and most useful piece of kitchen equipment. Strong woodcutters and others engaged in active labor requiring 4,000calories per day or more will take approximately one-third of their rations prepared in this fashion. Meat, eggs, and French toast cooked in this way are served in millions of homes daily. Apparently the consumers are not beset with more signs of indigestion than afflicted by those who insist upon broiling, roasting, or boiling. Some years ago one of our most eminent physiologists investigated the digestibility of fried potatoes. He found that the pan variety was more easily broken down for assimilation than when deep fat was employed. The latter, however, dissolved within the alimentary tract ( 消化道) more readily than the boiled type. Furthermore, he learned, by watching the progress of the contents of the stomach by means of the fluoroscope (荧光检查仪), that fat actually accelerated the rate of digestion. Now all this is quite in contrast with "authority". Volumes have been written on nutrition, and everywhere the dictum ( 权威意见) has been accepted--no fried edibles of any sort for children. A few will go so tar as to forbid this style of cooking wholly. Now and then an expert will be bold enough to admit that he uses them himself, the absence of discomfort being explained on the ground that he possesses a powerful gastric ( 胃的)apparatus. We can of course sizzle perfectly good articles to death so that they will be leathery and tough. But thorough heating, in the presence of shortening, is not the awful crime that it has been labeled. Such dishes stimulate rather than retard contractions of the gall bladder. Thus it is that bile ( 胆汁) mixes with the nutriment shortly after it leaves the stomach.We don't need to allow our foodstuffs to become oil soaked, but other than that, there seems to be no basis for the widely heralded prohibition against this method. But notions become fixed. The first condemnation probably rose because an "oracle" ( 圣贤) suffered from dyspepsia (消化不良) which he ascribed to some fried item on the menu. The theory spread. Others agreed with him, and after a time the doctrine became incorporated in our textbooks. The belief is now tradition rather than proved fact. It should have been refuted long since, as experience has demonstrated its falsity.56. This passage focuses on__________.A．why the skillet is a handy piece of kitchen equipmentB．the digestibility of fried foodsC．how the experts can mislead the public in the area of food preparationD．why fried foods have long been frowned upon57. People engaged in active labor eat fried foods because __________.A．they are healthfulB．they are much cheaperC．they can be easily digestedD．they can provide the calories the workers need58. The author implies that the public should__________.A．prepare some foods by fryingB．avoid fried foods if possibleC．fry foods for adults but not for childrenD．prepare all foods by frying59. When the author says that "an 'oracle' suffered from dyspepsia which he ascribed to some fried item on the menu" he is being__________.A．gratefulB．factualC．sarcasticD．humorous60. The passage was probably taken from__________.A．a medical journalB．a publication addressed to the general publicC．a speech at a medical conventionD．an advertisement for cooking oilPassage fourQuestions 61 to 65 are based on the following passage.In the second half of the twentieth century, many countries of the South ( 发展中国家) began to send students to the industrialized countries for further education. They urgently needed supplies of highly trained personnel to implement a concept of development based on modernization.But many of these students decided to stay on in the developed countries when they had finished their training. At the same time, many professionals who did return home but no longer felt at ease there also decided to go back to the countries where they had studied.In the 1960s, some Latin American countries tried to solve this problem by setting up special "return" programs to encourage their professionals to come back home. These programs received support from international bodies such as the International Organization for Migration, which in 1974 enabled over 1,600 qualified scientistsand technicians to return to Latin America.In the 1980s and 1990s, "temporary return" programs were set up in order to make the best use of trained personnel occupying strategic positions in the developed countries. This gave rise to the United Nations Development Program's Transfer of Knowledge through Expatriate ( 移居国外的) Nationals, which encourages technicians and scientists to work in their own countries for short periods. But the brain drain (人才流失) fromthese countries may well increase in response to the new laws of the international market in knowledge.Recent studies forecast that the most developed countries are going to need more and more highly qualified professionals around twice as many as their educational systems will be able to produce, or so it is thought. As a result there is an urgent need for developing countries which send students abroad to give preference to fields where they need competent people to give muscle to their own institutions, instead of encouraging the training of people who may not come back because there are no professional outlets for them. And the countries of the South must not be content with institutional structures that simply take back professionals sent abroad, they must introduce flexible administrative procedures to encourage them to return. If they do not do this, the brain drain is bound to continue.61. Which of the following is NOT correct according to the passage?A．The developing countries believe that sending students to the industrialized countries is a good way to meet their own needs for modernization.B. The South American countries have been sending students to developed countries since the 1920s. C．Many people trained abroad remain in the developed countries instead of coming back to serve their home countries.D．The International Organization for Migration successfully helped more than 1,600 professionals to return to their own countries in a single year.62. Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons why the developing countries are losing their brain power?A．Many professionals did not feel comfortable in their home countries after they returned home. B．"Temporary return" programs encouraged professionals to work in their home countries for short periods.C．The new laws of the international market encourage knowledge transfer.D．The professionals from the developing countries have been trained in fields where they could not applytheir knowledge to the best advantage in their home countries.63. In the author's opinion, the developing countries should __________.A．keep their present administrative procedures so as to ensure that their students return after graduation B．cooperate more effectively with international organizationsC．set up more return programs under the guidance of the UND．send students abroad in the fields where their knowledge is more likely to be made full use of in their own countries64. According to the passage, the problem of the developing countries will continue__________.A．as long as the developed countries need more qualified professionals than they can educate domestically B．as long as the developing countries are content with their present institutional structuresC．unless those countries stop sending large number of students to be trained abroadD．if theh governments fail to make administrative adjustments concerning the return procedures of their professionals65. The best title for the passage is__________.A．The Brain Drain of the Developing CountriesB．Knowledge TransferC．The Talents from the Developing CountriesD．The Failure of Development ProgramsPassage fiveQuestions 56 to 60 are based on the following passage.Let children learn to judge their own work. A child learning to talk does not learn by being corrected all the time: if corrected too much, he will stop talking. He notices a thousand times a day the difference between the language he uses and the language those around him use. Bit by bit, he makes the necessary changes to make his language like other people's. In the same way, when children learn to do all the other things they learn to do without being taught to walk, run, climb, whistle, ride a bicycle--compare those performances with those of more skilled people, and slowly make the needed changes. But in school we never give a child a chance to find out his own mistakes for himself, let alone correct them. We do it all for him. We act as if we thought that he would never notice a mistake unless it was pointed out to him, or correct it unless he was made to. Soon he becomes dependent on the teacher. Let him do it himself. Let him work out, with the help of other children if he wants it, what this word says, what answer is to that problem, whether this is a good way of saying or doing this or not.If it is a matter of right answers, as it may be in mathematics or science, give him the answer book. Let him correct his own papers. Why should we teachers waste time on such routine work? Our job should be to help the child when he tells us that he can't find the way to get the right answer. Let's end this nonsense of grades, exams,marks. Let us throw them all out, and let the children learn what all educated persons must someday learn, how to measure their own understanding, how to know what they know or do not know.Let them get on with this job in the way that seems most sensible to them, with our help as school teachers if they ask for it. The idea that there is a body of knowledge to be learnt at school and used for the rest of one's life is nonsense in a world as complicated and rapidly changing as ours. Anxious parents and teachers say, "But suppose they fail to learn something essential, something they will need to get in the world?"Don't worry! If it is essential, they will go out into the world and learn it.56. What does the author think is the best way for children to learn things?A．