跨文化交际复习

跨文化交际复习
名词解释：
1. Intercultural Communication
It can be simply defined as communication between people of different cultures.
2.Culture
Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.
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Act and process of sending and receiving messages among people.
4.Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message.
5.Nonverbal communication
The messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication.
Unit 1
Case 1
A man was trying to explain to a blind friend what colors are. He began with the color white.
“Well,”he said, “it is like snow on the hills.”
“Oh,”the blind man said, “then it must be a wet and dampish sort of
color, isn’t it?”
“No, no,”the man said, “it is also the same color as cotton or wool.”“Oh, yes, I understand. It must be fluffy color.”
“No, it is also like paper.”
“Then it must be a crackling or fragile color,”said the blind man.”“No, not at all. It is also like china.”
Q:Why is it difficult to explain to a blind person what colors are?
A normal man with visual sense.
A blind man without vision, mainly by tactile sensation.
They do not share the same experiences.
80s-90s
It is those different experiences that make up what is called “culture”. The differences m ay cause misunderstandings.
Case 2
Offering help
A Chinese young teacher was assigned to go to airport to meet a visiting American professor. When she arrived at the airport, she found that the professor had heavy suitcases and some smaller bags. He was an old man, about 70 years old. And they could not find a luggage trolley, so she wanted to help him with his luggage.
Several times, she offered to take a heavy suitcase, but he refused by saying he can handle them by himself. However, he had difficulties to move
both two heavy suitcases. At one point, when they stopped suddenly, one suitcase is down. When she picked it up, he says “I can handle this myself!”But being polite, she moved this suitcase to the van.
When they come to the van, he seems to be annoyed with her. He hardly spoke with her the whole way to the school.
1.Why do you think the professor became annoyed?
2. Was it wrong for the Chinese young teacher to try to help
the old professor with his luggage?
3. What differences does the story reflect between American cultures and Chinese culture?
The young Chinese teacher of English encounters no fewer than three problems:(1)Cultural Problem (2)Personality Problem (3)A Simple Misunderstanding
Case 3
Touching a stranger
A Kazakhstan girl, in China studying Chinese, was shocked when a Chinese grandma touched her knee kindly on a bus.
Once in a very cold winter day, she took a bus to school, wearing a mini-skirt. When she got on the bus, she sat in front of a Chinese grandma. The grandma took a look at her for about 5 minutes, and then the grandma put her hands on her knees and asked “Aren’t you cold? It is winter. You have to wear jeans.”
She was a little scared because she barely know a person will touch her and give her an advice about what should her wear. It is quite uncommon in her country.
Purpose of Intercultural Communication
(1).Have a better understanding of foreign cultures and domestic cultures
(2).Increase the culture awareness and sensitivity
(3).Develop effective strategies in dealing with potential cultural conflicts
(4).Improve your intercultural communicative competence
Case 4 P23
1.Why were Richard’s sincere compliments misunderstood by the Egyptian family?
In Egyptian culture, the human relationship is valued so highly that it is not expressed in an objective and impersonal way.
While Americans are more likely to speak of them in less personal, more objective terms.
Richard’s mistake: praise the food itself rather than the total evening.
For the host and hostess, it is like he attended an art exhibit and complimented the artist by saying: “What beautiful frames your pictures are in.”
2.What was wrong in the way Richard dealt with the problem in Japan? Japanese people value order and harmony among a group, and the organization itself is valued more than any particular members.
Americans stress individuality.
Richard’s mistake: make great efforts to defend himself.
Even if the others knew that the errors were not intentional, it is not right to defend yourself. The blame’s intention is to warn others of similar mistakes.
A simple apology and acceptance of the blame would be appropriate.
3.Which behavior was considered improper in England when Richard was taking tea?
Richard’s mistake: help himself to some sugar and cream.
The values expressed in the gesture of taking sugar and cream:
For Americans: Help yourself.
For Englishmen: Be my guest.
The ideal guest at an American party is one who “makes himself at home,”even answering the door or fixing his own drink.
While in many other countries, including the Britain, such guest behavior is rude.
Purpose of Intercultural Communication
(1)Have a better understanding of foreign cultures and domestic cultures
(2)Increase the culture awareness and sensitivity
(3)Develop effective strategies in dealing with potential cultural conflicts
(4)Improve your intercultural communicative competence Classification of Intercultural Communication
(1)International communication:
always take place between nations and government rather than individuals. quite formal.
