SP(Lecture2)
《sp技巧培训》课件
详细描述
通过阅读教材、观看视频等方式 ,了解SP技巧的基本概念、原理 和应用场景,为后续的练习打下 基础。
模拟练习
总结词
在模拟环境中进行SP技巧的练习。
详细描述
利用模拟软件或模拟场景进行SP技巧的练习,可以不受时间和空间的限制,反复 练习,提高技能水平。
实战演练
例如,在面对面销售中,销售人员可以通过观察客户的言行举止来了解客户需求,通过演示产品优势来满足客户需求;在线 上销售中,销售人员可以通过提供专业的产品介绍和解答来建立客户信任关系,通过个性化的营销手段来提高客户购买意愿 。
02
SP技巧的种类
基础SP技巧
总结词
这些技巧是学习SP的基础,适合初学者掌 握。
01
SP技巧的应用领域
03
02
总结SP技巧的基本概念、特点及其在营销领 域的应用背景。
04
列举SP技巧在各个领域(如广告、公关、 销售等)的实际应用案例。
SP技巧的核心要素
05
06
分析SP技巧中的关键要素,如创意、情感 、目标受众等。
SP技巧的展望
技术发展对SP技巧的影响 探讨未来技术(如人工智能、大数据 等)如何进一步推动SP技巧的创新与
SP技巧在各行业的广泛应用
SP技巧在金融领域的应用,如 股票预测、风险评估等,可以帮
助投资者做出更明智的决策。
SP技巧在医疗领域的应用,如 疾病诊断、药物研发等,可以提
高医疗服务的准确性和效率。
SP技巧在商业领域的应用,如 市场预测、消费者行为分析等, 可以帮助企业更好地了解市场需
求和竞争状况。
SP技巧未来的发展方向
语气运用
lecture 2
Overview of Pragmatic TranslationSection 4Basic Translation Methodsand Skills常用翻译技巧一、属于转换性质的翻译方法3、主动语态与被动语态的转换3、主动语态与被动语态的转换英语中的被动语态使用得比汉语多,尤其在商务合同、科技论文等客观性比较强的文体中究其原因,至少有以下几个:1)受事方是谈话的主题或中心2)施事方不明,或无说明必要3)出于某种考虑,有意对施事方避而不谈4)语篇内部的衔接针对中英两种语言的特点,翻译英语的被动语态时,可用以下方法:1)翻译为中文的被动语态(1)The plan is going to be examined first by the research group.这个计划将先由研究小组审查。
(2)This young worker should be praised in the whole factory.这位年轻工人应当在全厂予以表扬。
(3)History is made by the people.历史是由人民创造的。
(4)Problems should be resolved in good time. This matter must be dealt with.问题应当在适当的时候(得到)解决。
这件事必须得到处理。
(5)The meeting stands adjourned to five o’clock.会议被延期到五点钟。
2)翻译为中文的主动语态(1)You are kindly requested to pay us the advanced payment.请贵方支付我方预付款。
(2)If understanding prevails, UNCTAD is in a position to replace confrontation with agreement; it cannot be put off.若能普遍达成谅解,联合国贸发会就能协议取代对抗;这项工作不能再拖下去了。
南开大学实用核磁技术lecture-2---一维氢谱
屏蔽效应和化学位移
化学位移的值由原子核周围的化学环境决定
HO-CH2-CH3
low
high
field
field
wo
Beff = Bo - Bloc --- Beff = Bo( 1 - )
化学位移
在实际中,把化学位移写成不依赖于磁场或频 率的相对数值的形式。定义化学位移是相对于 某个标准物质进行测量的,单位为ppm。
各向异性对化学位移的影响
各向异性对化学位移的影响
各向异性对化学位移的影响
单键也有各向异性,其方向与双键相似。在比较具有六元环 结构的甾体和萜类成分的氢谱时发现,直立键上质子的化学 位移一般要比平伏键小0.05~0.8。这种差别实际就是由单键 的各向异性作用引起的。
中介效应(Mesomeric Effect)对化学位移的影响
1H 13C 编辑的13C 杂核
一维核磁
化学位移,耦合常数,积分值 化学位移 C的级别 19F,31P,etc
最简单的一维核磁---单脉冲氢谱
z
Mo
y
x 90y pulse
y
z
x
Mxy
acquisition
90y
90y
n
最简单的一维核磁---单脉冲氢谱
[rel]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 [rel]
质子的化学位移---饱和碳上的质子
质子的化学位移---不饱和碳上质子
sp2杂化碳上的氢核是指烯氢和苯环上的氢,烯氢的化学位移在δ4.5~7.0 之间,芳氢及a,-不饱和羰基系统中位信号在δ6.0~8.0之间,醛基氢 在δ9.0~10.0之间。
芳环和芳杂环也是由sp2杂化碳组成的。由于受到各向异性作用,芳环 上的氢多在较低场出现核磁共振信号。
Lecture Two
H.H. Stern says that a good language teaching theory will provide a conceptual frame work devised for identifying all factors relevant in the teaching of languages and relationship between than and for giving effective direction to the practice of language teaching. guiding teaching facilitating
c. Input d. Production words, phrases, structures in situations e. Output ① Deal with ex. ② Oral or written practice Nhomakorabea
Learning
gaining knowledge or skills fixing in memory processes of cognition and noncognition learning to learn and learning to think
(Ring, ring, ring, …) SM: Good morning, madam? SW: Good morning! SM: Would you like to have the cleaning house in town? SW: Yes. SM: Then, madam, you’d better have this kind of cleaner. SW: No, I don’t. SM: What? Why not? SW: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house? SM: Ohhh.
Lecture_2
Economics2010a Fall2003Edward L.Glaeser Lecture22.Choice and Utility Functionsa.Choice in Consumer Demand Theory and Walrasian Demandb.Properties of demand from continuity and properties from WARPc.Representing Preferences with a Utility Functiond.Demand as Derived from Utility Maximizatione.Application:Fertilityx i denotes commodities,continuous numbersx x 1,x 2,....x Lvector of discretecommodities p p 1,p 2,....p L vector of prices w wealth available to be spentThe budget constraint p x i 1Lp i x iwMWG Definition2.D.1The Walrasian Budget SetB p,w x L:p x wis the set of all feasible consumption bundles for the consumer faces market prices p and has wealth w.Note:We will be treating all prices and consumption levels as being weakly positive.Prices are treated as exogenous–as they will be in the production case.While neither consumer nor producer chooses prices(generally)prices are the extra parameter in each side’s problem that ensures that demand and supply are equal.Non-linear prices are certainly possible(example2.D.4).The Walrasian Demand Function is the set C B p,w which is defined for all p,w ,or at least for a full dimensional subsetp,w L 1We generally assume that C B p,w has a single element(for convenience)but it doesn’t need to.We writeC B p,w x p,w x1 p,w ,...x L p,wWe will also generally assume that demand is continuous and differentiable. MWG Definition2.E.1:The Walrasian Demand Function ishomogeneous of degree zero ifx p, w x p,w for any p,w and 0.This property follows from the fact that choice is only a function of the budget set and B p,w x L:p x w is the same set asB p, w x L: p x wThis fairly obvious claim is in many ways the underlying intellectual basis for the economic bias that the price level doesn’t matter.Differentiating x p, w x p,w totally with respect to gives us the following equation:i 1L x k p ,w p i p i x k p ,w ww 0 i 1L x k p ,w p i p i x k x k p ,w w w x k i 1L pi k w k 0This tells you that for any commodity,the sum of own and cross price elasticities equals -1times the income elasticity.MWG Definition2.E.2Walras’Law:The Walrasian Demand correspondence x p,w satisfies Walras’law if for every p 0and w 0,we have p x w for all x x p,w .This just says that the consumer spends all of his wealth.Looking ahead,Walras’law will come about as long as consumers are not “satiated”in at least one of the goods.Walras’Law and differentiability give us two convenient equalities.Differentiating p x w with respect to w yields:i 1Lp i x i p ,w w 1or manipulating this slightly yields:i 1L x i p ,w w w x i p i x i w i 1Lw i i0,where i p i x i w ,the budget share of good i .This means that income elasticities (when weighted by budget shares)sum to one.All goods can’t be luxuries,etc.Sometimes this is known as Engel aggregation (income effects are after all drawn with Engel curves).Differentiating p x w with respect to p k yields:i 1Lp i x i p ,wp k x k 0or multiplying the whole expression by p k w : i 1L x i p ,w p k p k x i p i x i w p k x k w i 1Lp k ii k0,where again i p i x i wThis means that cross price elasticities sum to-1times the budget share of the relevant good.Overall,these elasticities have to sum to a negative number.MWG Definition2.F.1The Walrasian Demand function satisfies the weak axiom of revealed preference if the following property holds for any two price-wealth situations p,w and p ,w : If p x p ,w w and x p ,w x p,wthen p x p,w w .In words–if the goods that are chosen with budget set(a)are affordable at budget set (b),and not the same as the goods that are chosen at budget set(b),then the goods that are chosen at budget set(b) are not affordable at budget set(a).Just like in the last lecture,WARP meansthat if bundle(b)is preferred to bundle(a) in one setting,it will be preferred in all other settings.A property that follows from WARP:price changes that are fully income compensated make consumers weakly better off.Take any p,w and let p p p Compensate the consumer with an income change so that the old bundle is exactly affordable at the new prices,i.e.:w w w x p,w pThe consumer’s new consumption level atp ,w satisfies the WARP condition:p x p,w w ,which then implies thatp x p ,w w,and this holds with strict equality whenx p ,w x p,wGiven that the consumer could have chosen the old bundle,the consumer must have weakly preferred the new bundle.MWG Proposition2.F.1:WARP implies the law of compensated demand.If the Walrasian demand function x p,w satisfies Walras’Law and is homogeneous of degree zero,then x p,w satisfies the weak axiom if and only if the following property holds.For any compensated price change from an initial situation p,w to a new price wealth pair p ,w p ,p x p,x ,then p p x p ,w x p,x 0,and this equality holds strictly whenx p ,w x p,x .We are now interested only in the weakaxiom- law of demand part of the proposition.First,note that if x p ,w x p,w we’re done,so consideronly the case where x p ,w x p,w . In that case,Walras’law gives us:p x p ,w w ,and we havedefined w so that w p x p,w Together,this gives us thatp x p ,w x p,w 0But we also know that as p ,w satisfies theWARP condition:p x p,w w andx p ,w x p,wit