A Brief Introduction to Theories on International Relations and Foreign Policy
英语论文写作要求
g) A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation
b) The Role of the Classroom Activities in Oral English Teaching in Junior School
c) A Study of Improving Junior Students’ Oral English through Interactive Teaching Approach (利用互 动式教学提高初中生口语能力)
c) The Language Characteristics and Translation Skills of Business Contract
d) Puns and Their Translation in English Advertisement
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整理课件
e) The Use and Translation of Words in Business Correspondence
e) The Symbolic Meaning of Color Terms in Chinese and Western Cultures
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整理课件
f) A Study of Gender Difference in English Language
g) The Influence of Body Language on the Effect of Speech身势语对演讲效果的影响
中国翻译简史
A Brief Introduction to the Chinese Translation in HistoryAs we all know ,China is a country with over five thousand year long history, while the history of translation has three thousand-year. Although translation studies cover such a wild field,it can be roughly divided into three general periods as follows: Ancient china,Contemporary China and Modern china. The paper is to provide general overview of translation history and corresponding characteristics in China from ancient to present times.The translation of Buddhist scripture and Science translation in Late Ming Dynasty formed the main stream in Ancient China.The earliest translation activities of China originated from Zhou dynasty, when the translation was carried out by government clerks, who paid much attention on ideological works.However,with the introduction of Buddhist scripture written in Sanskrit to China, a great efforts were needed to translate these scriptures into Chinese. Especially during the two Jin dynasties, Southern dynasty and Northern dynasty,translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. Many State Translation School opened for this purpose. And one of the famous translators at this time is Dao An who advocated strict literal translation, while Kumarajiva ,another famous translator emphasized the accuracy of translation.Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty had brought the first peak of translation in China.Unlike translators of other periods, they were mainly Buddhist monks. Xuan Zang, who is the vital person we have to mention, contributed a lot to the development of Chinese translation, not only the theories but also the practices. He set down the famous translation criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace, to some extent, he tried to take account of literal translation and free translation in the process of translation. Furthermore, he is also the first Chinese to translate famous works of Chinese into other languages, which laid a solid foundation for the international cultural exchange.As the times changed, the science translation was springing up quickly. In Yuan Dynasty ,due to the settlement of Arbas in China, they were engaged in translating scientific works from the West. Later, the subject of translation shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scientific and technological knowledge in Ming Dynasty. Scientists and government mainly had taken up the task of translation then. However, the disadvantages of this period should not be neglected. No translation theories were as well developed as the Tang Dynasty.The history of translation in Ancient China did also play a significant role in the promoting of translation in Contemporary and Modern China. In the Late Qing Dynasty,Chinese translators ,headed by Yan Fu welcomed the trend of new outlook from the western countries.A large number of works about Social Science had been translated.There is no doubt that Yan Fu was the most influential translator and translation theorist in this period. He had come up with the triple criteria of translation --- "Faithfulness, Fluency and Elegance", which was still spoken highly of by some relative experts at present.Meanwhile, literary translation was popular and marked another peak of translation in China. Many famous western works have been brought into China, in reverse, it make benefits to the enrichment of Chinese literature field. A group of excellent translators were emerging from time to time at this period. Take Lin Shu for example. He acted the equally important role in literature translation as Yan Fu insocial science translation. Regarded as the pioneer of literature translation in China, he opened a new Chapter for Chinese translation.Compared to the two former period, translation work in Modern China has a wider coverage,such as the translation of socialist and communist works,literature works and so on.The May 4th Movement was a famous activity happened in the Chinese history,which was also the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. Great changes have taken place in translation in China. Karl Marx's (1818-1883) and Lenin's works on socialist and communist theories were the focus of our translation work , as it will guide the direction of our revolution. What’s more, literary translation was different from the past.The quality and quantity of literary translation were greatly improved. No matter where it comes from,the world famous literary works were translated into Chinese. Translators as Lin Yutang, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were the three most famous .The translation theory was completed during this period of time,one of them was put forward by Lin,that is his three translation criteria:the first is fidelity,the second is coherence,the third is elegance.However, the heated topics on translation theory were still translation criteria, literary vs free translation.Even any little progress in the history of Chinese translation still means a huge leap to the development of our society. Without these efforts, China may haven’t avoided the mistakes that other countries have made, nor learned from the advanced technology around the world. Despite the achievement on translation theory we have already got, it turned out to be a failure to guide translation practice without any difficulty.There is still a long way ahead. To be in accordance with booming economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community,China will continue to strive unremittingly all the time.。
Bussiness English(unit 1 A Brief Introduction to International Business)
Unit one
A Brief Introduction to International Business
1.What is Business?
Business means the production, distribution, sale of goods and service for a profit.
Essential functions :
① administering and implementing the multilateral and plural-lateral trade agreement, which together make up the WTO ② acting as a forum for multilateral trade negotiation ③ seeking to resolve trade disputes ④ overseeing national trade policies ⑤ cooperating with other international and institutions involved in global economic police making
preface
Part one Introduction to International Business
Unit1.A Brief Introduction to International Business
Unit 2.Business Organization
Part two Formulation of International Businational Business?