E.g. if the Chinese Chairman communicate officially with the American president.
(2)Interracial communication:
occurs when the source and receivers exchange messages are from different races.
E.g. if an African American interacts with a white American.
(3)Inter-ethnic communication:
refers to communication between people of the same race, but different ethnic background.
E.g. if a Tibetan communicates with a Han.
(4)Inter-regional communication:
refer to the exchanges of message between members of the dominant culture within a country, but different regions.
E.g. In China, if northerner interacts with a southerner.
What are the three factors that affect the study of intercultural communication?
Social-cultural elements
Verbal elements
Nonverbal elements
Unit 2
Case 1 P23
(1)What do you think of the Korean student’s behavior in class?
A common cultural misunderstanding in classes involves conflicts between what is said to be direct communication style and indirect communication style. In American culture, people tend to say what is on their minds and mean what they say. Therefore, students in class are expected to ask questions when they need clarification.
(2)Why did the students from Mexico readily adopt the techniques of asking questions in class?
Mexican culture shares this preference of style with American culture in some situations, and that’s why the students from Mexico readily adopted the techniques of asking questions in class. However, Korean people generally prefer indirect communication style, and therefore they tend not to say what is on their minds and to rely more on implications and inference, so as to be polite and respectful and avoid losing face through any improper verbal behavior. As is mentioned in the case, to many Koreans, numerous questions would show a disrespect for the teacher, and would also reflect that the student has not studied hard enough.
1.Characteristics of Culture
(1)Culture is learned.
(2)Culture is dynamic.
(3)Culture guides people’s behavior.
(4)A large part of culture is unconscious.
2.The Nature of Culture
(1)Culture is Like an Iceberg
(2)Culture is Our Software
(3)Culture is Like the Water a Fish Swim in
(4)Culture is the Grammar of Our Behavior
3.The Functions of Communication
(1) Allow you to gather information about other people.
(2)Help fulfill interpersonal needs.
(3)Establish personal identities.
(4)Influence others.
4.Classification of communication
(1)In terms of who communicates with whom, whether it is human beings, animals or machines
Human Communication
Animal Communication
Human-animal Communication
Human-machine Communication
Machine-to-machine Communication
(2)Depending on the number of person involved in communication Intrapersonal communication (内向传播) Interpersonal communication (人际传播)
Organizational communication (组织传播)
Mass communication (大众传播)
(3)Two-way communication
Communicators can see each other and can monitor each other’s behavior.
Direct / Face-to-Face Communication
(4)One-way communication
Communicators cannot see each other and cannot monitor each other’s behavior.
Indirect / Distance Communication
5.Elements of Communication
Context, Participants, Messages, Channels, Noise, Feedback Unit 3
1. Why is one culture different from another?
Perception (how we sense the world)
Belief (what we believe as true)
Value (a system of criteria known as rules and guideposts)
2. How to classify different cultures?
1). Hofstede’s Cultural Value System Cultural Dimensions
Individualism-collectivism个人主义与集体主义
Uncertainty avoidance不确定性规避
Power distance权力距离
Masculinity-femininity刚柔性/ 男性度和女性度
Time-orientation时间导向
Individualism-collectivism个人主义与集体主义
Case 1:
Richard is an engineer from the United States. In Japan he had an even less pleasant experience though he thought he had handled it well.
A number of serious mistakes had occurred in a project he was
supervising. While the fault did not lie with any one person, he was a supervisor and at least partly to blame. At a special meeting called to discuss the problem, poor Richard made an effort to explain in detail why he had done what he had done.
He wanted to show that anybody in the same situation could have made the same mistake and to tacitly suggest that he should not be blamed unduly. He even went to the trouble of distributing materials which explained the situation rather clearly. And yet, even during his explanation, he sensed that something he was saying or doing was wrong.
America—individualism
Japan—collectivism
At the negotiating table, differences in this dimension can clearly cause serious conflict. Americans too often expect their Japanese counterparts to make decisions right at the negotiating table, and the Japanese are constantly
surprised to find individual members of the American team promoting their own positions, decisions, and ideas, sometimes openly contradicting one another.
Case 10 P97
From which perspective of cultural dimension theory can you analyze the intercultural communication here?
Individualism – Collectivism
In Japan, the managers will take good care of the employees and the employees are expected to devote themselves to the development of the company and, if it is necessary, to sacrifice their own interests for the interests of the company. Also the right to decide usually lies with the dominating male.