follows that p x p ,w w.Using p x p,w w(again by Walras’Law),this gives us that:p x p ,w x p,w 0Subtraction then yields:p p x p ,w x p,w 0 Change in prices times change in quantities is negative.Since p x 0for all compensated price changes,this also holds in the limit for very small price changes and dp dx 0.We can use matrix notation and write:dx D p x p ,w dp D w x p ,w dwwhich just means:dxi 1L x 1 p i dp i x 1 w dw ,.., i 1L x L p i dp i x L w ordx D p x p ,w dp D w x p ,w x p ,w dp ordxD p x p ,w D w x p ,w x p ,wT dpThe D p x p ,w D w x p ,w x p ,wTterm is a matrix where the element in row i ,column j of the matrix isx ip k x i w xkx 1 p 1 x 1 w x 1....x 1 p L x 1w x L.............x L p 1 x L w x 1.... x L p L x Lw xLand thendpD p x p ,w D w x p ,w x p ,wT dp 0The term in brackets is the Slutsky matrix.MWG Proposition2.F.2:If a differentiable Walrasian demand function x p,w satisfies Walras’law, homogeneity of degree zero and WARP, then at any p,w the Slutsky matrix is negative semi-definite,i.e.v Sv 0for any v L.MWG Proposition2.F.3:Suppose that the Walrasian demand function x p,w is differentiably homogeneous of degree zero,and satisfies Walras’Law.Then p S p,w 0 and S p,w p 0for any p,wUtility Functions–Finally getting to the basic tool of99%ofeconomics.Back to preferences.We want fourattributes:(1)completeness and(2)transitivityThese were defined in lecture1and we refer to preferences with these attributes as being rational.Definition3.B.2.:The preference relation on X is monotone if x,y X,and y x impliesy x.It is strongly monotone if y x and y x implies y x.In many cases,we won’t naturally have monotonicity,but then a little redefinition of variables does the trick(turn a bad into a good by multiplying by-1).A slight twist(I mentioned this earlier):Definition3.B.3:The preference relation on Xis locally nonsatiated if for every x,y X,and every0,there exists a ysuch that y x and y x.This means that there exists a y vector that is arbitrarily close to x that is strictly preferred to x.One last property:Definition 3.C.1.:The preference relation on X is continuous if it is preserved under limits.That is,for any sequence of pairs x n ,y n n 1 with x n y n for all n ,x lim n x n and y lim n y n we have x y .The famous counterexample islexicographic preferences,where more of good 2is preferred to less,but unless the bundles have thesame amount good 1,then the bundle with more good 1is always preferred.Consider sequence 1,with no units of good 2and 1/n units of good 1,and sequence 2with no units of good 1,and1 1/n units of good2.For all finite n,sequence1is preferred to sequence1,but in the limit sequence1 yields zero unit of either good and sequence2yields1unit of good2and is therefore preferred.Lexicographic preferences are a famous example,but hardly amainstay of either theory or empirical work.MWG Definition1.B.2:A functionu:X is a utility function representing preference relation if for all x,y X, x y if and only if u x u y Proposition3.C.1:If the rational preference relation on L is continuous, then there is a continuous utility functionu x that represents .The proof in MWG requires monotonicity–a slight variant is toto take a probability measure on L that has positive density everywhere,and then letu x 1 prob y y x .By construction,if x y then u x u y and if u x u y then x y.Now we’ve gotten to a utility function and we know that it is continuous.MWG Definition3.B.4:The preference relation is convex if for every x X the upper contour sety Y:y x is convex,that is if y x and z x then y 1 z x for every 0,1 .MWG Definition3.B.5:The preference relation is strictly convex if for every x X if y x and z x andy z implies that y 1 z x for every 0,1 .Convex preferences imply that u . is quasi-concave,i.e.the sety L:u y u xis concave(equivalentlyu y 1 x Min u x ,u y for any x,y and all 0,1 .Strict convexity implies strictquasi-concavity.The utility maximization problem is to maximize u x subject to theconstraint p x 0.MWG Proposition3.D.1:If p 0and u . is continuous then the utility maximization problem has a solution. The proof relies on the fact that a continuous function always has a maximum on a compact set,so you just need to show that the budget set is closed and bounded,pact.Proposition3.D.2:Suppose that u . is a continuous utility functionrepresenting a locally non-satiated preference relation defined on the consumption set X L.Then the Walrasian demand correspondence has the following properties:(1)x p,w is homogeneous of degree zero in prices and wealth,i.e.x p,w x p, w for every 0(2)Walras’law p x p,w w(3)If is convex so that u . isquasi-concave,then x p,w is a convex set.Moreover if is strictly convex,so that u . is strictly quasi-concave,then x p,w consists of a single element.In practice,we write down a Langrangianmax x, U x1,x2,...x Lwi 1Lp i xiwhich yields us a system of first order conditions:U x1,x2,...x Lx ip iThese are L equations and we have L 1 unknowns,so we need to use the budget set as well to solve the problem.An application:fertility decisions.Many empirical puzzles:(1)Why does fertility drop with income so substantially across countries?(2)Why is fertility below replacement in all of Europe,but not in the U.S.?How would we capture this:Begin with U C,N –utility over consumption and kids.Assume that kids have both a cash cost(k),and a time cost(t)Assume that you have a time budget that can either be used producing kids or making money.Write down the total budget constraintWT Y C k tW NSolving C from the budget set the agent’s maximization problem reduces toU WT Y k tW N,NmaxNWhich in turn produces a F.O.C.k tW U1 WT Y k tW N,NU2 WT Y k tW N,N 0 where U1is the partial w.r.t.the1st argumentof U and similarly for U2.The marginal utility of another kid is weighed off against the marginal cost in terms of time and money.Comparative statics can be derived by (1)Using the implicit function theorem to define N Z ,where Z is a vectorrepresenting all of the parameters in this equation(i.e.,Z t,T,Y,W,k )and(2)Totally differentiating the F.O.C.to findNZ.LetF N,Z k tW U1 WT Y k tW N,NU2 WT Y k tW N,Nso that the F.O.C is F N Z ,Z 0.Differentiation w.r.t parameter Z then gives us:F1 N Z ,Z NZF2 N Z ,Z 0 from whichN Z F2 NZ ,ZF1 N Z ,Z.In this caseF1 N ,Z k tW 2U11 C ,N U22 C ,NU22 C ,N 2 k tW U12 C ,N and C WT Y k tW N .We generally assume that terms likeF1 N Z ,Z are negative(Why?)so thesign of Ndepends entirely on the sign ofZF2 N ,Z F N ,Z.ZIn the case of Z Y for example:Y k tW U1 WT Y k tW N ,N U2 WT Y k tW N ,Nk tW U11 WT Y k tW N ,N U12 WT Y k tW N ,NWhat can we say about this?Does this give us any intuition about anything?In the case of W:W k tW U1 WT Y k tW N ,N U2 WT Y k tW N ,Nk tW T tN U11 WT Y k tW N ,N T tN U12 WT Y k tW N ,NtU1 WT Y k tW N ,NIt’s the same as the unearned incomeeffect expect for the third term.What doesthat third term represent?Now let’s get a little more fancy and assume that parents care about both quantity and quantity,i.e.U C,Q,N .For simplicity assume utility is a separableand quasi-linear in consumption,soU C,Q,N C V Q,Z Q W N,Z N . Assume children cost WtQN.Then the first order conditions are:V Q,Z QWtNQandW N,Z NWtQNIf a parameter increases the marginal return to quality–this will have the following effect2V Q,Z QQ2 QZ Q2V Q,Z QQ Z QWt NZ Qand2W N,Z NN2 NZ QWt QZ Qor QZ Q2V Q,Z QQ Z Q2V Q,ZQQ2Wt 22W N,Z NN2and NZ Q2V Q,Z QQ Z Q2V Q,ZQQ22W N,Z NN2Wt 2How can we sign these two things?Each equation also tells you that the price per child rises as the quality of each child increases,and the price of quality rises as the number of children rises.Through the budget set there is an inherent substitutability between quantity and quality of children.。
Lecture2
=have an effect on... =have an influence on...
e.g. Forgiveness and encouragement can make a great difference to a
child's future.
□ embarrassed embarrassing
□ forgive
v.原谅
e.g. We are always told to forgive and forget, for there is a saying “to err is
human, to forgive divine”.
□ make a difference to...
对......产生影响
Useful Words
□ forgiveness
n.宽恕;饶恕
ask forபைடு நூலகம்beg for forgiveness 请求/乞求原谅
e.g. The little boy begged me for forgiveness when he learned what he did
hurt me badly.
a.感到尴尬的 a.令人尴尬的
e.g. I felt very embarrassed when I found my students making fun of me,
for this was very embarrassing.