By imitating what other people do.B．By making mistakes and having them corrected.C．By listening to explanations from skilled people.D．By asking a great many questions.57. The passage suggests that learning to speak and leaming to fide a bicycle are __________.A．not really important skillsB．more important than other skillsC．basically different from learning adult skillsD．basically the same as learning other skills58. According to the passage, the author thinks teachers in school should__________.A．allow children to learn by himself or herselfB．point out children's mistakes whenever they're foundC．correct children's mistakes as soon as possibleD．give children more book knowledge59. The author believes the teacher's role in children's learning should be__________.A．the identifier and corrector of their errorsB．their helper and guideC．the person to grade their performance and give feedbacksD．the person to pass on something essential to them60. The title of this passage could probably be__________.A．Let Teachers Stop WorkB．Let Us Make Children LearnC．Let Children Correct Their Own PapersD．Let Children Learn by ThemselvesPassage sixQuestions 61 to 65 are based on the following passage.Researchers in the field of psychology have found that one of the best ways to make an important decision, such as choosing a university to attend or a business to invest in, involves the utilization of a decision worksheet.Psychologists who study optimization ( 最优化) compare the actual decisions made by people to theoretical ideal decisions to see how similar they are. Proponents (支持者) of the worksheet procedure believe that it will yield optimal, that is, the best decisions. Although there are several variations on the exact format that worksheets can take,they are all similar in their essential aspects. Worksheets require defining the problem in a clear and concise way and then listing all possible solutions to the problem. Next, the pertinent (相关的) considerations that will be affected by each decision are listed, and the relative importance of each consideration or consequence is determined. Each consideration is assigned a numerical value to reflect its relative importance. A decision is mathematically calculated by adding these values together. The alternative with the highest number of points emerges as the best decision.Since most important problems are multifaceted (多层面的), there are several alternatives to choose from,each with unique advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of a pencil and paperdecision-making procedure is that it permits people to deal with more variables than their minds can generally comprehend and remember. On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds at once. A worksheet can be especially useful when the decision involves a large number of variables with complex relationships. A realistic example for my college students is the question "What will I do after graduation?" A graduate might seek a position that offers specialized training, pursue an advanced degree, or travel abroad for a year.A decision-making worksheet begins with succinct ( 简洁的) statement of the problem that will also help to narrow it. It is important to be clear about the distinction between long-range and immediate goals because long-range goals often involve a different decision than short-range ones. Focusing on long-rangegoals, a graduating student might revise the question above to "What will I do after graduation that will lead to a successful career?"61. Of the following stepsis the one that occurs before the others in making a decision worksheet. A．listing the consequences of each solutionB．calculating a numerical summary of each solutionC．writing down all possible solutionsD．deciding which consequences are most important62. According to decision-worksheet theory, an optimal decision is defined as one that__________.A．has the fewest variables to considerB．uses the most decision worksheetsC．has the most points assigned to itD．is agreed to by the greatest number of people63. The author develops the discussion in paragraph 1 by means of__________.A．describing a processB．classifying different typesC．providing historical backgroundD．explaining a theory64. The author's attitude towards a pencil and paper decision-making procedure is __________.A．neuralB．approvingC．ambiguousD．biased65. The passage mainly discusses __________.A．a tool to assist in making complex decisionsB．a comparison of actual decisions and ideal decisionsC．research on how people make decisionsD．differences between making long-range and short-range decisions参考答案Passage ONE【参考译文】人们对于休闲娱乐的品位大相径庭。
企业的社会责任_英文_
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Introduction There exist arguments on whether enterprises should put much emphasis on CSR． This paper will discuss what CSR is and compare the theories and ideas on CSR． Finally，give own option according to the existing problems，especially in the international content，including challenges，problems and suggestions． Definition Generally，Corporate social responsibility （ CSR） can be defined as the“economic，legal，ethical，and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time”（ Carroll and Buchholtz 2003，p． 36） ． It means that organizations have moral，ethical，and philanthropic responsibilities in addition to their responsibilities to earn a fair return for investors and comply with the law． Opposition to CSR The“economic”argument against CSR is perhaps most closely related to Milton Friedman，the American economist． He argued that the primary responsibility of business is to make a profit for its owners，albeit while complying with the law． Maximizing the shareholder value was his main argument． Milton Friedman published his opinion in 1970's article in The New York Times Magazine． He said，'The one and only social responsibility of business，is to increase profits for shareholders．“ Management's fundamental goal is to increase value for its shareholders and not any single stakeholder such as solely the socially responsible． According to this view，increasing value for the company can bring benefit to the society． If the operation of the free market cannot solve a social problem，it's the responsibility of government，not the company's． It is belong to Instrumental theories． Instrumental theories have a long tradition and have enjoyed a wide acceptance in business so far． As Windsor （ 2001） has pointed out recently，'a leitmotiv of wealth creation progressively dominates the managerial conception of responsibility'． Approval of CSR First and foremost，it is “self － interest”argument． This view holds that companies cannot only put emphasis on short － term profits； instead，they should pay attention on long － term benefits． Companies conduct social affairs may assure themselves of a favorable operating environment in the future． Moreover，according to Carroll and Buchholtz，by doing so，the corporate world may forestall governmental intervention in the form of new legislation and regulation． Sustainable development is an important topic in recent years，the problem comes when the corporation has to develop the processes and implement strategies to meet the corporate challenge of corporate sustainable development． On account of what Milton Friedman said，Mitchell（ 1997 ） ，Odgen and Watson（ 1999） stated that concern for profits does not exclude taking into account the interests of stakeholders and these interests can contribute to maximizing the shareholder value． My Viewpoint On my viewpoint，companies should fulfill social responsibilities． I do not quite agree with what Milton Friedman said． I think he just seek
博士生公共英语思辨阅读