International Business deals with the special features of business activities that cross national boundaries.
Unit+2+Literary+Theory+and+Criticism
Unit 2 Literary Theory and CriticismThe practice of literary theory has historical roots that run as far back as ancient Greece and it became a profession in the 20th century. This unit will give you a brief introduction to literary theory and some of the major schools of literary criticism, which is often informed by literary theory.Part I Text ALead-inWhat is literary theory? What is literary criticism? And why do we need them? Write down your answers before reading Text A._____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Now read Text A and compare your answers with the author’s analysis.The reading process and literary theory1Charles E. Bressler The relationship between literary theory and a reader’s personal worldview is best illustrated in the act of reading itself. When reading, we are constantly interacting with the text. According to Louise M. Rosenblatt2’s text The Reader, the Text, the Poem (1978), during the act or event of reading,A reader brings to the text his or her past experience and present personality.Under the magnetism of the ordered symbols of the text, the readermarshals his or her resources and crystallizes out from the stuff of memory,thought, and feeling a new order, a new experience, which he/she sees asthe poem. This becomes part of the ongoing stream of the reader’s lifeexperience, to be reflected on from any angle important to him or her as ahuman being.Accordingly, Rosenblatt declares that the relationship between the reader and the text is not linear, but transactional; that is, it is a process or event that takes place at a particular time and place in which the text and the reader condition each other. The reader and the text transact, creating meaning, for meaning does not exist solely within the reader’s mind or within the text, Rosenblatt maintains, but in the transaction between them. To arrive at an interpretation of a text (what Rosenblatt calls the poem), readers bring their own “temperament and fund of past transactions to the text and live through a process of handling new situations, new attitudes, new personalities, [and] new conflicts in value. They can reject, revise, or assimilate into the resources with which they engage their world.”Through this transactional experience, readers consciously and unconsciously amend their worldview.Because no literary theory can account for all the various factors included in everyone’s conceptual framework, and because we as readers all have differentliterary experiences, there can exist no metatheory–no one overarching literary theory that encompasses all possible interpretations of a text suggested by its readers. And too, there can be no one correct literary theory, for in and of itself, each literary theory asks valid questions of and about a text, and no one theory is capable of exhausting all legitimate questions to be asked about any text.The valid and legitimate questions asked about a text by the various literary theories differ, often widely. Espousing separate critical orientations, each theory focuses primarily on one element of the interpretative process, although in practice different theories may address several areas of concern in interpreting a text. For example, one theory may stress the work itself, believing that the text alone contains all the necessary information to arrive at an interpretation. This theory isolates the text from its historical or sociological setting and concentrates on the literary forms found in the text, such as figures of speech, word choice, and style. Another theory may attempt to place a text in its historical, political, sociological, religious, and economic setting. By placing the text in historical perspective, this theory asserts that its adherents can arrive at an interpretation that both the text’s author and its original audience would support. Still another theory may direct its chief concern toward the text’s audience. It asks how the reader s’emotions and personal backgrounds affect each reader’s interpretation of a particular text. Whether the primary focus of concern is psychological, linguistic, mythical, historical, or from any other critical orientation, each literary theory establishes its own theoretical basis and then proceeds to develop its own methodology whereby readers can apply the particular theory to an actual text.Although each reader’s theory and methodology for arriving at a text’s interpretation differs, sooner or later groups of readers and critics declare allegiance to a similar core of beliefs and band together, thereby founding schools of criticism. For example, critics who believe that social and historical concerns must be highlighted in a text are known as Marxist critics, whereas reader-response critics concentrate on readers’ personal reactions to the text. Because new points of view concerning literary works are continually evolving, new schools of criticism – and therefore new literary theories – will continue to develop. One of the more recent schools to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, New Historicism or Cultural Poetics, declares that a text must be analyzed through historical research that assumes that history and fiction are inseparable. The members of this school, known as New Historicists, hope to shift the boundaries between history and literature and thereby produce criticism that accurately reflects what they believe to be the proper relationship between the text and its historical context. Still other newly evolving schools of criticism, such as postcolonialism3, African American studies, and gender studies, continue to emerge and challenge previous ways of thinking about and critiquing texts.Because the various schools of criticism (and the theories on which they are based) ask different questions about the same work of literature, these theoretical schools provide an abundance of options from which readers can choose to broaden their understanding not only of texts but also of their society, their culture and their own humanity. By embracing literary theory, we learn about literature, but importantly, we are also taught tolerance for other people’s beliefs. By rejecting or ignoringtheory, we are in danger of canonizing ourselves as literary saints who possess divine knowledge and who can therefore supply the one and only correct interpretation for a given text. When we oppose, disregard or ignore literary theory, we are in danger of blindly accepting our