□ keep/stay calm 保持冷静; calm/cool down 冷静下来
所有(三者以上) 任何一个(三者以上) 没有一个(三者以上)
e.g. All of the apples are small. You can take any of them. None of them is ripe.
lecture2
社会模型
Interactionist model of society society is interaction, communication, and negotiation 典型symbolic interactionism (G. H. Mead)
文化
文化
“观乎人文,以化成天下”----《易经》
社会模型
冲突模型(conflict moodel of society): society is an arena of conflict among people 典型如马克思理论 “资本主义的国家,不过是资产阶级的司令部” “意识形态”(ideology) “在每一个时代,统治阶级 的思想就是主导思想”(《德意志意识形态》)。 其他形式的冲突模型:Max Weber; R. Dahrendorfte sociology: “the science of society” “社会----不管其形式如何----究竟是什么呢?是人们交 互作用的产物。” “生产关系总合起来就构成为所谓社会关系,构成 为社会” (马克思) 这样定义的社会,是一个实体概念,但是,又不是具体 的实体,是那种必须通过观察、体会其效用才能证明 其存在的实体,如同能量一样。
“人类自古以来有三个敌人:第一是自然,第 二是他人,第三是自我。”-----罗素 克服自然------material culture 与他人相处----ethic culture 克服自我/表达自我----expressive culture
Taylor的定义
“文化或文明是一个复杂的整体,它包括知识、 信仰、艺术、伦理道德、法律、风俗和作为一 个社会成员的人通过学习而获得的任何其他能 力和习惯。”-----E.B. Taylor 1871 B. Malinowski : 增加了物质文化
2023年新人教版高一英语必修一单词表
2023 人教版高一英语必修一必修 1Welcome Unit1.exchange /ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ/n. [C;U] 交换;沟通;交易vt. 交换;沟通;交易;兑换2.lecture /ˈlektʃə(r)/n. 讲座;讲课;演讲;教训vi.〔开〕讲座;演讲;讲课vt. 训斥3.registration /ˌredʒɪˈstreɪʃn / n.登记;注册;挂号4.register/ ˈredʒɪstə(r) /vt.& vi. 登记;注册n.[C]登记表;注册簿5.sex /seks/ n. 性别6.female /ˈfi:meɪl/adj. 女(性)的; 雌性的n. 雌性动〔植〕物;女子7.male / meɪl/adj. 男(性)的; 雄性的n. 雄性动〔植〕物;男子8.nationality /ˌnæʃəˈnæləti/n.国籍;民族9.nation / ˈneɪʃn/n.国家;民族;国民10.designer /dɪˈzaɪnə(r)/n.设计师;设计者11.design / dɪˈzaɪn /n. 设计; 方案;图案vt. 设计;筹划12.campus / ˈkæmpəs /n.校园;校区13.formal / ˈfɔ:ml / adj.正式的;正规的14.anxious / ˈæŋkʃəs / adj.焦虑的;担忧的;渴望的15.annoyed /əˈnɔɪd/ adj.〔人感到〕愤慨的;生气的16.annoy /əˈnɔɪ/vt. 使愤慨;打搅17.frightened /ˈfraɪtnd/ adj.〔人〕受惊吓的;〔人感到〕可怕的18.senior /ˈsi:niə(r)/ adj.〔级别、地位等〕较高的; 年长的n. 较年长者senior high school 〔美国〕高中19.at last 最终; 最终20.outgoing / ˈaʊtgəʊɪŋ / adj.爱交际的;外向的;开朗的21.impression /ɪmˈpreʃn/ n.印象;感想make an impression 留下好印象22.impress /ɪmˈpres/34. take notes 记笔记vt. 使鄙视;给…留下深刻的好印象35. flash /[flæʃ/vi. 留下印象;引人注目23.what if 假设…会怎么样呢?24.guy / gaɪ / n. 小伙子;男人;家伙n. 闪光;信号vi. 闪耀;闪光;发出信号vt. 使闪耀;使闪光;发出〔信号〕25.concentrate / ˈkɒnsntreɪt / vt.&vi. flash card 教学卡片;识字卡集中〔留意力〕;认真于; 聚拢会神26.experiment /ɪkˈsperɪmənt/ n.试验;试验27.leave...alone 不打搅..., 不惊动...28.awkward / ˈɔ:kwəd / adj.令人犯难的;难应付的29.junior / ˈdʒu:niə(r)/adj. 地位〔或职位、级别〕低下的n. 职位较低者; 〔体育运动中〕青少年junior high school〔美国〕初级中学30.explore / ɪkˈsplɔ:(r)/vt.& vi.探究;勘探31.confident /ˈkɒnfɪdənt/adj.自信的;有把握的32.confidence /ˈkɒnfɪdəns/n.信念; 信任;自信念33.forward / ˈfɔ:wəd /adv.〔also forwards〕向前;前进adj. 向前的;前进的look forward to 期望;期盼anise [ NAmE- ize]/”ɔ:(r)gənaɪz/v t. 组织;筹备;安排;组建vi. 组建;成立anisation[ NAmE- ization] /ˌɔ:gənaɪˈzeɪʃn/ n. 组织; 团体;机构38.goal / [gəʊl / n.目标; 球门; 射门39.strategy /ˈstrætədʒi/n.策略;筹划40.partner / ˈpɑ:tnə(r)/ n.同伴;配偶;合伙人41.curious /ˈkjʊəriəs/adj.奇异的;求知欲强的pany / ˈkʌmpəni/n.公司;商行;陪伴43.personality / ˌpɜ:səˈnæləti / n.性格;共性44.style / staɪl/ n. 方式; 作风高一英语必修1 45.revise / rɪˈvaɪz/ vt.& vi.修改; 修订;复习Unit 11.teenage / ˈti:neɪdʒ/ adj.十几岁的〔指13 至19 岁〕;青少年的2.teenager / ˈti:neɪdʒə(r)/ n.〔13 至19 岁之间的〕青少年3.ballet /ˈbæleɪ/ n. 芭蕾舞;芭蕾舞剧4.volunteer /ˌvɒlənˈtɪə(r)/n. 志愿者5.debate /dɪ”beɪt/n.辩论;争论vt.& vi 辩论;争论6.prefer / prɪˈfɜ:(r)/ vt. 更宠爱prefer…to …宠爱……多于……7.content / ”kɒntent / n. 内容; [pl]名目; 〔书、讲话、节目等的〕主题8.movement / ˈmu:vmənt / n.动作;运动;活动9.greenhouse / ˈgri:nhaʊs/ n.温室;暖房10.clean up 清扫〔或去除〕干净11.suitable /ˈsu:təbl/ adj. 适合的;适用的suitable for 对……适合的12.actually / ˈæktʃuəli/ adv. 事实上;确实13.challenge /ˈtʃæləndʒ/n. 挑战;困难任务vt. 疑心;向……挑战14.title /ˈtaɪtl/ n. 〔书、诗歌等的〕名称;标题;职称;头衔15.topic / ˈtɒpɪk/n. 话题;标题16.freshman / ˈfreʃmən / n.〔especially NAmE〕〔中学〕九年级学生;〔大学〕一年级生17.confuse /kən”fju:z/ vt.使糊涂;使迷惑18.confusing /kənˈfju:zɪŋ/ adj.难以理解的;不清楚的19.confused /kənˈfju:zd/ adj.人感到糊涂的;迷惑的20.fluent/”flu:ənt/adj.〔尤指外语〕流利的;娴熟的21.graduate /”ɡrædʒʊeɪt/ vi. &vt.毕业;获得学位/”ɡrædʒʊət/ n. 毕业生22.recommend /ˌrekəˈmend/vt.建议;推举;介绍23.sign up ( for sth) 报名〔参与课程〕24.advanced / ədˈvɑ:nst/ adj.高级的;高等的;先进的25.advance / ədˈvɑ:ns / n. 前进;进展vi. 前进;进展vt. 进展;促进37.plate /pleɪt/ n. 盘子,碟子26.literature / ˈlɪtrətʃə(r)/n.文学; 文学作品27.extra-curricular / ”ekstrəkə”rɪkjələ(r)/ adj. 课外的; 课程以外的28.extra /”ekstrə/adj. 额外的;附加的29.obviously / ˈɒbviəsli/ adv.明显地;明显地30.quit / kw ɪt/ vi. & vt.〔quit,quit,quitting〕停顿;戒掉;离开〔工作职位、学校等〕31.improve /ɪm”pru:v/vi. & vt.改进;改善32.responsible /rɪˈspɒnsəbl/adj.负责的;有责任的be responsible for 对……负责任33.responsibility /rɪˌspɒnsəˈbɪləti/n.责任;义务34.solution / səˈlu:ʃn/ n.解决方法;答案35.schedule /ˈʃedju:l ;NAmE ˈskedʒul /n. 工作打算;日程安排vt. 安排;预定36.editor /ˈedɪtə(r)/ n. 主编;编辑;编者高一英语必修1 38.adventure /ədˈventʃə(r)/ n.冒险;奇遇39.expert /”ekspɜːt/ n.专家;行家adj. 娴熟的;内行的;专家的40.youth /ju:θ/ n. 青年时期; 青春41.behaviour /bɪˈheɪvjə(r)/n. 行为; 举止42.generation /ˌdʒenəˈreɪʃn/n. 一代〔人〕43.attract /ə”trækt/ vt.