博士生公共英语思辨阅读Title: The Nexus between Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability: Navigating a Complex Interplay.Introduction:In the intricate tapestry of modern society, thepursuit of economic growth has often been pitted against the imperative of environmental preservation. While economic development promises prosperity and progress, its environmental ramifications cast a shadow over the long-term sustainability of our planet. This essay explores the complex interplay between economic growth and environmental sustainability, arguing that a balanced and integrated approach is essential for the harmonious advancement of both.Economic Growth and Environmental Impact:Economic growth, characterized by increased production, consumption, and investment, undoubtedly has profound environmental implications. Industrial activities, transportation, and agricultural practices generate significant emissions, contributing to air, water, and soil pollution. Natural resource extraction and utilization deplete finite resources, disrupt ecosystems, and drive habitat loss. Moreover, economic growth often leads to urbanization, which exacerbates environmental challenges, such as waste generation, infrastructure strain, andreduced biodiversity.Environmental Sustainability and Economic Prosperity:Environmental sustainability encompasses theresponsible management of natural resources, the preservation of ecosystems, and the mitigation of pollution. It recognizes the finite nature of our planet's resources and the need to protect them for future generations. While some argue that environmental protection can hinder economic growth, a growing body of evidence suggests that sustainability can, in fact, stimulate economic prosperity.Sustainable practices, such as renewable energy, eco-friendly technologies, and resource conservation, can create new industries, generate employment, and enhance resource efficiency.The Imperative for Integration:Given the intricate relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability, it is imperative to avoid a false dichotomy and instead adopt an integrated approach. This requires policymakers, businesses, and individuals to recognize that environmental protection and economic prosperity are not mutually exclusive goals. Sustainable economic growth must be the guiding principle, ensuring that economic activities are environmentally responsible and that environmental preservation contributes to economic resilience and well-being.Strategies for Sustainable Economic Growth:1. Promote Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency: Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as solar,wind, and geothermal, reduces greenhouse gas emissionswhile fostering new economic opportunities in clean energy sectors. Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and industrial processes conserves resources, saves costs, and reduces environmental impact.2. Foster Sustainable Agriculture and Land Use: Implementing sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic farming, agroforestry, and conservation tillage, preserves soil health, reduces water pollution, and promotes biodiversity. Protecting natural ecosystems and mitigating deforestation contribute to carbon sequestration, regulate climate patterns, and provide essential ecosystem services.3. Develop Eco-Friendly Technologies and Industries: Encouraging research and development in eco-friendly technologies, such as electric vehicles, biodegradable materials, and renewable energy storage systems, drives innovation, creates new markets, and fosters environmental stewardship.4. Encourage Sustainable Consumption and Waste Management: Promoting responsible consumption patterns, reducing waste, and enhancing recycling and reuseinitiatives minimizes resource consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and conserves natural habitats.5. Establish Environmental Regulations and Incentives: Implementing clear environmental regulations, complemented by incentives and market mechanisms, provides businesses with guidance and encouragement to reduce pollution, conserve resources, and adopt sustainable practices.Conclusion:The pursuit of economic growth and the imperative of environmental sustainability are not incompatible goals. By adopting an integrated approach that recognizes the interdependence of these factors, we can navigate the complex interplay between them and create a sustainable future for present and future generations. Embracing sustainable economic growth strategies, fostering innovation, and promoting responsible consumption andproduction can simultaneously drive economic prosperity and safeguard the health of our planet. It is time to embrace a holistic perspective that values both economic development and environmental preservation, ensuring the harmonious advancement of our society and the well-being of our planet.。
关于“钱德勒命题”的思考
关于“钱德勒命题”的思考[摘要] “钱德勒命题”是钱德勒管理思想的精髓，命题中对市场、经理人、大企业的描述一直是各国学者讨论与分析的焦点。
钱德勒管理思想主要来自其3部巨著，本文通过对这3部巨著的讨论引出对于“钱德勒命题”的几点思考与述评。
[关键词] “钱德勒命题”；管理思想；思考1 引言钱德勒具有系统的学习经历与丰富的工作经验，他在看待企业管理与发展的相关问题上形成自己独到的见解。
经过熊彼特等人的指导和进行大量案例分析后，他将工业资本主义发展的原动力归结为现代大型企业的管理革命及组织能力，进而将组织及管理推到了工业资本主义经济增长分析的核心。
他动摇了主流经济学的根基[1]，认为经济绩效是决策和影响企业组织的制度框架。
无论是塑造市场结构，还是组织的基础结构，抑或是组织和企业的战略，均离不开企业成本曲线的确定。
20 世纪后期，由他提出的一系列主张逐渐构成了“钱德勒命题”，并有力地推动了现代大型企业的变革、重组以及资本主义经济的增长。
至今，其管理思想仍对现代企业制度建设和工业化进程的推进有重要指导作用。
“钱德勒命题”主要是对钱德勒管理思想的概括，而其思想主要源于其《战略与结构：美国工商企业发展的若干篇章》、《企业规模经济与范围经济：工业资本主义的原动力》和《看得见的手：美国企业的管理革命》3本巨著。
2 “钱德勒命题”的含义钱德勒把现代大型企业的成长壮大和职业经理在企业管理职能上对企业主的替代综合总结为“管理革命”这一重要命题，这一命题具体又可以分为逻辑上相互联系、层层递进的以下几个论点：（1）当管理上的协调比市场机制的协调更有效率和更有利可图时，现代多单位的工商企业就会取代传统的小公司；（2）在一个企业内，由营业单位活动内部化所带来的利益，要等到建立起管理层级制以后才能实现；（3）管理层级制一旦形成并有效地实现了它的协调功能后，层级制本身也变成了持久性、权力和持续成长的源泉；（4）当现代工商企业在规模和经营多样化方面发展到一定水平时，支薪经理这一职业变得越来越技术性和职业化，而企业管理权与所有权开始分离；（5）在做出管理决策时，职业经理人宁愿选择能促使公司长期稳定和成长的政策，也不贪图眼前的最大利润；（6）随着大企业的成长和对主要经济部门的支配，它们改变了这些部门乃至整个经济的基本结构[2]。
赫伯特.西蒙：决策理论
（1） Structured Problems
Involve goals that clear.
Are familiar (have occurred before).
Are easily and completely defined— information about the problem is available and complete.
7
Criteria and Weights for Computer Replacement Decision
n n n n n n
Criterion
Memory and Storage Battery life Carrying Weight Warranty Display Quality
Weight
10 8 6 4 3
8
Criteria and Weights for Franchise Decision
n
n n n n n
Criterion
Start-up costs
Weight
10
Franchisor support
Financial qualification
8
6
Open geographical locations
6
Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Criteria
Decision criteria are not of equal importance:
Assigning a weight to each item places the items in the correct priority order of their importance in the decision making process.
经典论文导读：贝叶斯劝说（BayesianPersuasion）——Kamenica...
经典论文导读：贝叶斯劝说（BayesianPersuasion）——Kamenica...本期向大家介绍据说（据说是 Holmstrom 在课上说的）是近十年最重要的一篇经济学理论研究论文——（Kamenica & Gentzkow, 2011），两位作者均为哈佛大学经济学博士（两人从本科就一直就读于哈佛），论文发表时均为芝加哥大学经济学教授，Kamenica 现仍在Chicago，Gentzkow 已跳至Stanford，两人的简历简直不能更漂亮了，Gentzkow 更是获得了美国经济学会 2014年 Clark Medal。
论文具体信息如下：Bayesian PersuasionEmir KamenicaUniversity of ChicagoMatthew GentzkowUniversity of Chicago (Now Stanford)AbstractWhen is it possible for one person to persuade another to change her action? We take a mechanism design approach to this question. Taking preferences and initial beliefs as given, we introduce the notion of a persuasion mechanism: a game between Sender and Receiver defined by an information structure and a message technology. We derive necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a persuasion mechanism that strictly benefits Sender. We characterize the optimalmechanism. Finally, we analyze several examples that illustrate the applicability of our results.Source: American Economic Review. 2011, 101(6): 2590-2615.【点击底部“阅读原文”，可在出版网站下载原文。
The Debate Over the Death Penalty
The Debate Over the Death Penalty The debate over the death penalty is a contentious and emotionally charged issue that has been the subject of heated discussion for decades. On one side of the argument, proponents of the death penalty argue that it serves as a deterrent to crime and provides justice for the victims and their families. On the other side, opponents of the death penalty argue that it is an inhumane and ineffective form of punishment that is prone to error and disproportionately affects marginalized communities. Both perspectives present compelling arguments, and the debate over the death penalty is far from settled. Proponents of the deathpenalty often argue that it serves as a deterrent to crime, particularly for heinous offenses such as murder. They believe that the threat of facing theultimate punishment will dissuade potential criminals from committing violent acts, thus making society safer. Additionally, proponents argue that the death penalty provides a sense of closure and justice for the families of victims. They believe that the punishment is a way to hold perpetrators accountable for their actionsand provide a form of retribution for the pain and suffering caused to the victims and their loved ones. On the other hand, opponents of the death penalty arguethat it is an inhumane and irreversible form of punishment. They point to the risk of executing innocent individuals, as well as the potential for racial and socioeconomic biases to influence who receives the death penalty. Opponents also argue that the death penalty does not effectively deter crime, as studies have shown that states without the death penalty often have lower murder rates than those with it. Additionally, opponents