often unquestioned prejudices and assumptions. By embracing literary theory and literary criticism (its practical application), we can participate in that seemingly endless historical conversation about the nature of humanity and of humanity’s concerns as expressed in literature. In the process, we can begin to question our concepts of ourselves, our society, and our culture and how texts themselves help define and continually redefine these concepts. (972 words)New Words and Expressionsmagnetism / / n. a quality that makes sth./ sb. very attractive 吸引力, 魅力marshal / / vt. to bring together or organize people or things in order to achieve a particular aim 集结；排列crystallize / / v. to become definite or easily understood, or to make sth. definite or easily understood 使（思想、计划等）具体化linear / / a. involving ideas or events that are directly connected and follow one after the other 通过单独的若干阶段来发展amend / / vt. to make changes to a document, law, agreement, etc. esp. in order to improve it 修正metatheory / / n. 超理论(用以阐明某一或某类理论而本身又更高超的一种理论) overaching / / a. most important, because including or affecting all other areas首要的encompass / / vt. to include, especially different types of things 包含legitimate / / a. fair and reasonable 合情合理的espouse / / vt. to become involved with or support an activity or opinion 支持，拥护adherent / / n. a supporter of a set of ideas, an organization, or a person支持者，拥护者linguistic / / a. connected with language or the study of language 语言的；语言学的allegiance / / n. strong loyalty to a person, group, idea or country 忠诚critique / / vt. to express one’s opinion about sth. after examining and judging it carefully and in detail 对……发表评论embrace / / vt. to accept sth. enthusiastically 信奉canonize / / vt. to announce officially that someone is a saint正式宣布（某人）为圣徒Notes1. This text is taken from Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice (2003), by Charles E. Bressler, a professor of English at Houghton College.2. Louise M. Rosenblatt (1904-2005): an influential scholar of reading and the teaching of literature. She was an emeritus professor of English education at New York University3. postcolonialism: a specifically intellectual discourse that consists of reactions to, and analysis of, the cultural legacy of colonialism.Critical Reading and ThinkingTask 1 OverviewTask 2 Points for DiscussionDiscuss the following questions with your classmate(s) and referring to the speaking strategies in Part V might be helpful.1.According to Louise M. Rosenblatt, how do the readers interact with the text?2.What does a literary theory account for? Why do we need a theory?3.What is a metatheory? According to Text B, is there any metatheory?4.What is the relationship between literary theory and literary criticism?5.What are the major concerns of the following schools of criticism: Marxistcriticism, reader-response criticism, New Historicism, postcolonialism, African American studies and gender studies?Language Building-upTask 1 Specialized vocabularyThe following terms are selected from Text A. Translate them either from Chinese to English or from English to Chinese.1.文学理论________________________________2.文学批评________________________________3.批评流派________________________________4.修辞________________________________5.选词________________________________6.Marxist critics ________________________________7.New Historicism _______________________________8.Cultural Poetics ________________________________9.Postcolonialism ________________________________10.African American studies __________________________11.gender studies ________________________________Task 2 Signpost languages (cause and effect)There are various expressions and patterns indicating a cause and effect relationship.The following sentences are taken from Text A, and all the sign-post languages indicating cause and effect have been removed. Complete the sentences and then compare your answers with the original sentences in Text A.1.The reader and the text transact, creating meaning, _________ meaning does notexist solely within the reader’s mind or within the text, Rosenblatt maintains, but in the transaction between them. (Paragraph 1)2._________ no literary theory can account for all the various factors included ineveryone’s conceptual framework, and _________ we as readers all have different literary experiences, there can exist no metatheory – no one overarching literary theory that encompasses all possible interpretations of a text suggested by its readers. (Paragraph 2)3.…there can be no one correct literary theory, _________ in and of itself, eachliterary theory asks valid questions of and about a text, and no one theory is capable of exhausting all legitimate questions to be asked about any text.(Paragraph 2)4._________ new points of view concerning literary works are continually evolving,new schools of criticism – and _________ new literary theories – will continue to develop. (Paragraph 4)5.The members of this school, known as New Historicists, hope to shift theboundaries between history and literature and _________ produce criticism that accurately reflects what they believe to be the proper relationship between the text and its historical context. (Paragraph 4)6.By rejecting or ignoring theory, we are in danger of canonizing ourselves asliterary saints who possess divine knowledge and who can _________ supply the one and only correct interpretation for a given text. (Paragraph 5)Task 3 Formal EnglishThe following sentences are selected from Text A. Change the underlined formal words into forms that are neutral or less formal.1.There can exist no metatheory –no one overarching literary theory thatencompasses all possible interpretations of a text suggested by its readers.2.Espousing separate critical orientations, each theory focuses primarily on oneelement of the interpretative process …3.This theory asserts that its adherents can arrive at an interpretation that both thetext’s author and its original audience would support.4.Whether the primary focus of concern is psychological, linguistic, mythical,historical, or from any other critical orientation, each literary theory establishes its own theoretical basis and then proceeds to develop its own methodology whereby readers can apply the particular theory to an actual text.5. Although each reader’s theory and methodology for arriving at a text’sinterpretation differs, sooner or later groups of readers and critics declare allegiance to a similar core of beliefs and band together, thereby founding schools of criticism.Part II Text BLiterary criticism has probably existed for as long as literature, and great