吸引;引起……的留意〔或兴趣〕be attracted to 宠爱44.focus / ˈfəʊkəs /vi. & vt. 集中〔精力、留意力等〕;〔使〕调整焦距n. 中心;重点;焦点45.addicted /əˈdɪktɪd/ adj.有瘾的;上瘾的;入迷的addicted to 对……很入迷46.addict /ˈædɪkt/ n.对…入迷的人;吸毒成瘾的人47.adult /ˈædʌlt/n. 成年人adj. 成年的;成熟的48.Chicago / ʃɪ”kɑ:gəʊ/ n.芝加哥〔美国城市名〕49.Seoul /səʊl/ n. 首尔〔韩国首都〕vi.& vt.〔使〕变窄12. flat / flæt /Unit 21.castle / ˈkɑ:sl/ n. 城堡;堡垒2.apply / əˈplaɪ/vi. &vt.申请;恳求vt. 应用; 涂〔油漆、乳剂〕3.visa /ˈvi:zə/ n. 签证4.rent / rent/ vt. 租用;出租vi. 租用;租金为n. 租金5.pack /pæk/vi. & vt. 整理〔行李〕vt. 包装n.〔商品的〕纸包;纸袋;大包6.amazing / əˈmeɪzɪŋ / adj.令人惊异的;令人惊喜的7.amazed / əˈmeɪzd / adj.〔人感到〕惊异的;惊喜的8.arrangement /əˈreɪndʒmənt/n.安排;筹备9.extremely / ɪkˈstri:mli / adv.极其; 格外10.source /sɔ:s/n. 来源;出处11.narrow /ˈnærəʊ/adj. 狭窄的adj. 平坦的;扁平的n. 公寓; 单元房13.powerful / ˈpaʊəfl / adj.强有力的;有权势的;有影响力的14.empire /ˈempaɪə(r)/ n.帝国15.emperor / ˈempərə(r)/n. 皇帝16.site / saɪt / n.地点;位置;现场17.take control of 把握; 接收18.official /ə”fɪʃl/adj. 官方的;正式的; 公务的n. 官员;要员19.recognise [ NAmE -ize] /ˈrekəgnaɪz/vt. 区分出; 成认;认可20.type / taɪp/n. 类型; 种类vi. & vt. 打字21.flight /flaɪt/ n.空中航行;航班;航程22.accommodation / əˌkɒməˈdeɪʃn/ n.住处;停留处;膳宿23.unique / juˈni:k / adj.唯一的;独特的;特有的24.path / pɑ:θ/ n.小路; 路线;道路25.destination / ˌdestɪˈneɪʃn/n.目的地;终点26.other than 除…以外27.admire / ədˈmaɪə(r)/vt.鄙视;赏识;赏识28.architecture / ˈɑ:kɪtektʃə(r) / n.建筑设计;建筑学29.architect / ˈɑ:kɪtekt / n. 建筑设计师30.brochure/ˈbrəʊʃə(r);NAmE broʊˈʃʊr/n. 资料〔或广告〕手册31.package /ˈpækɪdʒ/n. 包裹;包装盒vt. 将…包装好package tour 包价旅游32.contact /ˈkɒntækt /vt. 联络;联系n. 联系;接触33.transport / ˈtrænspɔ:t/n.〔especially BrE〕〔NAmEusually transportation〕交通运输系统vt. / trænˈspɔ:t / 运输;运送34.hike / haɪk /vi. 徒步旅行vt. 去……远足n. 远足; 徒步旅行35.make up 构成;形成36.soldier /ˈsəʊldʒə(r)/ n. 士兵;军人37.economy /ɪˈkɒnəmi/ n. 经济; 节约38.economic / ˌi:kəˈnɒmɪk/ adj.经济〔上〕的;经济学的39.credit / ˈkredɪt/ n.借款;信用;赞扬;学分credit card 信用卡40.detail / ˈdi:teɪl / n.细节;详情;微小之处41.check in (在旅馆、机场等)登记42.check out 结账离开〔旅馆等〕43.request /rɪ”kwest/ n.〔正式或礼貌的〕要求;恳求vt.〔正式或礼貌地〕要求;恳求44.view / vju:/ n. 视野;风光;看法45.sight /saɪt/ n. 景象; 视野; 视力46.statue /ˈstætʃu:/ n. 雕塑;雕像47.tomb / tu:m / n. 坟墓48.unearth / ʌnˈɜ:θ/ vt. 挖掘;开掘ment / ˈkɒment /n. 谈论;评论vi.& vt. 发表意见;评论Unit 31.fitness /ˈfɪtnəs/ n.安康; 强健;适合2.soccer / ˈsɒkə(r)/ n.足球3.stadium / ˈsteɪdiəm/ n.〔pl. stadiums or stadia〕体育场; 运动场4.boxing / ˈbɒksɪŋ / n. 拳击〔运动〕5.badminton / ˈbædmɪntən/ n.羽毛球运动6.marathon / ˈmærəθən/ n.马拉松赛跑7.event / ɪˈvent/ n.竞赛工程;大事;公开活动e along跟随;到达;进步;赶快9.ski / ski:/adj. 滑雪的10.host /həʊst/vt.主办;主持11.track /træk/ n.跑道;脚印;铁路轨道track and field 田径12.gym / dʒɪm / n. 健身房; 体育馆13.gymnastics / dʒɪmˈnæstɪks/ n.体操〔训练〕14.work out 熬炼;计算出;解决15.sweat / swet /vt. 使出汗;出汗弄湿vi. 出汗;流汗n. 汗水; 出汗16.make it 获得成功;准时到达17.legend / ˈledʒənd /n. 传奇故事〔或人物〕;传奇18.athlete /ˈæθli:t/n.运发动;运动健儿19.master / ˈmɑ:stə(r)/n. 高手;仆人vt. 精通;把握20.set an example 树立典范21.honour /”ɒnə(r)/n.荣誉;敬重;荣幸22.glory / ˈglɔ:ri / n. 荣誉;荣耀;赞美23.medal / ˈmedl/n. 奖章; 勋章24.championship /ˈtʃæmpiənʃɪp /n. 锦标赛; 冠军赛;冠军称号25.champion / ˈtʃæmpiən/ n.冠军;优胜者26.determination /dɪˌtɜ:mɪˈneɪʃn/ n.决心;打算27.a part / əˈpɑ:t / adv.分别;分开;成碎片28.injure / ˈɪndʒə(r)/ vt. 使受伤;损害29.injured / ˈɪndʒəd / adj.受伤的;有伤的30.injury / ˈɪndʒəri / n. 损害;损伤31.captain / ˈkæptɪn / n.(运动队〕队长;船长;机长32.lose heart 丧失信念;泄气34.strength / streŋθ/ n.力气;体力35.failure / ˈfeɪljə(r) /n. 失败;失败的人〔或事物〕36.give up 放弃;投降pete / kəmˈpi:t / vi.竞争;对抗18.athlete /ˈæθli:t/n.运发动;运动健儿19.master / ˈmɑ:stə(r)/n. 高手;仆人vt. 精通;把握20.set an example 树立典范21.honour /”ɒnə(r)/n.荣誉;敬重;荣幸22.glory / ˈglɔ:ri / n. 荣誉;荣耀;赞美23.medal / ˈmedl/n. 奖章; 勋章24.championship /ˈtʃæmpiənʃɪp /n. 锦标赛; 冠军赛;冠军称号25.champion / ˈtʃæmpiən/ n.冠军; 优胜者26.determination /dɪˌtɜ:mɪˈneɪʃn/n. 决心;打算27.apart / əˈpɑ:t / adv.分别;分开;成碎片28.injure / ˈɪndʒə(r)/ vt. 使受伤;损害29.injured / ˈɪndʒəd / adj.受伤的;有伤的30.injury / ˈɪndʒəri / n. 损害;损伤31.c aptain / ˈkæptɪn /n. (运动队〕队长;船长;机长32.lose heart 丧失信念;泄气34.strength / streŋθ/ n.力气;体力35.failure / ˈfeɪljə(r) /n. 失败;失败的人〔或事物〕36.give up 放弃;投降pete / kəmˈpi:t / vi. 竞争;对抗38.make sense有道理;符合情理;表述清楚39.pretend /prɪˈtend/vi.& vt.假装;装扮40.even if/though 即使;虽然lion / ˈmɪljən / num. —百万42.cheat / tʃi:t /vi. 作弊;舞弊vt. 哄骗;蒙骗n. 哄骗手段;骗子43.audience / ˈɔːdiəns / n.观众;听众44.positive / ˈpɒzətɪv / adj.乐观的;正面的;乐观的;确定的45.slim / slɪm / adj. 苗条的;薄弱的46.diet / ˈdaɪət / vi.节食47.make a difference 有作用或影响48.rather / ˈrɑ:ðə(r) / adv.相当;有点儿49.push -up /” pʊʃʌp / n.( especially NAmE ) 俯卧撑50.cut out停顿做〔或使用、食用〕;剪下51.now and then 有时;间或pare…with/to…与……比较53.jog / dʒɒg /vi.慢跑n.慢跑54.stress /stres/n. 压力;紧急;重音vt. 强调;重读;使焦虑担忧55.error / ˈerə(r) / n. 错误;过失Unit 41.disaster / dɪˈzɑ:stə(r) / n.灾难;灾难2.tornado /t ɔ:ˈneɪdəʊ / n.(pl. -oes or-os)龙卷风;旋风3.drought / draʊt / n.旱灾;久旱ndslide / ˈlændslaɪd/ n. ( landfall) (山地或陡崖的〕倒塌;滑坡5.slide / slaɪd / vi. & vt. (slid, slid) (使〕滑行;滑动6.tsunami / tsu:ˈnɑ:mi / 海啸7.flood / flʌd /n. 洪水;大量vi.漂移;大量涌入vt 使灌满水;漂移8.volcanic eruption /vɔlˈkænɪkɪˈrʌpʃən/火山喷发9.magnitude / ˈmægnɪtju:d / n.