highlight the moral and ethicalimplications of state-sanctioned killing, and argue that a more humane andeffective form of justice can be achieved through life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. The emotional weight of the death penalty debate is undeniable, as it involves the loss and suffering of individuals on both sides of the issue. For proponents of the death penalty, the emotional toll of losing a loved one to a violent crime can drive a desire for retribution and justice. The pain and trauma experienced by victims' families can fuel a belief in thenecessity of the death penalty as a form of closure and accountability for the perpetrators. On the other hand, opponents of the death penalty are oftenmotivated by a deep sense of empathy and concern for the potential for injustice and systemic biases in the criminal justice system. The fear of executing an innocent person and the recognition of the disproportionate impact of the death penalty on marginalized communities can evoke a strong emotional response in those who oppose it. The death penalty debate also raises questions about the role of the state in administering justice and the moral implications of taking a human life. Proponents of the death penalty argue that it is the state's responsibility to punish those who commit the most heinous crimes, and that the death penalty serves as a form of justice for the victims and their families. They believe that certain crimes are so egregious that they warrant the ultimate punishment, andthat the state has a duty to carry out that punishment. On the other hand, opponents of the death penalty question the moral authority of the state to take a human life, and argue that the risk of executing an innocent person is a grave injustice that cannot be justified. They advocate for a more compassionate and restorative approach to justice that focuses on rehabilitation and addressing the root causes of crime. In conclusion, the debate over the death penalty is a complex and emotionally charged issue that elicits strong opinions from both proponents and opponents. The arguments for and against the death penalty touch on fundamental questions of justice, morality, and the role of the state in administering punishment. The emotional weight of the debate is evident in the deeply held beliefs and personal experiences of those on both sides of the issue. As the debate continues, it is crucial to consider the human impact of the death penalty and strive for a justice system that is fair, effective, and reflective of our shared values.。
考研英语177_真题无答案-
考研英语177(总分36, 做题时间180分钟)Section Ⅰ Use of EnglishDirections: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D. (10 points)Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency(**mitted by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories ________on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior________they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through ________with others. Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that **mit crimes in ________ to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, ________ as a rejection of middle-class values.Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, ________ the fact that children from wealthy homes **mit crimes. The latter **mit crimes ________ lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are ________ to criticism.Changes in the social structure may indirecfiy ________ juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that ________ to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment ________ make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in ________ lead more youths into criminal behavior.Families have also ________ changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents; ________ , children are likely to have less supervision at home ________ **monin the traditional family ________ This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other ________ causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased ________ of drugs and alcohol, and the growing ________ of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a **mitting a criminal act, ________ a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.SSS_SINGLE_SEL1.Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency(**mitted by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories ________on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior________they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through ________with others.Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that **mit crimes in ________ to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, ________ as a rejection of middle-class values.Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, ________ the fact that children from wealthy homes **mit crimes. The latter **mit crimes ________ lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are ________ to criticism.Changes in the social structure may indirecfiy ________ juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that ________ to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment ________ make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in ________ lead more youths into criminal behavior.Families have also ________ changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents; ________ , children are likely to have less supervision at home ________ **monin the traditional family ________ This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other ________ causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased ________ of drugs and alcohol, and the growing ________ of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a **mitting a criminal act, ________ a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.A actingB relyingC centeringD commentingSSS_SINGLE_SEL2.A beforeB unlessC untilD becauseSSS_SINGLE_SEL3.A orB but ratherC butD or else4.A consideringB ignoringC highlightingD discardingSSS_SINGLE_SEL 5.A onB inC forD withSSS_SINGLE_SEL 6.A immuneB resistantC sensitiveD subjectSSS_SINGLE_SEL 7.A affectB reduceC checkD reflectSSS_SINGLE_SEL 8.A pointB leadC comeD amountSSS_SINGLE_SEL 9.A in generalB on averageC by contrastD at length10.A caseB shortC turnD essenceSSS_SINGLE_SEL 11.A survivedB noticedC undertakenD experiencedSSS_SINGLE_SEL 12.A contrarilyB consequentlyC similarlyD simultaneouslySSS_SINGLE_SEL 13.A interactionB assimilationC cooperationD consultationSSS_SINGLE_SEL 14.A thanB thatC whichD asSSS_SINGLE_SEL 15.A systemB structureC conceptD heritage16.A assessableB identifiableC negligibleD incredibleSSS_SINGLE_SEL17.A expenseB restrictionC allocationD availabilitySSS_SINGLE_SEL18.A incidenceB awarenessC exposureD popularitySSS_SINGLE_SEL19.A providedB sinceC althoughD ] supposingSSS_SINGLE_SEL20.A returnB replyC referenceD responseSection Ⅲ WritingPart ADirections: Write a composition/letter of no less than 100 words on the following information. (10 points)21.Directions:Study the following picture carefully and write an essay in which you should1) describe the picture,2) analyze the causes of the problem, and3) propose possible solutions.You should write about 160―200 words neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (20 points)SSS_TEXT_QUSTISection Ⅱ Reading ComprehensionDo you remember all those years when scientists argued that smoking would kill us but the doubters insisted that we didn''t know for sure? That the evidence was inconclusive, the science uncertain ? That the antismoking lobby was out to destroy our way of life and the government should stay out of the way? Lots of Americans bought that nonsense, and over three decades, some 10 million smokers went to early graves.There are upsetting parallels today, as scientists in one wave after another try to awaken us to the growing threat of global warming. The latest was a panel from the National Academy of Sciences, enlisted by the White House, to tell us that the Earth''s atmosphere is definitely warming and that the problem is largely man-made. The clear message is that we should get moving to protect ourselves. The president of the National Academy, Bruce Alberts, added this key point in the preface to the panel''s report: "Science never has all the answers. But science does provide us with the best available guide to the future, and it is critical that our nation and the world base important policies on the best judgments that science can provide concerning the future consequences of present actions." Just as on smoking, voices **e from many quarters insisting that the science about global warming is incomplete, that it''s OK to keep pouring fumes into the air until we know for sure. This is a dangerous game: by the time 100 percent of the evidence is in, it may be too late. With the risks obvious and growing, a prudent people would take out an insurance policy now.Fortunately, the White House is starting to pay attention. Butit'' s obvious that a majority of the president''s advisers stilldon''t take global warming