critics can be as entertaining and stimulating as great poets and novelists. In this essay, a critic reflects on the meaning of his work.The Will Not to Power, but to Self-Understanding1Adam Kirsch If you are writing poetry, or even fiction, the best response to the “absence of echo” is probably indifference. The echoes that creative work provokes are generally too quiet and internal to be measured by indexes like sales figures. Things are somewhat different for a critic, since the critic is necessarily more conscious than other writers of his own will, of what he wants to happen in the world as a result of his writing. As Alfred Kazin2puts it, “He writes to convince, to argue, to establish his argument.”But if this were a critic’s only purpose, his will would merely be a will to power. And a critic who writes primarily out of a will to power (they do exist; they could be named) is never a great critic, or a lasting one. Increasingly, I feel that argument is only the form of criticism, not the substance, just as passing judgment on a particular book is only the occasion of criticism, not the goal. It’s better —certainly it’s better for the critic — not to see criticism as a means of making things happen, of rewarding and punishing, o r of becoming what Kazin calls a “force.” The critic participates in the world of literature not as a lawgiver or a team captain for this or that school of writing, but as a writer, a colleague of the poet and the novelist. Novelists interpret experience through the medium of plot and character, poets through the medium of rhythm and metaphor, and critics through the medium of other texts.This is my definition of “serious criticism,” and I think it’s essentially the same today as it was 50 years ago: a serious critic is one who says something true about life and the world. The critic’s will is not to power, but to self-understanding, self-expression, truth. A review by Edmund Wilson3 in The New Yorker might once have had the power to drive a book’s sales up or down, but that’s not why we continue to read “The Wound and the Bow4.” Lionel Trilling5 never had that kind of concrete power, but that doesn’t stop us from continuing to read “The Opposing Self6.” These books are classics of criticism because they each show a mind working out its own questions —about psychology, society, politics, morals —through reading. In this sense, Wilson and Trilling and other critics in their tradition, of whom Frank Kermode7 might have been the last example, show us what reading can be: a way of making one’s self, one’s soul.Of course, this is an ideal. Most of the time, depending on the kind of piece she is writing, the critic also has other responsibilities. She is a journalist: a review is, in part, a news story about a new book and why it matters. She is a consumer advocate, giving the reader enough information to decide whether to buy the book. At times — as we saw recently in the discussion of Jonathan Franzen’s8“Freedom”— she is a social commentator, trying to determine what the success (or failure) of a particular book says about America at large, how the nation lives or thinks or imagines.In this way, the role of the critic can shade into that of the public intellectual, and of course many great critics have been intellectuals, too. (So have many novelists and poets — look at George Eliot9and T. S. Eliot10.) Trilling wrote about Jane Austen11, but also about the Kinsey Report12; Kazin wrote about Blake13, but also about John F. Kennedy14. This kind of widening of the purview of criticism is natural, because thinking about literature eventually means thinking about society and politics. For Matthew Arnold15, the inability of his contemporaries to write in what he called the “grand style” led him to a general critiq ue of Victorian society, which he saw as addicted to materialism and utilitarianism.I’m not sure if anyone is writing this kind of criticism today — certainly, the most admired literary critics aren’t —and the reason is probably the one Kazin cited: “th e growing assumption that literature cannot affect our future, that the future is in other hands.” This development, whose beginnings he saw 50 years ago, has now come to pass. It is difficult to recapture the old sense, which Arnold had, that the literary critic is the critic par excellence, that the study of literature gives you the best vantage point from which to understand an entire society.Perhaps this loss of centrality accounts for my own inclination to put the emphasis in the phrase “literary criticism” on the first word, not the second. If you are primarily interested in writing, then you do not need a definite or immediate sense of your audience: you write for an ideal reader, for yourself, for God, or for a combination of the three. If you want criticism to be a lever to move the world, on the other hand, you need to know exactly where you’re standing —that is, how many people are reading, and whether they’re the right people. In short, you must worry about reaching a “general audience,” with a ll the associated worries about fragmentation, the decline of print, and the rise of the Internet and its mental groupuscules.Like everyone, I wonder whether a general audience, made up of what Virginia Woolf16called “common readers,” still exists. If i t does, the readership of The New York Times Book Review is probably it. But measured against the audience for a new movie or video game, or against the population as a whole, even the Book Review reaches only a niche audience. Perhaps the only difference between our situation and Arnold’s is that in Victorian England, the niche that cared about literature also happened to constitute the ruling class, while in democratic, mass-media America, the two barely overlap.What this displacement takes from the critic in terms of confidence and authority, it perhaps restores to him in terms of integrity and freedom. Or maybe it’s just that, as a poet, I am all too used to making excuses for the marginality of a kind of writingthat I continue to feel is important. Whether I am writing verse or prose, I try to believe that what matters is not exercising influence or force, but writing well — that is, truthfully and beautifully; and that maybe, if you seek truth and beauty, all the rest will be added unto you. (1069 words)New Words and Expressionspurview / / n. the limit of someone's responsibility, interest or activity（活动、理解能力等的）范围；权限utilitarianism / / n. the system of thought which states that the best action or decision in a particular situation is the one which brings most advantages tothe most people 功利主义come to pass to happen, to take place 发生par excellence to a degree of excellence 最卓越，超群vantage point a place, especially a high place, which provides a good clear view of an area 有利位置lever / / n.