(地〕震级;重大10.rescue / ˈreskju: / n.& vt.营救;救援11.damage / ˈdæmɪdʒ /vt. 损害;破坏n.损坏;损失12.destroy/dɪ”strɔɪ/vt. 摧毁;消灭13.evacuate / ɪˈvækjueɪt /vt. 疏散;撤出vi. 撤离14.helicopter / ˈhelɪkɒptə(r)/ n. 直升机15.death / de / n. 死;死亡16.affect /ə”fekt/ vt.影响;〔疾病〕侵袭;深深打动17.shelter/”ʃeltə/n.避难处;居所;庇护vt.保护;掩蔽vi. 躲避〔风、雨或危急〕18.crack /kræk/n.裂纹;裂缝vi. & vt. (使〕裂开19.as if 似乎;似乎;仿佛20.ruin /”ru:ɪn/ n. & vt. 破坏;毁坏in ruins 严峻受损;破败不堪21.percent / pəˈsent / n. 百分之....22.brick /brɪk/n. 砖;砖块23.metal /”metl/n. 金属24.shock /ʃɒk/n.震惊;令人震惊的事;休克vt (使〕震惊25.electricity / ɪˌlekˈtrɪsəti / n.电;电能26.trap /træp/vt. 使落入险境;使陷入圈套n. 险境;陷阱27.bury / ˈberi / vt. 掩埋;安葬28.breathe / bri:ð / vi.& vt.呼吸29.revive / rɪˈvaɪv / vt.& vi复活;〔使〕糊涂30.revival / rɪˈvaɪvl/n. 振兴;复苏31.effort /”efət / n.努力;困难的尝试;尽力32.unify / ˈju:nɪfaɪ / vi.& vt.统一;〔使〕成一体33.wisdom / ˈwɪzdəm / n.才智;才智34.context/ ˈkɒntekst / n.上下文;语境;背景35.suffer / ˈsʌfə(r) /vt. 患病;蒙受vi. ( 因疾病、苦痛、哀痛等〕受苦suffer from 因……而苦痛;患有〔疾病等〕36.volcano / vɒlˈkeɪnəʊ / n.火山37.erupt / ɪˈrʌpt / vi.& vt.( 火山〕爆发;〔岩浆、烟等〕喷出38.supply / səˈplaɪ /n.供给〔量〕;补给;[pl.] 补给品vt. 供给;供给39.typhoon / taɪˈfu:n / n.台风40.in the open air 露天;在户外41.hurricane / ˈhʌrɪkən / n .( 尤指大西洋的〕飓风42.survive / səˈvaɪv/vt. 幸存;困难度过vi.生存;存活43.power / ˈpaʊə(r) / n.电力供给;力气;把握力44.tap / tæp/vi.& vt. 轻叩;小扣;轻拍n.水龙头;轻叩;小扣45.pipe/ paɪp/ n. 管子;管道46.whistle / ˈwɪsl /vi. 吹口哨;发出笛声vt. 吹口哨n. 哨子〔声〕;咆哮声47.emergency/ iˈmɜ:dʒənsi / n.突发大事;紧急状况48.calm / kɑ:m /adj. 冷静的;冷静的vt. 使安静;使冷静48.aid / eɪd /n. 救济;帮助;救援物资vi.& vt. (formal) 帮助;救济49.kit / kɪt / n. 成套工具;成套设备first aid kit 急救箱50.on hand 现有〔尤指帮助〕51.crash / kræʃ/vi.& vt. 碰撞;撞击n. 撞车;碰撞55.s weep /swi:p/ vt. & vi. ( swept,swept)清扫;清扫sweep away 消灭;彻底消退56.wave / weɪv /n.海浪;波浪vi.& vt. 挥手;招手57.strike / straɪk /vi.& vt. (struck, struck/stricken)侵袭;突击;击打n. 罢工;罢课;攻击58.deliver/ dɪˈlɪvə(r) /vt. & vi. 递送;传达vt. 发表59.summary /ˈsʌməri / n.总结;概括;概要60.effect / ɪˈfekt / n.影响;结果;效果61.length/ leŋθ/ n.长;长度Unit 51.billion / ˈbɪljən / n. 十亿2.native / ˈneɪtɪv /adj. 诞生地的;本地的;土著的n.本地人3.attitude / ˈætɪtju:d ; NAmE ”ætitu:d/ n.态度;看法4.reference / ˈrefrəns / n.指称关系;参考5.refer/rɪˈfɜ:(r) /vi. 提到;参考;查阅vt. 查询;叫……求助于refer to 指的是;描述;提到;查阅6.system / ˈsɪstəm /n.体系;制度;系统7.civilisation [NAmE-ization]/ˌsɪvəlaɪˈzeɪʃn /n. 文明;文明世界8.despite / dɪˈspaɪt / prep. 即使;尽管9.ups and downs 浮沉;兴衰;荣辱10.factor / ˈfæktə(r)/ n. 因素;要素11.base /beɪs/vt. 以...为据点;以 ... 为根底n. 底部;依据;根底12.based /beist/ 以〔某事〕为根底的;以……为重要局部〔或特征〕的13.date back to ..... 追溯到14.bone / bəʊn / n. 骨头;骨〔质〕15.shell /ʃel / n.壳;壳状物16.symbol / ˈsɪmbl / n. 符号;象征17.carve / kɑ:v / vt. & vi 雕刻18.dynasty /ˈdɪnəsti; ” dai-/ 王朝;朝代19.variety /vəˈraɪətɪ/n.(植物、语言等的〕变体;异体;多样化20.major / ˈmeɪdʒə(r) /adj.主要的;重要的;大的n.主修课程;主修学生vi.主修;特地争论21.no matter where, who, what, etc.不管……;不管……22.dialect /”daɪəlekt/ n. 地方话;方言23.means /mi:nz/ n.方式;方法;途径24.classic / ˈklæsɪk /adj.传统的;最优秀的;典型的n. 经典作品;名著25.regard / rɪˈgɑ:d /n. 敬重;关注vt. 把... 视为;对待26.character /”kærəktə(r)/n.文字;符号;角色;品质;特点27.calligraphy / kəˈlɪɡrəfi / n.书法;书法艺术28.global /”gləʊbəl/ adj.全球的;全世界的29.affair / əˈfeə(r) / n.公共事务[复数];大事;关系30.a ppreciate /ə”pri:ʃieɪt /vt. 赏识;重视;感谢;领悟vi. 增值31.specific /spəˈsɪfɪk/ adj.特定的;明确的;具体的32.struggle / ˈstrʌgl /n. 斗争;奋斗;努力;难事vi. 斗争;奋斗;搏斗;努力33.tongue / tʌŋ / n. 舌头;语言34.point of view 观点;看法35.semester / sɪˈmestə(r) / n.学期36.gas /ɡæs/ n. 汽油;气体;燃气37.petrol /”petrəl/ n. (NAmE gas ) 汽油38.s ubway/”sʌbweɪ/n.(BrEunderground )地铁39.apartment /ə”pɑ:tmənt/ n. 〔especially NAmE〕公寓套房〔=flat〕40.pants / pænts / n. [pl.] (BrE 〕内裤;短裤;(especially NAmE )裤子41.beg /beg/ vt. 恳求;祈求;恳求42.equal /”i:kwəl /n. 同等的人;相等物adj. 一样的;同样的vt. 等于; 和……相等;比得上43.gap /gæp/ n.间隔;开口;差距44.demand/ dɪˈmɑ:nd /n.要求;需求vt. 猛烈要求;需要vi.查问45.vocabulary/ və”kæbjʊlərɪ ; NAmE –leri / n. 词汇46.description /dɪˈskrɪpʃn/n.描写〔文字〕;形容47.relate / rɪˈleɪt / vt. 联系;表达relate to 与……相关;涉及;谈到。
Lecture 2
workers unemployed, factories idle)
Points above the PPF (like G) • not possible
• Moving along a PPF involves shifting resources (e.g., labor) from the production of one good to the other. • Society faces a tradeoff: Getting more of one good requires sacrificing some of the other. • The slope of the PPF tells you the opportunity cost of one good in terms of the other.
– If opportunity cost remains constant, PPF is a straight line. – If opportunity cost of a good rises as the economy produces more of the good, PPF is bow-shaped.
Opportunity cost
• The opportunity cost of any item is whatever must be given up to obtain it. It is the relevant cost for decision making. • In order to evaluate the remuneration needed to keep the resource in its current use and attract new resources for productive use, economists refer to the resource’s opportunity cost. • Opportunity cost is measured by determining the resource’s next best opportunity.