seriously. Instead of a plan of action, they continue to press for more rese arch―a classic case of "paralysis by analysis."To serve as responsible stewards of the planet, we must press forward on deeper atmospheric and oceanic research. But research alone is inadequate. If the Administration won''t take thelegislative initiative, Congress should help to begin fashioning conservation measures. A bill by Democratic Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia, which would offer financial incentives for private industry, is a promising start. Many see that the country is getting ready to build lots of new power plants to meet our energy needs. If we are ever going to protect the atmosphere, it is crucial that those new plants be environmentally sound.SSS_SINGLE_SEL22.An argument made by supporters of smoking was thatA there was no scientific evidence of the correlation between smoking and death.B the number of early deaths of smokers in the past decades was insignificant.C people had the freedom to choose their own way of life.D antismoking people were usually talking nonsense.SSS_SINGLE_SEL23.According to Bruce Alberts, science can serve asA a protector.B a judge.C a critic.D a guideSSS_SINGLE_SEL24.What does the author mean by "paralysis by analysis"( Last line, Paragraph 4)?A Endless studies kill action.B Careful investigation reveals truth.C Prudent planning hinders progress.D Extensive research helps decision - making.SSS_SINGLE_SEL25.According to the author, what should the Administration do about global warming?A Offer aid to build cleaner power plants.B Raise public awareness of conservation.C Press for further scientific research.D Take some legislative measures.SSS_SINGLE_SEL26.The author associates the issue of global warming with that of smoking becauseA they both suffered from the government''s negligence.B a lesson from the latter is applicable to the former.C the outcome of the latter aggravates the former.D both of them have turned from bad to worse.Aimlessness has hardly been typical of the postwar Japan whose productivity and social harmony are the envy of the United States and Europe. But increasingly the Japanese are seeing a decline of the traditional work-moral values. Ten years ago young people were hardworking and saw their jobs as their primary reason for being, but now Japan has largely fulfilled its economic needs, and young people don''t know where they should go next.**ing of age of the postwar baby boom and an entry of women into the male-dominated job market have limited the opportunities of teen-agers who are already questioning the heavy personal sacrifices involved in climbing Japan''s rigid social ladder to good schools and jobs. In a recent survey, it was found that only 24.5 percent of Japanese students were fully satisfied with school life, compared with 67.2 percent of students in the United States. In addition, far more Japanese workers expressed dissatisfaction with their jobs than did their counterparts in the 10 other countries surveyed.While often praised by foreigners for its emphasis on the basics, Japanese education tends to stress test taking and mechanical learning over creativity and self-expression. "Those things that do not show up in the test scores--personality, ability, courage or humanity--**pletely ignored," says Toshiki Kaifu, chairman of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party''s **mittee. "Frustration againstthis kind of thing leads kids to drop out and run wild. "Last year Japan experienced 2,125 incidents of school violence, including 929 assaults on teachers. Amid the outcry, many conservative leaders are seeking a return to the prewar emphasis on moral education. Last year Mitsuo Setoyama, who was then education minister, raised eyebrows when he argued that liberal reforms introduced by the American occupation authorities after World War Ⅱ had weakened the" Japanese morality of respect for parents."But that may have more to do with Japanese life-styles. "In Japan," says educator Yoko Muro, "it''s never a question of whether you enjoy your job and your life, but only how much you can endure." With economic growth **e centralization ,fully 76 percent of Japan''s 119 million citizens live in cities **munity and the extended familyhave been abandoned in favor of isolated, two- generation households. Urban Japanese have long endured **mutes (travels to and from work) and crowded living conditions, but as the old group and family values weaken, the discomfort is beginning to tell. In the past decade, the Japanese divorce rate, while still well below that of the United States, has increased by more than 50 percent, and suicides have increased by nearly one-quarter.SSS_SINGLE_SEL27.In the Westerners'' eyes, the postwar Japan was__________.A under aimless developmentB a positive exampleC a rival to the WestD on the declineSSS_SINGLE_SEL28.According to the author, what may chiefly be responsible for the moral decline of Japanese society?A Women''s participation in social activities is limited.B More workers are dissatisfied with their jobs.C Excessive emphasis has been placed on the basics.D The life-style has been influenced by Western values.SSS_SINGLE_SEL29.Which of the following is true according to the author?A Japanese education is praised for helping the young climb the social ladder.B Japanese education is characterized by mechanical learning as well as creativity.C More stress should be placed on the cultivation of creativity.D Dropping out leads to frustration against test taking.SSS_SINGLE_SEL30.The change in Japanese life-style is revealed in the factthat__________.A the young are less tolerant of discomforts in lifeB the divorce rate in Japan exceeds that in the U. S.C the Japanese endure more than ever beforeD the Japanese appreciate their present lifeU.S. prisons are filled with drug offenders; the number of prisoners tripled over the past 20 years to nearly 2 million, with 60 to 70 per cent testing positive for substance abuse on arrest. The country has spent billions of dollars attacking the problem at its roots. But there is growing consensus that the "war on drug" has been lost. The United States is still the world''s largest consumer of illegal substances; cocaine continues to pour over the border from Mexico. "Traffic" taps into the national frustration, depicting the horrors of both drugs and the drug war. Without taking sides, thefilm illuminates the national debate and poses on alternative that Americans seem increasingly willing to consider: finding new ways to treat, rather than merely punish, drug abuse.Policy revolutions―like legalizing narcotics (drugs producing sleep or insensibility) ―remain a d istant dream. But there is growing public awareness that the money and energy wasted on trying to check the flow of drugs into the United States might be better spent on trying to control demand instead. Voters in several states are far ahead of the politicians, approving ballot initiatives that offer more treatment opinions. "Drugs courts" that allow judges to use carrots and sticks to compel substance-abuse treatment have grown fifty-fold since the mid-1990s, part of a new understanding that, even with frequent relapses( returns to a formal state), treatment is much less expensive for society than jail and ban.Drug addiction is increasingly being viewed as more a disease than a crime. Science is yielding clues about the "hedonic (of pleasure ) region" of the brain, while breakthrough medications and greater understanding of the mental-health problems that underlie many addictions are giving therapists new tools.Officials across the Continent have already begun shifting their focus from preventing drug flow to rehabilitating (making able tolive a normal life again) drug users. The new European Union Drugs Strategy for 2000-2004 makes a commitment to increasing the number of successfully treated addicts. Gemany, Italy and Luxembourg have transferred responsibility for drug policy from their Ministries of the Interior to the Ministries of Health or Social Affairs. In Britain, the government has set up a National Treatment Agency to coordinate the efforts of social-service agencies and the Department of Health. And drug-prevention and support agencies there are getting about 30 percent more funding this year. Changing the main national strategy from attacking drug pushers to rehabilitating addicts won''t come easy. But slowly, steadily, Americans, like Europeans, seem determined to try.SSS_SINGLE_SEL31.According to the text, U. S. prisonersA have increased by 2 million in number.B are most jailed for their drug habit.C consist of over 1.2 million drug dealers.D are almost all wrong substance users.SSS_SINGLE_SEL32.The word "Traffic" in Par. 1 most probably meansA illegal trading in drugs.B drug transport business.C ways of smuggling drugs.D channels of drug delivery.SSS_SINGLE_SEL33.Drug addiction is being viewed as a disease becauseA scientists have got to the root of the problem.B new medical breakthroughs have been produced.C it usually gives