But for the French, individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and their families.
Uncertainty avoidance不确定性规避: High uncertainty avoidance &Low uncertainty avoidance
Case 2:
E.g. the superior & subordinate
A Chinese or an American superior can accept more suggestions than
a Japanese.
The Chinese or American workers tend to do the work by themselves.
The Japanese workers will finish the task exactly according to
the order from the superior.
Power distance权力距离: High PD Culture &Low PD Culture Case 9 P96
From which perspective of cultural dimension theory can you analyze the intercultural communication here?
Power distance – hierarchy
The man’s grandfather happened to drop in and began to comment on how the company had been formed and had been built up by the traditional practices that the young executives had recently discarded.
The young man said nothing and just nodded and agreed with his grandfather.
While Phil was confused and just started to protest.
In Japanese society, how hierarchy is formed depends mainly on seniority, social roles and gender.
As a respectable senior member of the family and the former leader of the company, the grandfather obviously overpowered the inexperienced young chairman.
In Japan, the grandfather seemed to be an absolute authority for the young chairman.
Challenging or disagreeing with elders’ opinions would b e deemed as being disrespectful and is often condemned. People in lower
positions are expected to be loyal and obedient t to authority.
In Western countries, particularly American culture, seniority seldom matters much in such situations.
Young children are encouraged to challenge authority and voice their opinions.
Masculinity-femininity刚柔性/ 男性度和女性度
Time-orientation时间导向
2). Model by Kluckhohn
1) = Human nature orientation 人性取向
2) = Man-nature orientation 人天取向
3) = Time orientation 时间取向
4) = Activity orientation 行为取向
5) = Social orientation 人际取向
Case study
During the American Civil War, a very hungry young man fell down in front of a farm gate. The farmer gave him food but in return he asked the young man to move a pile of wood in his yard – in fact it was not at all necessary to move the wood. When the young man left, the farmer moved the wood back to its original place. Seeing all this, the farmer’s son was confused.
1. Why did the farmer do that?
Save face and dignity of the young man
Accept --- Earn
2. What values are reflected in this story?
Individualistic value system
3). Edward T. Hall’s Model
Human communication is dependent on the context in which it occurs.
Communicative contexts include the physical, sociological, and psychological environments.
High- and Low-context cultures
High-context Culture: 高语境文化
In high-context messages, meaning is not necessarily contained in words. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. Meaning is also conveyed through status (age, sex, education, family background, title, and affiliation).
Indirect verbal communication pattern
Read between the lines
Change little over time
Examples of high-context cultures include Chinese, Japanese, Middle Easterners, etc.
Low-context Culture: 低语境文化
In low-context messages, the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code.
Direct verbal communication pattern
Send clear and persuasive message
Examples of low-context cultures include English, North American, German, etc.
P115
Case 1 Friendship
Steve and Yaser first met in their chemistry class at an American university. Yaser was an international student from Jordan. He was excited to get to know an American. He wanted to learn more about American culture. Yaser hoped that he and Steve would become good friends.
At first, Steve seemed very friendly. He always greeted Yaser warmly before class. Sometimes he offered to study with Yaser. He even invited Yaser to eat lunch with him. But after the semester was over, Steve seemed more distant. The two former classmates didn’t see each other bery much at school. One day Yaser decided to call Steve.
Steve didn’t seem very interested in talking to him.
What was wrong in the relationship between Yaser and Steve?
Americans have school friends, work friends, sports friends and neighborhood friends. These friends are based on common interests.
When the shared activity ends, the friendship may fade.
In some cultures friendship means a strong life-long bond between two
people. In these cultures friendships develop slowly, since they are built to last.
Chinese expect friendships to be more lasting.
Chinese can usually expect much from their friends.
American friends like Chinese friends give each other emotional support in times of trouble, but they do it differently.
A westerner will respond to a friend’s trouble by asking, “What do you want to do?” The idea is to help the friend think out the problem and discover the solution he or she really prefers and then to support that solution. A Chinese friend is more likely to give specific advice to a friend
Unit 4
1.Relationship between Language and Culture:
1). As a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by
culture.
It reflects the environment in which we live and cultural values.
Case 1
Patriarchal society
湖南岳阳临湘一带，只有男性称谓，没有女性称谓，爸爸是爸，妈妈也是爸，分别男女的办法是在前面加“大”或“细”（即小）。