杠杆groupuscule / / n. a small, activist group or faction 小团体；小派别niche audience relatively small audience with specialized interests, tastes, andbackgrounds 一小部分有特殊兴趣、品味的读者、（听）观众displacement / / n. the process of forcing sth. out of its position or space 移位marginality / / n. the property of not being central 边缘性unto / / prep. (now used only in antiquated, formal, or scriptural style) toNotes1. A version of this article appeared in print on January 2, 2011, on page BR10 of theSunday Book Review. Adam Kirsch is the author of several books of poetry and criticism, as well as a biography, Benjamin Disraeli.2. Alfred Kazin (1915 - 1998): an American writer and literary critic.3. Edmund Wilson (1895 - 1972): an American writer and literary and social critic andnoted man of letters.4. The Wound and the Bow: a collection of seven essays on literary themes byEdmund Wilson.5. Lionel Trilling (1905 - 1975): an American literary critic, author, and teacher.6. The Opposing Self: a collection of nine essays in criticism, by Lionel Trilling.7. Frank Kermode (1919 - 2010): a highly regarded British literary critic best knownfor his seminal critical work The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction, published in 1967 (revised 2000).8. Jonathan Franzen (1959 - ): an American novelist and essayist. His most recentnovel, Freedom, was published in August 2010.9. George Eliot (1819 - 1880): an English novelist, journalist and translator, and oneof the leading writers of the Victorian era.10. T. S. Eliot (1888 –1965): an American-born English poet, playwright, and literarycritic, arguably the most important English-language poet of the 20th century.11. Jane Austen (1775 - 1817): an English novelist. Her works of romantic fictionearned her a place as one of the most widely read writers in English literature. 12. Kinsey Reports: two books on human sexual behavior, published in 1948 and1953. Kinsey was a zoologist at Indiana University.13. (William) Blake (1757 – 1827): an English poet, painter, and printmaker.14. John F. Kennedy (1917 - 1963): the 35th President of the United States, servingfrom 1961 until his assassination in 1963.15. Matthew Arnold (1822 - 1888): a British poet and cultural critic.16. Virginia Woolf (1882 - 1941): an English author, essayist, publisher, and writer ofshort stories, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the twentieth century.Critical Reading and ThinkingTask 1 Major viewsDecide whether the author of Text B agrees with the following statements or not.______1. The goal of criticism is making judgment and convincing others.______2. In some sense, a critic’s work is the same as a novelist’s.______3. A critic is also a journalist and a consumer advocate.______4. Literature can affect our future.______5. People are now more interested in watching movies and playing video games than in reading books.______6. In modern America, the ruling class isn’t interested in literature.______7. What matters in writing verse or prose is exerting influence.Task 2 Points for discussionDiscuss the following questions with your classmate(s) and referring to the speaking strategies in Part V might be helpful.1. How do you understand the title The Will Not to Power, but to Self-Understanding?2. Why does the author put emphasis on the first rather than the second word of “literary criticism”?3. What this displacement takes from the critic in terms of confidence and authority, it perhaps restores to him in terms of integrity and freedom.(Line )What does this sentence mean?ResearchingRead one book review from the latest newspaper and try to understand the critic’s purpose.Part III Text C (For Your Information)First wave of feminist criticism: Woolf and de Beauvoir1Charles E. Bressler In 1919, the British scholar and teacher Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) laid thefoundation for present-day feminist criticism in her seminal work A Room of One’s Own2. In this text, Woolf declares that men have and continue to treat women as inferiors. It is the male, she asserts, who defines what it means to be female and who controls the political, economic, social, and literary structures. Agreeing with Samuel T. Coleridge3, one of the foremost nineteenth-century literary critic, that great minds possess both male and female characteristics, she hypothesizes in her text the existence of Shakespeare’s sister, one who is equally as gifted as a writer as Shakespeare himself. Her gender, however, prevents her from having “a room of her own”. Because she is a woman, she cannot obtain an education or find profitable employment. Her innate artistic talents will therefore never flourish, for she cannot afford her own room, Woolf’s symbol of the solitude and autonomy needed to seclude one’s self from the world and its social constraints in order to find time to think and write. Ultimately, Shakespeare’s sister dies alone without any acknowledgement for her personal genius. Even her grave bears not her name, for she is buried in an unmarked grave simply because she is female.This kind of loss of artistic talent and personal worthiness, says Woolf, is the direct result of society’s opinion of women: to wit, that they are intellectually inferior to men. Women, Woolf argues, must reject this social construct and establish their own identity. Women must challenge the prevailing, false cultural notions about their gender identity and develop a female discourse that will accurately portray their relationship “to the world of reality and not to the world of men.” If women accept this challenge, Woolf believes that Shakespeare’s sister can be resurrected in and through women living today, even those who may be “washing up the dishes and putting the children to bed” right now. Regrettably, the Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s focused humankind’s attention on other matters and delayed the development of such feminist ideals.With the 1949 publication of The Second Sex by the French writer Simone de Beauvoir (1908 - 1986)4, however, feminist interests were once again surfacing. Heralded as the foundational work of twentieth-century feminism, Beauvoir’s text declares that French society (and Western societies in general) are patriarchal, controlled by males. Like Woolf before her, Beauvoir believed that the male in these societies defines what it means to be human, including, therefore, what it means to be female. Since the female is not male, Beauvoir asserted, she becomes the Other, an object whose existence is defined and interpreted by the male, the dominant being in society. Always subordinate to the male, the female finds herself a secondary or nonexistent player in the major social institutions of her culture, such as the church, government, and educational systems. Beauvoir asserts that a woman must break the bonds of her patriarchal society and define herself if she wishes to become a significant human being in her own right and defy male classification as the Other. She must ask herself, “What is a woman?”Beauvoir insists that a woman’s answer must not be “mankind”, for such a term once again allows men to define woman. This generic label must be rejected, for it assumes that “humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself as relative to him.” (576 words)。