rise to illnesses of the mind.D strategy is shifting from punishment to treatment.SSS_SINGLE_SEL34.There seems to be growing awareness ofA the immense expense in tackling drug problem.B the unavoidable legalization of certain drugs.C the illumination of the debate about drug abuse.D the impossible elimination of drug production.SSS_SINGLE_SEL35.More and more Americans favor all of the following EXCEPTA compulsory treatment for drug addiction.B forced demand-side reduction in drugs.C lessening the fund supply to drugs courts.D taking reward or punishment measures.When a Scottish research team startled the world by revealing 3 months ago that it had cloned an adult sheep, President Clinton moved swiftly. Declaring that he was opposed to using this unusual animal husbandry technique to clone humans, he ordered that federal funds not be used for such an experiment although no one had proposed to doso--and asked an independent panel of experts chaired by Princeton President Harold Shapiro to report back to the White House in 90 days with recommendations for a national policy on human cloning. That group--the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC)--has been working feverishly to put its wisdom on paper, and at a meeting on 17 May, members agreed on a near-final draft of their recommendations.NBAC will ask that Clinton''s 90-day ban on federal funds for human cloning be extended indefinitely, and possibly that it be made law. But NBAC members are planning to word the recommendation narrowly to avoid new restrictions on research that involves the cloning of human DNA or cells--routine in molecular biology. The panel has not yet reached agreement on a crucial question, however, whether to recommend legislation that would make it a crime for private funding to be used for human cloning.In a draft preface to the recommendations, discussed at the 17 May meeting, Shapiro suggested that the panel had found a broad consensus that it would be"morally unacceptable to attempt to createa human child by adult nuclear cloning". Shapiro explained during the meeting that the moral doubt stems mainly from fears about the risk to the health of the child. The panel then informally accepted several general conclusions, although some details have not been settled.NBAC plans to call for a continued ban on federal government funding for any attempt to clone body cell nuclei to create a child. Because current federal law already forbids the use of federal funds to create embryos ( the earliest stage of human offspring be for birth) for research or to be for knowingly endanger an embryo''s life, NBAC will remain silent on embryo research.NBAC members also indicated that they will appeal to privately funded researchers and clinics not to try to clone humans by bodycell nuclear transfer. But they were divided on whether to go further by calling for a federal law that would impose a complete ban on human cloning. Shapiro and most members favored an appeal for such legislation, but in a phone interview, he said this issue was still "up in the air."SSS_SINGLE_SEL36.We can learn from the first paragraph that____________.A federal funds have been used in a project to clone humansB the White House responded strongly to the news of cloningC NBAC was authorized to control the misuse of cloning techniqueD the White House has got the panel''s recommendations oncloningSSS_SINGLE_SEL37.The panel agreed on all of the following except that ____________.A the ban on federal funds for human cloning should be made a lawB the cloning of human DNA is not to be put under more controlC it is criminal to use private funding for human cloningD it would be against ethical values to clone a human beingSSS_SIMPLE_SIN38.NBAC will leave the issue of embryo research undiscussed because____________.A B C DSSS_SINGLE_SEL39.It can be inferred from the last paragraph that____________.A some NBAC members hesitate to ban human **pletelyB a law banning human cloning is to be passed in no timeC privately funded researchers will respond positively toNBAC''s appealD the issue of human cloning will soon be settledPart BDirections: Write an essay of 160 - 200 words based on the following information. (20 points)40.You borrowed some recent issues of U. S. business magazine from your professor a month ago, but delayed returning them. Write a letter of apology to your professor, stating your reasons for the delay and expressing your thanks.Write your letter in no less than 100 words. Write it neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "Li Ming" instead. You do not need to write the address. (10 points)SSS_TEXT_QUSTIPart CDirections: Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. (10 points)Governments throughout the world act on the assumption that the welfare of their people depends largely on the economic strength andwealth of **munity. 71. Under modern conditions, this requires varying measures of centralized control and hence the help of specialized scientists such as economists and operational research experts. 72. Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of a country''s economy is directly bound up with the efficiency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rests upon theefforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds. It also means that governments are **pelled to interfere in these sectors in order to step up production and ensure that it is utilized to the best advantage. For example, they may encourage research in various ways, including the setting up of their own research centers; they mayalter the structure of education, or interfere in order to reduce the wastage of natural resources or tap resources hitherto unexploited; or they may co- operate directly in the growing number of international projects related to science, economics and industry. In any case, all such interventions are heavily dependent on scientific advice and also scientific and technological manpower of all kinds.73. Owing to the remarkable development in **munications, people everywhere are feeling new wants and are being exposed to new customs and ideas, while governments are often forced to introduce stir further innovations for the reasons given above. At the same time, the normal rate of social change throughout the world is taking place at a vastly accelerated **pared with the past. For example , 74. in the early in industrialized countries of Europe the process of industrialization―with all the far-reaching changes in social patterns that followed--was spread over nearly a century, whereas nowadays a developing nation may undergo the same process in a decade or so. All this has the effect of building up unusual pressures and tensions within **munity and consequently presents serious problems for the governments concerned. 75．Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport. As a result of all these factors, governments are becoming increasingly dependent onbiologists and social scientists for planning the appropriate programs and putting them into effect.SSS_TEXT_QUSTI41.Governments throughout the world act on the assumption that the welfare of their people depends largely on the economic strength and wealth of **munity. 71. Under modern conditions, this requires varying measures of centralized control and hence the help of specialized scientists such as economists and operational research experts. 72. Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of acountry''s economy is directly bound up with the efficiency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rests upon theefforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds. It also means that governments are **pelled to interfere in these sectors in order to step up production and ensure that it is utilized to the best advantage. For example, they may encourage research in various ways, including the setting up of their own research centers; they mayalter the structure of education, or interfere in order to reduce the wastage of natural resources or tap resources hitherto unexploited; or they may co- operate directly in the growing number of international projects related to science, economics and industry. In any case, all such interventions are heavily dependent on scientific advice and also scientific and technological manpower of all kinds.73. Owing to the remarkable development in **munications, people everywhere are feeling new wants and are being exposed to new customs and ideas, while governments are often forced to introduce stir further innovations for the reasons given above. At the same time, the normal rate of social change throughout the world is taking place at a vastly accelerated **pared with the past. For example , 74. in the early in industrialized countries of Europe the process of industrialization―with all the far-reaching changes in social patterns that followed--was spread over nearly a century, whereas nowadays a developing nation may undergo the same process in a decade or so. All this has the effect of building up unusual pressures and tensions within **munity and consequently presents serious problems for the governments concerned. 75．Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport. As a result of all these factors, governments are becoming increasingly dependent onbiologists and social scientists for planning the appropriate programs and putting them into effect.SSS_TEXT_QUSTI42.SSS_TEXT_QUSTI43.SSS_TEXT_QUSTI 44.SSS_TEXT_QUSTI 45.1。