sp技巧培训学习版.ppt
SP的广义 SP的狭义
sp是一种沟通活动,即营销者(信息提供者或发送 者)发出作为刺激物的各种信息,把信息传递到一
个或更多的目标对象,以影响其态度和行为。
针对的对象发生了变化,只是一对一的客户,使用 的范围缩小,在最终端,概念出现偏差,认为虚假
的才是SP,往往真实才是最有力的道具。
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金谊河畔.案场培训
常用SP技巧
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2008.11
1
目录
SP的定义 为何需要SP及其目的 SP的应用 SP个人心得体会 案例分享
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2
SP的定义
SP是英文Sales Promotion的简称,译为销售促进,亦有将其译为 营业推广或销售推广.SP是西方商界最常用的缩略词之一
注意事项
• 注意团队配合,加强团队默契度 • 适当掌握分寸,因人而异 • 把握销售节奏,找准切入点,争取致命一击 • 切勿对同一组客户在较近时间段内采用同一种方法2次以上 • 现场SP应有核心人物,需要演练好 • 手机设置于无声状态 • SP参与的人数不超过4人 • 不要刻意的去做SP,但一定要有SP意识。 • 有时候只是简单的询问一下同事的推荐情况,也会给自己的客户
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时间缓冲
这类SP的关键点是“让客户等待你为他争取利益 的时间过程 ”一般建议时间不超过30分钟。在实 战谈判中非常适用,目的为3点:
1)让客户了解为他争取的利益实际难度较大,目 的是让他珍惜最终争取后的结果。
2)让客户感觉你为他已经尽力了,增加他对你的 信任度及认同感。
3)通过时间缓冲的方式,判断客户的最终意向程 度。
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Lecture 2 Student Version 2 to a Page
Account Title Debit Credit
LEFT SIDE
RIGHT SIDE
5
28/02/2013
Accounting Processes (LO9)
Business Transactions
/watch?v=wMZRLSjr6g&feature=results_video&playnext=1&list=PL9105E8D6B0052D8D Source: /enron-examples-of-creative-accounting accessed on 28th Feb 2013 Enron Creative Accounting – Multiple trading entities The creative accounting g involved setting g up p other entities and then trading g with these entities. This is a common practice; many businesses divide their operations into sectors that perform specialist functions and then trade is carried out between these various entities. However, normal applicable accounting standards (GAAP), would require that some sort of financial consolidation is performed and the full picture reported. However, there was a bias to record income, revenue, and profits from transactions with these entities; rather than costs, expenses, and losquation (LO8)
Lecture2中英文字幕
Unit6 Go shoppingLecture2 Sales and promotionHello, everybody.大家好In this session we are going to focus on the main idea and structure of our text on p.78.这节课我们主要来讲解一下78页课文的大意及文章结构。
Do you know how to find out the main idea of an article?你们知道如何找出文章的大意么?Let’s watch a video clip to figure it out.让我们来看一段视频短片What have you learnt from the video clip?从这段视频中你们学到了什么?To find out the main idea, we should try to find the topic.想找出文章的大意我们应该先找到文章的主题Repeating words in the text can help us to find the topic.文章中重复出现的词有助于我们找出文章的主题Look! What are the repeating words in our text?看!这篇课文中重复出现的词是什么?As we can see technique and response are repeated many times in the text.正如我们所看到的,technique和response是课文中重复出现的词。
Response means the way to resist the techniques ,response在这篇文章中的意思是应对促销手段的方法so the main idea of the text is sales techniques and the ways to resist the techniques.所以这篇文章的大意就是促销手段和应对方法A sales technique is a selling method that is used by a sales person or sales team to make money and help sell more effectively.促销手段是销售人员或销售团队为了赚钱或卖出更多商品而采取的销售策略The way to resist the techniques means the way to fight against the sales techniques.应对方法是指应对这些促销手段的方法。
lecture02
• Operating system concepts
– Process, Thread, Address space
© 2010, Yongguang Zhang
44
What is a Process?
• An OS abstraction that supports running programs
void X (int b) { if(b == 1) { … int main() { int a = 2; X(a); }
Header Code
Compile+Link
Initialized data
Source Code (.c)
Executable File (.exe)
© 2010, Yongguang Zhang 46
– Memory to contain the program code and data – A set of CPU registers to support execution
© 2010, Yongguang Zhang 45ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
From Program to Process (Part 1)
• OS uses an internal data structure to store these metadata about a process
– process control block (PCB)
© 2010, Yongguang Zhang 48
Process Control Block
– One Ready queue (for all the processes that are ready to run) – Many Wait queues (each for those processes waiting for the particular resource)
Princeton lectures 2
Cchapter 2KinematicsDisplacementս〫Displacement, distanceս〫ˈ䐍Speed and Velocity䙏⦷઼䙏ᓖVelocity, average velocity, average speed䙏ᓖˈᒣ൷䙏ᓖˈᒣ൷䙏⦷average speed =average velocity =Acceleration࣐䙏ᓖAcceleration, average acceleration࣐䙏ᓖˈᒣ൷࣐䙏ᓖaccelerationर࣐䙏ᓖUniformaverage acceleration =Uniformly Accelerated Motion and the Big Fiveर࣐䙏ⴤ㓯䘀ࣘFree Fall㠚⭡㩭փGravitational accelerationзᴹᕅ࣐࣋䙏ᓖ˄䟽࣐࣋䙏ᓖ˅Projectile Motionᣋփ䘀ࣘLaunch angle, range, and parabolic pathࠪሴ䀂ˈ㤳തˈᣋ⢙㓯Kinematics with Graphs䘀ࣘᆖമۿPosition versus time, velocity versus time, slope, area, curvature ս〫ᰦ䰤മۿˈ䙏ᓖᰦ䰤മۿˈᯌ⦷ˈ䶒〟ˈᴢ⦷The slope of a position-versus-time graph gives the velocity.The slope of a velocity-versus-time graph gives the acceleration.Given a velocity-versus-time graph, the area between the graph and the t-axis is equal to the object’s displacement.Chapter 2 Review Questions1. A rock is thrown straight upward from the edge of a 30 m cliff, rising 10 m then falling all the way down to the base of the cliff. Find the rock’s displacement.2. In a track-and-field event, an athlete runs exactly once around an oval track, a total distance of 500 m. Find the runner’s displacement for the race.3. Assume that the runner in sample question 3 completes the race in 1 minute and 20 seconds. Find her average speed and the magnitude of her average velocity.4. Is it possible to move with constant speed but not constant velocity? Is it possible to move with constant velocity but not constant speed?5.A car is traveling in a straight line along a highway at a constant speed of 80 miles per hour for 10 seconds. Find its acceleration.6. A car is traveling in a straight line along a highway at a speed of 20 m/s. The driver steps on the gas pedal and, 3 seconds later, the car’s speed is 32 m/s. Find its average acceleration.7. Spotting a police car ahead, the driver of the car in the previous example slows from 32 m/s to 20 m/s in 2 sec.Find the car’s average acceleration.8. An object with an initial velocity of 4 m/s moves along a straight axis under constant acceleration. Three seconds later, its velocity is 14 m/s. How far did it travel during this time?9. A car that’s initially traveling at 10 m/s accelerates uniformly for 4 seconds at a rate of 2 m/s 2in a straight line. How far does the car travel during this time?10. A rock is dropped off a cliff that’s 80 m high. If it strikes the ground with an impact velocity of 40 m/s, what acceleration did it experience during its descent?Questions 11-12The velocity of an object as a function of time is given by the following graph:11. At which point (A,B,C,D, or E) is the magnitude of the acceleration the greatest?12. How would you answer this same question if the graph shown were a position-versus-time graph?13. A rock is dropped from an 80-meter cliff. How long does it take to reach the ground?14.One second after being thrown straight down, an object is falling with a speed of 20 m/s. How fast will it be falling 2 seconds later?15. If an object is thrown straight upward with an initial speed of 8 m/s and takes 3 seconds to strike the ground, from what height was the object thrown?16. An object is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of 10 m/s. How far will it drop in 4 seconds?17. From a height of 100 m, a ball is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of 15 m/s. How far GRHV LW WUDYHO KRUL]RQWDOO\ LQ WKH ILUVW ௗVHFRQGV"18. A projectile is traveling in a parabolic path for a total of 6 seconds. How does its horizontal velocity 1 s after launch compare to its horizontal velocity 4 s after launch?19. An object is projected upward with a 30° launch angle and an initial speed of 60 m/s. How many seconds will it be in the air? How far will it travel horizontally?1. An object that’s moving with constant speed travels once around a circular path. True statements about this motion include which of the following?I. The displacement is zero.II. The average speed is zero.III. The acceleration is zero.(A) I only(B) I and II only(C) I and III only(D) III only(E) II and III only2. At time t=t1, an object’s velocity is given by the vector v1shown below.A short time later, at t=t2, the object’s velocity is the vector v2.If v1and v2have the same magnitude, which one of the following vectors best illustrates the object’s average acceleration between t=t1and t=t2?(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)3. Which of the following must always be true?I. If an object’s acceleration is constant, then it must move in a straight line.II. If an object’s acceleration is zero, then its speed must remain constant.III. If an object’s speed remains constant, then its acceleration must be zero.