爸爸是大爸，妈妈是细爸。

哥哥是哥哥，姐姐也叫哥哥。

Matriarchal society
云南丽江永宁纳西族，实行称为阿注婚姻的对偶婚姻制，男女相识结成阿注关系，但男女阿注不组成家庭，女阿注所生孩子留在女方家庭抚养。

母亲的阿注、自己的生父、舅舅都用一个词表示。

母亲和母亲的直系、旁系的姐妹也只用一个词表示。

Case 2 Kinship terms in Chinese
They help to reinforce the concept of kinship which is important to the Chinese people.
《尔雅》中对儿、孙以下的称谓作了详细的描述
儿之子：孙
孙之子：曾孙
曾孙之子：玄孙
玄孙之子：来孙
来孙之子：晜孙（kun, 同昆）
晜孙之子：云孙
2). Language also exerts its influence on culture.
Each language can be used to express whatever its speaker wants to express.
2. Denotation & Connotation
Denotation （指示意义）: the primary, surface meaning, or explicit meaning, conceptual meaning
Connotation （隐含意义）: the implicit meaning, the implication of a
word, the socio-cultural and personal association
Case: Politician
Denotation: a person whose business is politics
(从事政治，关心政治，特别是以政治为生涯的人。

)
Connotation: a person who doesn’t usually keep h is promises, often cheats for his own selfish purpose.
(不讲原则，当面一套，背后一套，能言善辩，言而无信。

) 1). Overlapping words A、B概念意义相同，内涵意义相同或大致相同Head: most important
Fox: clever and deceitful
Parrot: parrot what other people say vs. 鹦鹉学舌
2). Conflicting words A、B概念意义相同，内涵意义不同
鹤vs. Crane
Chinese: the symbol of longevity
Japanese: the symbol of happiness
British: ugly bird
French: stand for stupid men and wanton woman
Dragon
Chinese: T otem
Descendants of the dragon which metaphors the Chinese nation
Symbol of Emperor
In West:an animal like a big lizard, having wings and claws, and
breathing out fire
3). Vacant words A、B概念意义相同，A有内涵意义，B无内涵意义
Totally vacant words
仁、义、礼、智、信; 功夫、阴、阳、节气、肾虚、经络
Karaoke
Allusions
An Achilles heel --- the weak or vulnerable point of a person
A Pandora’s box --- a present or something which may seem
valuable, but which brings trouble and misfortune.
Half vacant words
13: derogatory in English; Judas betray Jesus
4: derogatory in Chinese
9: commendatory in Chinese
梅兰竹菊(plum blossom, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum)
4). Parallel words
to describe a thin man: Chinese: 骨瘦如柴;
English: as thin as a shadow
to describe a tiring and miserable life: Chinese: 当牛做马
English: to lead a dog’s life ?牛vs. horse: 气壮如牛，像黄牛一样干
As strong as a horse, work like a horse。