西方文化问答题(1)
1.Summarize in your own words the contributions of the Greek culture to the modern western civilization. In what wayThe spirit of free inquiry, the theory and practice of democracy, the major forms of art and literature and philosophical thought, and the emphasis on individual freedom and individual responsibility---these are the splendid legacy of Greece to humanity.2.Greeks and Romans:cultural similarities and differencesThe Romans were ready to learn from other cultures, esp. Greek culture. To a large degree, it was the Romans who brought Greek culture to world attention.Similarities :Language,Greek and Latin work in a similar way, for they both belong to the Into-European family.political ideas,The citizen-assembly plays an important role in both political life.Artistic styles,The Romans recognized the richness of Greek art and architecture, and they sought to emulate the Greek masters -- and the Greek styles and themes -- in their own art. religious beliefs,As the Greeks, the Romans believed in many gods. Also for them a different god looked after a different part of life.Differences:Polis vs Cosmopolitanism, the Greeks had thought of the world as consisting of city-states. The Romans came to think of the entire world as a city in which every man might enjoy privileges of citizenship. They looked forward to a world composed of the most diverse elements and people.Self-interest vs duty,The Romans did not see their public and private roles as necessarily conflicting with one another. The height of one's wisdom was to know one's duty and then to do it, and not to pursue self-interest. In this sense, the Romans were natural Stoics.Chaos vs order,The Romans were optimistic about life whereas the Greeks were not. The Greeks saw chaos in the world. The Romans experienced that same chaos but held out for the possibility of bringing order out of that chaos. The Romans managed to translate their thought into actions.3.Give a brief introduction to Locke’s life, ideas and great works.John Locke (1632–1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. He was also an economic writer, oppositional political activist, and finally a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Much of Locke’s work is characterized by opposition to authoritarianism. For the individual, Locke wants each of us to seek truth by reasoning rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities. On the level of institutions it becomes important to distinguish the legitimate from the illegitimate functions of institutions and to make the corresponding distinction for the uses of force by these institutions.4.one or two db figures of the Enlightenment and their central ideas.Voltaire and Montesquieu are two of the representative figures of the Enlightenment. Voltaire exposed the dark side of France such as the corruption and injustice of Christianity by launching his theory on human nature. Also, he argued for the freedom and equality of ordinary people.Montesquieu’s political theory developed the principle of dividing political power although the principle itself was not his invention. Montesquieu contributed significantly to the establishment of the modern Western state by exposing the nature of state and human beings in his great work Spirit of Law .For Montesquieu, it was climate that contributed most to the formation of a society and he believed it was shown in national character, political system, marriage codes, religion, and the use of slavery.5.The significance of the EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment, a period that Thomas Paine called the Age of Reason, was a great movement giving much impetus to the growth of social and cultural forces of the human civilization. With rationalism as the core of the Enlightenment, it cast doubt upon and strongly criticizing Christian theology and religious obscurantism, while promoting the dissemination of the new ideas of freedom, equality and democracy among the masses of people. The ideas of liberty, equality and democracy started from the Enlightenment have affected the human behaviors in the historical process towards the modern world.6.Enlightenment is linked to the drastic changes leading to the modern world? The Enlightenment initiated the drastic changes leading to the modern world. It served as a continuation of the Renaissance and provided the impetus for the successive growth of social and cultural forces of modern civilization. This movement is characterized by reason, casting its doubt upon and strongly criticizing Christian theology and religious obscurantism while promoting the dissemination of the new ideas of freedom, equality and democracy among the masses of people. This brought under serious attack the feudal autocracy and Christian Church hegemony,and laying a solid political and intellectual foundation for the approaching bourgeois revolution.7.The origin and the major concerns of Romanticism. Give examples.Romanticism originated out of the craving for individual freedom by the young intellectuals who could not tolerate ideological and intellectual oppression derived from classicism and rationalism imposed by the ruling class and traditional culture.To some extent it was a reaction against the Enlightenment and the 18th-century rationalism and materialism in general. It demanded more reasonable attention to human passion and individuality as a way to reach real human emancipation and freedom.The major concerns of Romanticism comparised individualism, emotionalism, worship of nature, fascination with the alien aspects of foreign lands, enthusiasm for nationalism and often expressed an air of disillusionment.8.Realistic writers ,shared the