(A) I and II only (B) I and III only (C) II only(D) III only(E) II and III only4. A baseball is thrown straight upward. What is the ball’s acceleration at its highest point?(A) 0(B)g , downward(C)g , downward(D)g , upward(E)g , upward5. How long would it take a car, starting from rest and accelerating uniformly in a straight line at 5 m/s 2, to cover a distance of 200 m ?(A) 9.0 s(B) 10.5 s(C) 12.0 s(D) 15.5 s(E) 20.0 s6. A rock is dropped off a cliff and strikes the ground with an impact velocity of 30 m/s. How high was the cliff?(A) 15 m(B) 20 m(C) 30 m(D) 45 m(E) 60 m7.A soccer ball, at rest on the ground, is kicked with an initial velocity of 10 m/s at a launch angle of 30°. Calculate its total flight time, assuming that air resistance is negligible.(A)0.5 s(B) 1 s(C) 1.7 s(D) 2 s(E) 4 s8. A stone is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of 30 m/s from a bridge. Find the stone’s total speed when it enters the water 4 seconds later. (Ignore air resistance.)(A)30 m/s(B) 40 m/s(C) 50 m/s(D) 60 m/s(E) 70 m/s9. Which one of the following statements is true concerning the motion of an ideal projectile launched at an angle of 45° to the horizontal?(A) The acceleration vector points opposite to the velocity vector on the way up and in the same direction as the velocity vector on the way down.(B) The speed at the top of the trajectory is zero.(C) The object’s total speed remains constant during the entire flight.(D) The horizontal speed decreases on the way up and increases on the way down.(E) The vertical speed decreases on the way up and increases on the way down.。
朱明zhubob-电大开放英语(2)课程简介
通过两册书的学习,使你的英语达到初级 水平,认知词汇1,600左右,使你在学习语 音、语法、词汇、语言功能等语言基础知 识,掌握听、说、读、写语言技能的同时, 了解英语国家的文化习俗,提高用英语进 行交际的能力。
学生应能掌握1,600左右的常用词汇(包括 入学时要求掌握的600词)和若干相关的 常用词组及基础语法知识;能够听懂发音 清楚、语速较慢的教学用语和日常生活用 语,并能用英语进行简单的日常交谈;能 够读懂所学词汇和语法范围内的故事、短 文及通知、便条等;能够写出简短的私人 信函,或用便条转达具体信息。
语言要点 放在方框中的Language Focus是对 于语法、词汇和语言功能的说明,一般是对前面 Activity中所出现的新的语言现象的归纳,随后 还配有练习活动。对于某些语言现象的进一步说 明可以在CD-ROM中找到。
文化点滴 每个单元都配有Cultural Note, 也放在方框中,主要是对于相关的文化习 俗的注释,有助于学习者更好地理解和使 用语言,提高语言在交际中的得体性。
词汇学习 每单元最后是Vocabulary,列 出该单元的所有应学习的生词,只注词性 和中文释义。在附录Ⅲ中还列出了学习本 课程前应掌握的600个基础词汇
· 在Activity旁加注 录音文本 (p233-252) Extract说明是听力练习,所有听力练习的录音文 本均提供在书后附录中。学习者应在做完听力练 习后再利用录音文本核查感到有疑问之处,然后 再反复听录音,直到真正听懂为止,切忌在做听 力练习之前先看录音文本。录音文本还可以用来 做口语练习,利用暂停键,跟读、模仿,大声朗 读,这对于自学者尤其重要。录音文本还可以用 作练习阅读的材料。
主教材的编写体例
新世纪大学英语综合教程2_unit4_单词讲解
College education made a big difference to my life. 大学教育对我的一生很重要。 • Your support will certainly make a difference in our cause. • 你的支持肯定会对我们的事业起重要作 用。
perspective n. 视角 view e.g. He views everything from a political perspective. e.g. The death of his father gave him a new perspective on life. adj. 透视的;透视画的 perspective drawing 透视画法 the proper/right/ true perspective 正确的 观察角度 from the perspective of… perspective on/upon 对…的观点
vt. 1. 颠倒;翻转 • Please reverse your examination paper. 2. 使变得相反;完全改变: • After the war the government reversed its foreign policy. • 政府在战后彻底改变了它的外交政策。 3. 使倒转;使倒退;使反向: • She reversed her car into the garage. • 她把汽车倒开进车库。
channel: v. 1. 把…导向…,引导 You ought to channel your abilitiesห้องสมุดไป่ตู้into something useful. 你应当把你的才能用到有用的事情上。 2. 输送,传送: to channel the information 传递信息 n. 水道 ,沟渠 ;途径;渠道;手段 ;频道,波段
最新自考英语二教材课文讲义unit2
Unit 2 Mistakes to SuccessI. New words and expressions New words1. spill v.(使)洒出,泼出,溢出2. respond v. 作出反应;响应respond to…response3. interview v. (媒体)采访,访问4. creative adj. 创作的5. occur v. 发生;出现It occurred to me that…6. remove v. 拿开;去掉7. refrigerator n. 冰箱8. grip n. 紧握;紧抓9. slippery adj. 滑的;滑得抓不住(或站不稳、难以行走)10. content n. 所容纳之物;所含之物11. veritable adj. 十足的;名副其实的;不折不扣的12. yell v. 叫喊;大喊;吼叫13. lecture n.(冗长的)教训,训斥,谴责14. mess n. 肮脏;杂乱;不整洁15. rarely adv. 罕有;很少;不常rare animals / stampsRarely is he late for class.16. puddle n. 水洼;小水坑17. eventually 最后;终于18. restore v. 使复原;使复位;使复职19. sponge n. 海绵块20. effectively adv. 有效地effectiveineffective注意区分:effective / efficient21. tiny adj. 极小的;微小的22. discover v. 了解到;认识到;查明discovery23. grasp v. 抓紧;抓牢24. lip n.(容器或凹陷地方的)边,边沿25. renowned adj. 有名的;闻名的;受尊敬的26. remark v. 谈论;评论27. opportunity n. 机会;时机28. scientific adj. 科学(上)的;关于科学的sciencescientist例如:The medical science is making great progress in the treatment of cancer.You should provide scientific evidence instead of subjective evidence to prove this theory holds water.Several world-renowned scientists will be invited to attend the forum.29. valuable adj. 很有用的;很重要的;宝贵的Phrases and Expressions1. in this manner 用这种方式2. set…apart from 区别;使与众不同II. Text LearningSpilt Milk① Have you heard of the story about split milk? (1)Well, we all know there is no use crying over split milk. But this story is different. I would hope all parents would respond in this manner.② I recently heard a story about a famous research scientist(研究科学家,高级研究员)who had made several very important medical breakthroughs. (2)He was interviewed by a newspaper reporter who asked him why he was so much more creative than the average person; what set him so far apart from others?③ He responded that, in his opinion, it all came from an experience with his mother that occurred when he was about two years old. (3)He had been trying to remove a bottle of milk from the refrigerator when he lost his grip on the slippery bottle and it fell,spilling its contents all over the kitchen floor - a veritable sea of milk!④ When his mother came into the kitchen, instead of yelling at him, giving him a lecture, or punishing him, she said," (4)Robert, what a great and wonderful mess you have made! I have rarely seen such a huge puddle of milk. Well, the damage has already been done. Would you like to get down and play in the milk for a few minutes before we clean it up?"⑤Indeed, he did. After a few minutes, his mother said,"You know, Robert, whenever you make a mess like this, eventually you have to clean it up and restore everything to its proper order. So, how would you like to do that? We could use a sponge, a towel, or a mop. Which do you prefer?" he chose the sponge and together they cleaned up the spilt milk.⑥ His mother then said, "You know, what we have here is a failed experiment in how to effectively carry a big milk bottle with two tiny hands. Let's go out in the back yard and fill the bottle with water and see if you can discover a way to carry it without dropping it." (5)The little boy learned that if he grasped the bottle at the top near the lip with both hands, he could carry it without dropping it. What a wonderful lesson! (承上总结句)⑦ (6)The renowned scientist remarked that it was at that moment that he knew he didn't need to be afraid to make mistakes. (7)Instead, he learned that mistakes were just opportunities for learning something new, which is, after all, what scientific experiments are all about. Even if the experiment "doesn't work," we usually learn something valuable from it.⑧ (8)Wouldn't it be great if all parents would respond the way Robert's mother responded to him?本文重点及难点:1. Well, we all know there is no use crying over split milk.There / It is no use crying over spilt milk. 覆水难收。
Lecture2
∇2
d2 = [d r2
2d + r dr
1 d2 + r2 d Θ2
1
+r2
cotΘddΘ
1
+ r2 sin2Θ
d2 d φ2]
Normalization
If ψ is a solution to the time-independent Schrödinger equation
−
h2 2m
δ2ψ(x) δx2
+
ψ(x)V(x)
=
Eψ(x)
(1)
then Nψ will also be a solution
Proof:
−
h2 2m
δ 2 ( Nψ (x)) δx2
+
Nψ(x)V(x)
=
ENψ(x)
(2)
or
− h2 δ [δ(Nψ(x))] + Nψ(x)V(x) = ENψ(x) 2m δx δx
Normalization
Longitude
Latitude
Dis tan ce
Spherical Coordinates
We are going to make use of the spherical polar coordinate system
Z (x,y,z) → (r, Θ,φ )
Θ
r
φ
X
Y
We have the following relation
xi
P(xk )
Possible range between a and b is:
P(xn )
∆x1 ∆xi ∆xk ∆xn
a
Lecture 2(Zhenfa Xie)
25
Investment Game
Why did we end up going to the bad equilibrium rather than the good equilibrium?
Coordination game and coordination problem That is a different social problem from that of prisoners’ dilemma.
* 1 * 2
14
Partnership Game
The intersection in graph is Nash Equilibrium
The players are playing a best response to each other
Is the effort level in Nash Equilibrium higher or lower than the efficient level?
18
Exercise
2 l U 1 M D 0, 2 11, 1 0, 3 c 2, 3 3, 2 1, 0 r 4, 3 0, 0 8, 0
19
Relate NE to Dominance
2 α α 1 β 0, 0 -1, 3 β 3, -1 1, 1
β is strictly dominated by α NE is (α, α)
6
Penalty Kick Game In Soccer
Lesson 1: Do not shoot to middle. Lesson 2: Do not choose a strategy that is never a BR to any belief.