[约翰·纳什博士论文.(英文版,.PDF格式)].The.Bargaining.Problem
![[约翰·纳什博士论文.(英文版,.PDF格式)].The.Bargaining.Problem](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/6712e745b307e87101f69636.png)
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JOHNve a theoretical treatment of bargaining situations we abstract from the situation to form a mathematical model in terms of which to develop the theory. In making our treatment of bargaining we employ a numerical utility, of the type developed in Theory of Games, to express the preferences, or tastes, of each individual engaged in bargaining. By this means we bring into the mathematical model the desire of each individual to maximize his gain in bargaining. We shall briefly review this theory in the terminology used in this paper.
UTILITY THEORY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
The concept of an "anticipation" is important in this theory. This concept will be explained partly by illustration. Suppose Mr. Smith knows he will be given a new Buick tomorrow. We may say that he has a Buick anticipation. Similarly, he might have a Cadillac anticipation. If he knew that tomorrow a coin would be tossed to decide whether he would get a Buick or a Cadillac, we should say that he had a 2 Buick, 2 Cadillac anticipation. Thus an anticipation of an individual is a state of expectation which may involve the certainty of some contingencies and various probabilities of other contingencies. As another example, Mr. Smith might know that he will get a Buick tomorrow and think that he has half a chance of getting a Cadillac too. The 2 Buick, - Cadillac anticipation mentioned above illustrates the following important property of anticipations: if 0 < p < 1 and A and B represent two anticipations, there is an anticipation, which we represent by pA + (1 - p) B, which is a probability combination of the two anticipations where there is a probability p of A and 1 - p of B. By making the following assumptions we are enabled to develop the utility theory of a single individual: 1. An individual offered two possible anticipations can decide which is preferable or that they are equally desirable. 2. The ordering thus produced is transitive; if A is better than B and B is better than C then A is better than C. 3. Any probability combination of equally desirable states is just as desirable as either. 4. If A, B, and C are as in assumption (2), then there is a probability combination of A and C which is just as desirable as C. This amounts to an assumption of continuity. 5. If 0 < p < 1 and A and B are equally desirable, then pA + (1 - p) C and pB + (1 - p) C are equally desirable. Also, if A and B are equally desirable, A may be substituted for B in any desirability ordering relationship satisfied by B.
克朗伯兹问题解决的决策模型
克朗伯兹问题解决的决策模型一、克朗伯兹的社会学习理论概述社会学习理论（SocialLearningTheory）由班杜拉（AlbertBandura）于20世纪70年代提出，它以经典行为主义、强化理论和认知信息加工理论为基础。
克朗伯兹（JohnD.Krumboltz）将之引入生涯辅导领域。
他认为，个人的社会成熟度在很大程度上依赖于对他人行为的学习和模仿，并由此决定他们的职业导向。
克朗伯兹提出影响职业决策的四种因素：1、遗传因素，包括种族、性别、外表特征、智力、动作协调能力等。
个人由于遗传的一些特质，在某种程度上决定了个人的职业表现或影响到个人所获得的经验。
2、环境因素。
通常在个人控制之外，来自于人类活动（如社会、文化、政治、经济、家庭、教育等），或自然力量（如自然资源的分布或自然灾害等）对职业决策的影响。
3、学习经验。
克朗伯兹认为，每个人有独特的学习经验，这对于个人的生涯抉择具有重要的影响。
他提出了两种类型的学习经验：（1）工具式学习经验。
个人为了得到好的结果，在特定的环境中采取一定的行为，其后果对个人会有重要的影响作用。
克朗伯兹认为，生涯规划和职业所需的技能，可以通过工具式学习经验而获得。
（2）联结式学习经验。
个人通过观察真实和虚构的模型，通过对人、事之间的比较来学习对外部刺激做出反应。
某些环境刺激会引起个人情绪上积极或消极的反应。
如果原来属于中性的刺激与使个人产生积极或消极情绪反应的刺激同时出现，这种伴随在一起的联结关系就会使中性的刺激也具有积极或消极的情绪作用。
4、处理任务的技能，包括解决问题的能力、工作习惯、心理状态、情绪反应和认知的历程等。
克朗伯兹认为，在个人发展的历程中，上述四种因素相互作用，从而形成了个人对自我和世界的推论。
一般所谓的个人兴趣、价值观等实际上都是学习的结果。
个人学习经验的不足或不当，可能会导致形成错误的推论、单一的比较标准、夸大式的灾难情绪等种种问题，从而有碍于生涯的正常发展。
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a rX iv:mat h /55665v1[mat h.FA]3Ma y25THE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM WITH WEIGHTS BORIS RUBIN Abstract.The generalized Busemann-Petty problem asks whether origin-symmetric convex bodies in R n with smaller i -dimensional sections necessarily have smaller volume.We study the weighted version of this problem corresponding to the physical situation when bodies are endowed with mass distribution and the relevant sections are measured with attenuation.1.Introduction Let G n,i be the Grassmann manifold of i -dimensional linear sub-spaces of R n ,and let vol i (·)denote the i -dimensional volume function,1≤i ≤n .Is it true that for origin-symmetric convex bodies K and L in R n ,the inequality (1.1)vol i (K ∩ξ)≤vol i (L ∩ξ)∀ξ∈G n,i implies (1.2)vol n (K )≤vol n (L )?This question is known as the generalized Busemann-Petty problem .For i =n −1,the problem was posed by Busemann and Petty [2]in 1956.It has a long history,and the answer is affirmative if and only if n ≤4;see [3],[8],[11].For the generalized Busemann-Petty problem the following statements are known.If i =2,n =4,an affirmative answer follows from that in the case i =n −1.If 3<i ≤n −1,the negative answer was given by Bourgain and Zhang [1];see also [8],[12].For the special case,when K is a body of revolution,the answer for i =2and 3is affirmative [5],[14],[12].The case,when K is an arbitrary origin-symmetric convex body and i =2and 3,is still open.In a recent paper [16],Zvavitch considered the Busemann-Petty problem (i =n −1)in a more general setting,when volumes under consideration are evaluated with respect to general measures satisfying2BORIS RUBINcertain conditions;see also[15]where the case of the Gaussian mea-sure was considered.Motivated by these papers,we extend the results from[16]to sections of arbitrary dimension1≤i≤n−1and studya weighted version of the generalized Busemann-Petty problem.Ourapproach is new in the sense that it relies on elementary properties ofRadon transforms on the sphere and does not invoke the Fourier trans-form techniques as in[16].Main results are presented by Theorems3.1 and3.3.Diverse geometric inequalities that follow from those theoremsare exhibited in Section4.The generalized Busemann-Petty problem with weights can be givena physical meaning,when bodies under consideration are endowed with mass distribution and the relevant sections are measured withinevitable attenuation.I would like to thank Prof.Alex Koldobsky for useful discussions.2.PreliminariesWe use the following notation:S n−1is the unit sphere in R n;σn−1=2πn/2/Γ(n/2)is the area of S n−1;e1,e2,...,e n denote the coordinate unit vectors.In the following SO(n)is the special orthogonal group ofR n;SO(n−1)stands for the subgroup of SO(n)preserving e n.If i is an integer,1≤i≤n−1,then G n,i denotes the Grassmann manifoldof i-dimensional linear subspaces of R n.Forγ∈SO(n),andξ∈G n,i,we denote by dγand dξthe corresponding SO(n)-invariant measures with total mass1.For continuous functions f(θ)on S n−1andϕ(ξ)on G n,i,the totallygeodesic Radon transform R i f and its dual R∗iϕare defined by (2.1)(R i f)(ξ)= S n−1∩ξf(θ)dξθ,(R∗iϕ)(θ)= ξ∋θϕ(ξ)dθξ,where dξθand dθξdenote the induced measures on the corresponding manifolds S n−1∩ξand{ξ∈G n,i:ξ∋θ};see[6],[10].The precise meaning of the second integral is(2.2)(R∗iϕ)(θ)= SO(n−1)ϕ(rθγp0)dγ,θ∈S n−1,where p0=R e n−i+1+...+R e n is the coordinate i-dimensional plane and rθ∈SO(n)is a rotation satisfying rθe n=θ.The corresponding duality relation reads(2.3)1σn−1S n−1f(θ)(R∗iϕ)(θ)dθTHE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM3 and is applicable provided the integral in either side isfinite for f and ϕreplaced by|f|and|ϕ|,respectively.The Radon transform R i and its dual extend as linear bounded op-erators from L1(S n−1)to L1(G n,i)and from L1(G n,i)to L1(S n−1),re-spectively.Moreover,they can be defined forfinite Borel measures. Specifically,ifµis such a measure on G n,i,then,according to(2.3), R∗iµis afinite Borel measure on S n−1(i.e.,a linear continuous func-tional on C(S n−1))defined by(2.4)(R∗iµ,f)=σn−1β(a)ar i−1β(r)dr≤br n−1α(r)dr−a n−iα(a)4BORIS RUBIN Proof.This inequality is equivalent toa n−iα(a)σi−1G n,iV u(K∩ξ)dξ=σn−1THE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM5 (a)u(x)is an even function which is positive and continuous for x∈R n\{0}and such that|x|i−n u(x)is locally integrable;(b)v(x)is a nonnegative,even,locally integrable function,and the function vθ(r)=v(rθ)is continuous in r>0for almost allθ∈S n−1;(c)(the comparison condition)The function aθ(r)=r n−i v(rθ).u(ρK(θ)θ)Theorem3.1.Let2≤i≤n−1and suppose that u and v satisfy the conditions(a)-(c)above.If the comparison function a K(θ)is rep-resented by the dual Radon transform of a positive measureµon G n,i, i.e.,a K=R∗iµ,then for any symmetric star body L in R n,satisfying(3.3) K∩ξu(x)dx≤ L∩ξu(x)dx,∀ξ∈G n,i,we have(3.4) K v(x)dx≤ L v(x)dx.A few words are in order on how one should interpret the key equal-ity a K=R∗iµ.Note that by(a)and(b),the functions b K