common points of realism.All the realistic novels share the following points:i. criticism of the dark forces of societyii.sympathy for the poor, the good and the weak iii.attacks against the system or other deep-rooted social evilsiv. a mixture of diverse ideas9.The similarities and dissimilarities between realism and naturalism?The similarities of realism and naturalism lie in the fact that they both aim to describe real life and try to reveal the nature of social reality, especially the dark side of human society. But in the ways of representation, they differ in the following aspects: first, the naturalist writer does not focus on a typical environment or typical characters for representation of reality, and instead, they would attempt to depict real life as it is by sticking to the inherent factor which would usually lead to he cause or motivation of certain events or behaviours; Second, the naturalist writer emphasizes more of the influence of environment on human nature and behaviour by exposing the dark and evil aspect of human society which is not just similar to social realism buteven more violent and barbarous and emotional.10.Utilitarianism is established by Jeremy Bentham and perfected by John Stuart Mill. Can you explain what utilitarianism is and compare the different ideas Bentham and Mill held. Utilitarianism holds two basic principles: the psychological principle of the association of ideas and the achievement of the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Both Bentham and Mill agree that utilitarianism includes not only the pursuit of happiness, but also the avoidance of pain. But to Bentham, utility could only differ in degree and quantity. To Mill, utility is also different in quality and happiness could be classified by advantages. He argued that sensible, emotional and moral happiness was much more valuable than physical happiness. 11.O n e representative character from German classical philosophers ,make a brief remark on his contribution.Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century German classical philosopher. He is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment. Kant created a new widespread perspective in philosophy which influenced European philosophy through and after his lifetime. He also published important works of epistemology, as well as works relevant to religion, law, and history. His most important works is the Critique of Pure Reason, an investigation into the limitations and structure of reason itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics and epistemology, and highlights Kant’s own contribution to these areas. Kant’s great con tribution lies in his interpretation of human epistemology: the ultimate nature of reality of the “things in themselves”remains forever unaccessible to the human mind and what we can know is only its phenomena.12.The features and contributions of classical economics.Classical economics is widely regarded as the beginning of modern economic thought. It is the idea that the free market can regulate itself. Its founders or early representatives include Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Thomas Malthus.Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations in 1776 is usually considered to mark the beginning of classical economics. The theories of the classical school, which dominated economic thinking in Great Britain until about 1870, focused on economic growth and economic freedom, stressing laissez-faire ideas and free competition.Classical economists attempted to explain economic growth of the early capitalist society and believe the efficacy of the market has become dominant in Western economics. It is also the important source of Marxist political economics.ment on the contribution and limitations of utopian socialism.Utopian socialism refers to the beliefs held by early socialist or quasi-socialist intellectuals who created hypothetical visions of perfect egalitarian and communalist societies without practical consideration of actual conditions of the capitalist society they lived in and thus could not carry out their ideals in real social circumstances due to the powerful hindrance from both the rulingclass and social customs as well as the economic and cultural developments of their society. However, some of the utopian ideals, such as those about women’s equality and emancipation, were reasonable and attractive to the future of humanity and were consequently taken into the later theory of Marxism.It also has the limitations, like the excessive propaganda about the genius but can’t find the true place of employed labor; trust in the rulers; impractical ideas of human nature and denial of the class struggle.14.Modernism, including its performance and features.Modernism, in its broadest sense, is modern thought, character, or practice. Modernism--despite its complexity and multiplicity in terms of ideological tendencies and representation modes, could be regarded basically to be irrational, that is, in opposition to rational tradition of the Western culture and civilization. History has repeatedly proved that any radical drive or trend could not last long and so did modernism. The reason is simple,no one could not reject all the inheritances his ancestors have passed on to him . After modernism, particularly the cultural people or intellectuals, have to take a lesson from Modernist Movement, that they should be cautious about the way to handle cultural heritage and need to try to make use of the positive elements from tradition.15.Major schools of modernism, Common techniques of expression.The major schools of modernism are: symbolism, futurism, imagism, expressionism, etc.The common techniques of expression they share are: preference for the symbolic; fascination with the absurd; disillusionment with the traditional(anti-fiction,anti-drama);representation of inwardness.pared with the traditional colonial theory, what kind of new ideas were raised by the post-colonialist criticism?The ultimate goal of post-colonialism is accounting for and combating the residual effects of colonialism on cultures.Post-colonialist thinkers recognize that many of the assumptions which underlie the “logic”of colonialism are still active forces today. Exposing and deconstructing the racist,recognizing that they are not simply airy substances but have widespread material consequences for the nature and scale of global inequality makes this project all the more urgent.。
外教社中国概况(英文版)PPT课件CHAPTER 12
martial chery
civilian archery
Dragon Dance
The Chinese dragon is a totem of the Chinese people.