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目录2-1随机过程:随机游动与鞅1Lecture2日期:2011-03-23作者:杨广宇摘要目录1随机游动、例子2-2 2输光问题2-3 3首达时2-5 4反射原理、反正弦律及对偶2-9 5Wald等式2-156附注2-186.1鞅停止定理......................................2-186.2稳定律的一个例子..................................2-191随机游动、例子2-21随机游动、例子随机游动是最简单的随机过程,它同Brown运动、马氏过程、鞅以及L´e vy过程都有紧密的联系,并且在金融、物理、化学和生物信息学中都有广泛和深入的应用。
我们这里仅介绍随机游动的一些基本性质。
定义1设{ξn,n≥1}是独立同分布的随机变量序列,其分布函数为F。
x∈Z,令S0=x,S n=x+n∑i=1ξi,n≥1.(1)称随机过程{S n,n≥0}为从x出发,具有步长分布F的随机游动。
无说明情况下,总取x=0。
习题2随机游动{S n,n≥0}也可以表示为S0=0,S n=S n−1+ξn,n≥1。
也即可将S n解释为粒子在时刻n的位置,每个时刻粒子以同样的分布随机的选择一个步长,并跳转到位置S n−1+ξn。
试证明S2n−S n与S n相互独立并具有相同的分布。
例3(简单随机游动)若步长随机变量ξ1和−ξ1的分布相同,则说随机游动{S n}是对称随机游动。
特别的,若P(ξ1=1)=P(ξ=−1)=1/2,称{S n}为Z上简单(对称)随机游动。
若P(ξ1=1)=1−P(ξ=−1)=p=1/2,称{S n}为有偏紧邻随机游动。
自然可以考虑Z d上的简单随机游动和有偏紧邻随机游动。
例4(Gauss随机游动)若步长随机变量ξ1取值空间为R,并且ξ1服从标准正态分布N(0,1),则说随机游动{S n}为Gauss随机游动。
易知S n服从均值为0,方差为n的正态分布。
习题5由正态分布的可加性知:S n∼N(0,n)。
试证明n−1S n a.s.−−→0。
例6(重尾随机游动)若步长随机变量ξ1是具有重尾分布1的随机变量,则说随机游动{S n}为重尾随机游动。
譬如,令ξ1为具有密度函数f(x)={α2·1|x|α+1,若|x|≥1;0,其它.1重尾随机变量:设X为非负随机变量,若任意的λ>0,EeλX=∞,则称X是重尾的,否则,若存在λ0使得对任意的0<λ<λ0,EeλX<∞,称随机变量X是轻尾的。
用分布来说,若任意的s≥0,lim t→∞[1−F(t+ s)]/[1−F(t)]=1,则说F为重尾分布。
关于“重尾”有多种不同形式的定义,直观上,若密度函数依幂指衰减到0,则该分布为重尾分布;若密度函数依指数衰减0,则该分布为轻尾分布。
常说的重尾分布一般为幂律分布。
2输光问题2-3的连续型随机变量,其中参数α∈(0,2)。
则{S n}为重尾随机游动。
重尾随机游动和Gauss 随机游动的轨道有显著的差别,特别的重尾随机游动没有中心极限定理。
简单随机游动 重尾随机游动注记7(速度的切线解释)设步长随机变量ξ1满足E|ξ1|=µ<∞,则由上一讲中的强大数定−−→µ,步长随机变量ξ1的期望恰好是随机游动的粒子的渐近速度。
特别的,律知道:n−1S n a.s.若µ>0,粒子以线性速度趋于+∞;若µ<0,粒子以线性速度趋于−∞;若µ=0,粒子的速度为0。
所以,对任意的x∈Z,速度非零的随机游动至多达到该点有限多次。
进一步的,若步长随机变量ξ1又满足E|ξ1|2=σ2<∞,则n−1/2(S n−nµ)以分布收敛于均值为零,方差为σ2的正态随机变量。
若µ=0,σ2=1,则S n的分布渐近于Gauss随机游动的分布。
切线解释习题8若步长随机变量ξ1服从Cauchy分布,即其概率密度函数为f(x)=[π(1+x2)]−1,则随机游动{S n}为重尾随机游动。
试证明n−1S n也服从Cauchy分布,并且强大数定律不成立。
2输光问题问题:设一赌徒初始资本为x元,每次押注一元,输赢的几率各半,问赌徒在破产前(即赌徒赌资为零,若出现赌徒赌资为零则该游戏结束)其资本增长到A的概率有多大?这个问题可以用简单随机游动模型来精确描述。
令{ξn,n≥1}为独立同分布随机变量,P(ξ1=1)=P(ξ1=−1)=1/2。
取S0=x,对n≥1,记S n=x+∑n i=1ξi,S n表示了n时2输光问题2-4刻赌徒的赌资。
定义随机变量T =T [0,A ]:=min {n :S n =0或A },则上述问题转化为事件{S T =A }的概率:P (S T =A )=?(a).T 几乎处处有限直观上来看,持续抛掷一个均匀的硬币,事件“正面比反面多出现A 次”是一个必然的事件(Why?),所以随机变量T 几乎处处是有限的。
(b).差分方程对任意的初始值x ,定义u (x )=P x (S T =A )。
显然u (A )=1,u (0)=0。
若0<x <A ,P x (S T =A )=P x (S T =A ,ξ1=−1)+P x (S T =A ,ξ1=1)=12u (x −1)+12u (x +1),也即u (x )满足差分方程u (x )=12u (x −1)+12u (x +1),1≤x ≤A −1.(2)边值条件为u (A )=1,u (0)=0。
差分方程(2)易化为u (x +1)−u (x )=u (x )−u (x −1),解该带有边值条件的线性差分方程,可得u (x )=P x (S T =A )=x /A ,也即我们给出了赌博停止时的随机变量S T 的分布。
从这个概率分布可以看出,如果赌博是公平的话,参与者的本金越大,则他达到目标的可能性越大。
习题9试解上述线性差分方程(2)。
习题10Fibonacci 数列{F n }定义为:F 1=1,F 2=1,F n =F n −1+F n −2,n >2,试通过解差分方程给出该数列的表达式。
注记11马氏链和马氏过程的首达时问题总是和某类差分或微分算子的边值问题相联系的,这也是通常所说的概率位势理论。
在实际问题中,这也是很有用的,我们可以通过计算机模拟(通过随机游动或马氏链,马氏链蒙特卡洛方法)给出边值问题的解。
(c).赌博的持续时间令v (x )=E x T ,有v (0)=v (A )=0。
同(b)中推到类似可得v (x )=1+12v (x −1)+12v (x +1),1≤x ≤A −1.令d (x )=v (x )−v (x −1),有d (x +1)=d (x )−2,即[d (x +1)−2]=[1101][d (x )−2]3首达时2-5递归可得[d (x )−2]=[1101]x −1[d (1)−2].(3)习题12试验证[1101]x =[1x01].由习题(12)可知d (x )=d (1)−2(x −1)。
由d (x )的定义以及边值条件v (0)=0,可得d (1)=v (1),v (x )=x∑k =1d (k )=xv (1)−x (x −1),因为v (A )=0,所以v (1)=A −1,故可得v (x )=E x T =x (A −x )。
习题13(1)试利用Cramer 法则解上述的线性方程组。
(2)试考虑非公平赌博的输光问题,也即用有偏紧邻随机游动模型,通过解线性差分方程给出该问题的解。
注记14关于输光问题的详细讨论可参见Feller 的经典著作《概率论及其应用(I)》第14章。
3首达时定义15(停时)设(Ω,F ,P )是完备概率空间,{F n ,n ≥1}是其上单增的σ-代数流,称随机变量τ:Ω→{0,1,2,...,∞}为关于σ-代数流{F n }的马尔科夫时,如果对任意的n ,{τ=n }∈F n 。
进一步的,若P (τ<∞)=1,称τ为停时。
例16设X ={X n ,F n }是随机过程,B ∈B R ,定义τB =min {n ≥0:X n ∈B },称τB 为集合B 的首中时,则τB 是马尔科夫时。
这是因为:对任意n ≥0,{τB =n }={X 0¯∈B ,X 1¯∈B ,...,X n −1¯∈B ,X n ∈B }∈F n .给定随机过程X ={X n ,F n }以及马尔科夫时τ,可以定义停止过程X τ={X n ∧τ,F n },其中X n ∧τ=∑n −1k =0X k 1{τ=k }+X n 1{τ≥n }。
特别的,若随机过程X 是鞅,则对应的停止过程3首达时2-6Xτ也是鞅。
这是因为:由X n∧τ之定义知X n∧τ关于F n可测,并且是可积的;另一方面X(n+1)∧τ−X n∧τ=1{τ>n}(X n+1−X n),所以E(X(n+1)∧τ−X n∧τ|F n)=1{τ>n}E(X n+1−X n|F n)=0.(4)设{S n}是Z上的简单随机游动,也即其步长随机变量ξ1的分布为P(ξ1=1)=P(ξ=−1)=1/2。
取S0=0,定义随机变量τ:=τ(1)=min{n≥0:S n=1};τ(m)=min{n≥0:S n=m},m≥2.则τ是马尔科夫时,称其为随机游动的“首达时”。
我们主要探讨首达时τ的概率分布。
(a).τ几乎处处有限由第一讲中习题知道:随机游动{S n}是鞅,并且过程{M n:=eσS n(2eσ+e−σ)n,n≥0}也是鞅。
因为M0=1并且停止鞅仍然是鞅,我们有1=EM n∧τ=E[eσS n∧τ(2eσ+e−σ)n∧τ](5)固定σ>0,知2eσ+e−σ<1,令n→∞有,(2eσ+e−σ)n∧τ→{(2eσ+e−σ)τ,若τ<∞;0,若τ=∞.又因为S n∧τ≤1,所以0<eσS n∧τ<eσ并且0<eσS n∧τ(2eσ+e−σ)n∧τ<eσ。
再令n→∞,可得lim n→∞eσS n∧τ(2eσ+e−σ)n∧τ={eσ(2eσ+e−σ)τ,若τ<∞;0,若τ=∞.由有界收敛定理及式子(5),可得E[eσ(2eσ+e−σ)τ1{τ<∞}]=1,(6)对任意的σ∈(0,1],注意到0<eσ(2eσ+e−σ)τ1{τ<∞}≤e,在式子(6)中令σ↓0,由有界收敛定理知E1{τ<∞}=1,即P(τ<∞)=1。
因此可以将式子(6)改写为E[eσ(2eσ+e−σ)τ]=1.(7)(b).τ的概率生成函数3首达时2-7给定z ∈(0,1),令z =2e σ+e −σ,化简得:z (e −σ)2−2e −σ+z =0。