and b L are continuous,and a K∈L1(S n−1).On the other hand,R∗iµis a measure;see definition(2.4).The equality a K=R∗iµmeans that S n−1a K(θ)f(θ)dθ=(R∗iµ,f)for any f∈C(S n−1)or R∗iµis an abso-lutely continuous measure(with respect to the Lebesgue measure on S n−1)with density a K.Proof of Theorem3.1.The result is an immediate consequence of the following inequalities:(3.5) S n−1a K(θ)b K(θ)dθ≤ S n−1a K(θ)b L(θ)dθ.6BORIS RUBIN(3.6)V v(K)− S n−1a K(θ)b K(θ)dθ≤V v(L)− S n−1a K(θ)b L(θ)dθ,in which a K(θ),b K(θ)and b L(θ)are defined by(3.2)and(3.1).The inequality(3.5)can be easily obtained if we write(3.3)as(R i b K)(ξ)≤(R i b L)(ξ)and make use of the definition(2.4):S n−1a K(θ)b K(θ)dθ=(R∗iµ,b K)=σn−1σi−1G n,i(R i b L)(ξ)dµ(ξ)=(R∗iµ,b L)= S n−1a K(θ)b L(θ)dθ.The inequality(3.6)can be derived from(2.6)if we set a=ρK(θ), b=ρL(θ),α(r)=v(rθ),β(r)=u(rθ).This givesρK(θ)0r n−1v(rθ)dr−ρn−iK(θ)v(ρK(θ)θ)u(ρK(θ)θ)ρL(θ)r i−1u(rθ)drorρK(θ)0r n−1v(rθ)dr−a K(θ)b K(θ)≤ρL(θ)r n−1v(rθ)dr−a K(θ)b L(θ).Integrating the latter over S n−1,we obtain(3.6).Remark3.2.1.We did not include the case i=1in Theorem3.1 because in this case the implication(3.3)⇒(3.4)is true for any non-negative u and v satisfying the condition(a)and(b)above.The next theorem shows that the assumption a K=R∗iµ,µ>0, in Theorem3.1is ly,if it fails,then there exist origin-symmetric convex bodies K and L such that V u(K∩ξ)≤V u(L∩ξ) for allξ∈G n,i,but V v(K)>V v(L).More precisely,the following statement holds.Theorem3.3.Let u and v satisfy the conditions(a)-(c)above.Sup-pose also that v is positive and both functions are infinitely differentiableTHE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM7 away from the origin.Given an infinitely smooth origin-symmetric con-vex body L⊂R n with positive curvature,let(3.7)a L(θ)≡aθ(ρL(θ))=ρn−iL (θ)v(ρL(θ)θ)σi−1G n,ig1ϕ>0.8BORIS RUBINNow we define an origin-symmetric convex body K so that(3.13)b K(θ)=b L(θ)+εg(θ),assumingε>0sufficiently small(the proof of validity of this definition almost coincides with that of Proposition2in[16]).Multiplying(3.13) by a L and integrating over S n−1,we getS n−1a Lb K= S n−1a L b L+ε S n−1a L g.Owing to(3.12),this gives(3.10).The proof of(3.11)is similar to that of(3.6)in Theorem3.1and relies on the inequality(2.6)in which one should set a=ρL(θ),b=ρK(θ),α(r)=v(rθ),β(r)=u(rθ).4.Corollaries and partial resultsTheorems3.1and3.3give rise to a series of statements.Some ofthem are new and others were obtained before in a more complicated way.Below we present a few examples.4.1.The case of equal weights.Let u be a positive even functions on R n which is continuous away from the origin and|x|i−n u(x)is locally integrable.Suppose the weights in Theorems3.1and3.3are equal,i.e.,v≡u.Then a K(θ)=ρn−iK(θ)and we have the following statement. Corollary4.1.(i)Ifρn−iK =R∗iµwhereµis a positive measure on the Grassmanni-nan G n,i1,then for any symmetric star body L in R n,satisfying (4.1)V u(K∩ξ)≤V u(L∩ξ)∀ξ∈G n,iwe have V u(K)≤V u(L).(ii)Let L be an infinitely smooth origin-symmetric convex body inR n so thatρn−iL =R∗iϕfor someϕ∈C∞(G n,i).Ifϕ(ξ)<0for someξ∈G n,i,then there is a convex symmetric body K in R n which obeys (4.1)and V u(K)>V u(L).For i=n−1this statement was proved by A.Zvavitch[16]who used the Fourier transform approach.The key question is what can one say about validity of the representation(4.2)ρn−iK=R∗iµ,µ≥0.It is known[1],[7],[12],that if i>3,then there is an infinitely smooth origin-symmetric strictly convex body for which(4.2)fails,and we areTHE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM9 in the situation of the statement(ii)above.In the special case i=n−1 corresponding to the Busemann-Petty problem with equal weights,this gives a negative answer to this problem for all n>4.If n=3,4,the validity of(4.2)for i=n−1was proved by different methods in a series of publications;see,e.g.,[3],[8],[14],[11],and references therein. The cases i=2and i=3when n>4are the most difficult.In these cases the validity of(4.2)is known only for bodies of revolution [5],[12].For arbitrary convex bodies the problem is still open.4.2.The case of power weights.Let u(x)=|x|α,v(x)=|x|β. Then the conditions(a)-(c)have the form(4.3)0<α+i≤β+n.The function a K(θ)isρK(θ)β+n−α−i.Representation of this function by the dual Radon transform of a positive measure and the relevant gener-alization of the Busemann-Petty problem was studied in[12].By mak-ing use of Erdelyi-Kober fractional integrals,it was proved,that for ev-ery i>3,there exist an infinitely smooth origin-symmetric strictly con-vex body L of revolution for which the representationρL(θ)β+n−α−i= R∗iµfails to be true withµ>0.By Theorem3.3,it follows that if i>3and0<α+i≤β+n,then there exists a convex symmetric body K such that(4.4) K∩ξ|x|αdx≤ L∩ξ|x|αdx∀ξ∈G n,i, K|x|βdx> L|x|βdx.For i=2and3,the representationρK(θ)β+n−α−i=R∗iµ,µ>0, corresponding to Theorem3.1,is known to be true in the caseα+i+1=β+n[12].We observe that it is also true ifα+i=β+n because in this case the equality1=R∗iµtrivially holds withµ≡1.More subtle results in the cases i=2and3,covering the whole domain(4.3),were obtained for bodies of revolution;see[12]for details.For arbitrary symmetric convex bodies,the caseα+i=β+n(i=2,3)remains open.The caseα+i>β+n contradicts(4.3)and is also open because it does not fall into the scope of Theorems3.1and3.3(in this case the condition(c)is not satisfied).It is worth exhibiting the particular caseβ=0;i=2,3,when the implication(4.5) K∩ξ|x|αdx≤ L∩ξ|x|αdx∀ξ∈G n,i=⇒vol n(K)≤vol n(L)holds providedα=n−i−1andα=n−i.It may fail ifα<0and the question is open for0≤α<n−i(α=n−i−1)andα>n−i.10BORIS RUBIN4.3.More general homogeneous weights.The case α−β=n −i in the previous subsection when aK (θ)≡1deserves special mentioning.In this case,owing to Theorem 3.1,the implication (4.6) K ∩ξ|x |αdx ≤ L ∩ξ|x |αdx ∀ξ∈G n,i =⇒ K |x |βdx ≤ L|x |βdxis valid for all symmetric star bodies K and L and all 0<i <n .This observation can be essentially generalized.One can ask the following question:For which more general homogeneous weights the implication (4.7)V u (K ∩ξ)≤V u (L ∩ξ)∀ξ∈G n,i =⇒V v (K )≤V v (L )is independent of the choice of symmetric star bodies K and L ,i.e.,a K (θ)is independent of K ?The following theorem answers this ques-tion.Theorem 4.2.Let u and v be homogeneous functions of degree αand β,respectively,which satisfy the conditions (a)-(c)above.Suppose that α−β=n −i and there is a function ϕ∈L 1(G n,i )such that(4.8)v (θ)=u (θ)(R ∗i ϕ)(θ)for almost all θ∈S n −1.Then the implication (4.7)holds for any symmetric star bodies K and L in R n .Proof.The statement is a consequence of Theorem 3.1,because for any symmetric star bodies K ,a K (θ)=ρn −i K (θ)v (ρK (θ)θ)ραK (θ)u (θ)=v (θ)π(i −1)/2σn −i −1Γ(γ/2)sin γ+i −n [d (e n ,S n −1∩ξ)],THE GENERALIZED BUSEMANN-PETTY PROBLEM11 d(·,·)being the geodesic distance on S n−1.By Theorem4.2,for any symmetric star bodies K and L in R n,the inequality (4.9) K∩ξ|x|αdx≤ L∩ξ|x|αdx∀ξ∈G n,iimplies(4.10) K|x|βwγ(x)dx≤ L|x|βwγ(x)dx.In particular(setα=0)for anyγ>0,(4.11) K|x′|γ+i−n|x|−γdx≤ L|x′|γ+i−n|x|−γdx provided K∩ξdx≤ L∩ξdx∀ξ∈G n,i.We conclude this article by laying stress on the question that is of major importance in Theorems3.1and3.3:Is it possible to rep-resent the comparison function a K(θ)by the dual Radon transform of a positive measure?This question is difficult even in the case i=n−1when the corresponding Radon transform(it is known as the Minkowski-Funk transform)is actually self-adjoint and injective. The case1<i<n−1is much more difficult because the dual Radon transform is non-injective for such i(it has a nontrivial kernel).These difficulties have been overcome so far only in some particular cases us-ing the tools fractional calculus,the Fourier analysis,and known facts from the theory of Radon transforms.References[1]J.Bourgain,G.Zhang,On a generalization of the Busemann-Petty prob-lem,Convex geometric analysis(Berkeley,CA,1996),65–76,Math.Sci.Res.Inst.Publ.,34,Cambridge Univ.Press,Cambridge,1999.[2]H.Busemann,C.M.Petty,Problems on convex bodies,Math.Scand.4(1956),88–94.[3]R.J.Gardner,Geometric tomography,Cambridge University Press,NewYork,1995;updates in ∼gardner/.[4]P.Goodey,E.Lutwak,W.Weil,Functional analytic characterizations ofclasses of convex bodies,Math.Z.222(1996),363–381.[5] E.L.Grinberg,G.Zhang,Convolutions,transforms,and convex bodies,Proc.London Math.Soc.(3),78(1999),77–115.[6]S.Helgason,The Radon transform,Birkh¨a user,Boston,Second edition,1999.[7] A.Koldobsky,A generalization of the Busemann-Petty problem on sec-tions of convex bodies,Israel J.Math.110(1999),75–91.12BORIS RUBIN[8],Notes on Radon transforms in integral geometry,Fractional Cal-culus and Applied Analysis6(2003),25–72.[12] B.Rubin,G.Zhang,Generalizations of the Busemann-Petty problem forsections of convex bodies,J.Funct.Anal.213(2004),473–501.[13]G.Zhang,Sections of convex bodies,Amer.J.Math.118(1996),319–340.[14],The Busemann-Petty problem for arbitrary measures,Math.Ann.331(2005),867–887.Department of Mathematics,Louisiana State University,Baton Rouge, LA,70803USAE-mail address:borisr@。