express their wishes and prayers for peace
II
Sports in Modern China
1
Sports in Schools
2
Mass Sports
3
Competitive Sports
1. Sports in Schools
two characteristic sports exercises
• the Sunshine Sports • the Eye Exercises.
3. Differences between the Chinese and Western Sports Concepts
different cultural backgrounds
• one of farming culture • usually a marine one • different spiritual
IVIII
Wushu — Martial Arts
1
The Origin and Development of Wushu
2
Classification of Wushu
3
Characteristics and Functions of
Wushu
4
Cultural Aspects in Wushu
• In 1963, starting from some schools in Beijing.
学术综合英语1-5课课文及翻译
Presenting a speech（做演讲)Of all human creations，language may be the most remarkable。
Through language we share experience，formulate values，exchange ideas, transmit knowledge，and sustain culture。
Indeed，language is vital to think itself。
Contrary to popular belief]，language ｜does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality ［by giving meaning to events］。
在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的.我们用语言来分享经验，传递价值观,交流思想，传播知识,传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works。
Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft。
They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession。
As a speaker，you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately，clearly，vividly，and appropriately。
翻译理论—笔译
影响翻译得分的因素
• • • • A. 英、汉语基础不扎实造成理解错误。 B.缺乏相应的背景知识。 C.翻译表达速度过慢。（翻译速度慢） D.句法、措辞、拼写、标点等细节的错误。
翻译实践
原文： 在巴黎，名目繁多的酒会，冷餐会是广交朋 友的好机会。在这种场合陌生人相识，如果是亚 洲人，他们往往开口之前先毕恭毕敬地用双手把 自己的名片呈递给对方，这好像是不可缺少的礼 节。然而，法国人一般却都不大主动递送名片， 双方见面寒暄几句，甚至海阔天空地聊一番也就 各自走开，只有当双方谈话投机，希望继续交往 时，才会主动掏出名片。二话不说先递名片反倒 显得有些勉强。
Lecture 6
A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories (Principles)
Abroad and at Home
翻译实践
原文：
“赋”与“贼” • 过去有个人，识字不多，坐船外出做生意。 一天船停在“江心寺”，他就和同伴一起 下船到寺中闲逛。 • 寺院墙壁上写着“江心赋”三个字。他一 见，慌忙扭头就跑，喊道：“这里有江心 贼，不可久留！”他的同伴说：“不要慌， 这是‘赋’,不是‘贼’。”他摇头回答： “我看有些像‘贼’的样子。”
Assignments
Please do the E-C exercise of 1996 EMT 8 in your translation practice material. Please do the E-C exercise of 1997 EMT 8 in your translation practice material.
turned (round) around hurriedly (hastily/ in a haste/ in a rush) 参考译文： As soon as he saw these（characters/ words）, he turned around hurriedly and began to run,…
时间简史英语ppt
Over time, English vocabulary has consistently evolved, adapting to new concepts and ideas This evolution is evolved in the development of new words, coinages, and semantic shifts
Social Change
The evolution of English has been a reflection of, and a catalyst for, social change, both in the form of new words to describe emerging concepts or the normalization of previous table language
目录
Reflections and inspirations in a brief history of time Translation and cross cultural discussion of a brief history of time
01
Introduction to a Brief History of Time
A Brief History of Time is a non fiction book written by British author Stephen Hawking
It was first published in 1988 and has since sold over 10 million copies worldwide
04
Reflections and inspirations in a brief history of time
Brief introduction to the history of the Chinese Communist Party
Brief introduction to the history of the Chinese Communist Party(1919-1927), Communist Party of China was founded in the early 1920 of the 20th century. The Communist party programme of giving for the first revolution against imperialism and feudalism, as has pointed out the target of the struggle of the Chinese people; bourgeois Democrats did not rely on the masses to revolution, promoting the Chinese workers ' movement emerged the first orgasm, the Chinese revolution in the face of a new. Under the CPC leadership, influence and promote, in cooperation between KMT and CPC under the condition of China set off a revolution against imperialism and feudalism. 530 campaign marks National Revolutionary upsurge in 1925 the arrival of the revolutionary war as a crusade against the Northern warlords laid its popular support. The Northern Expedition was carried out under the slogan of the Chinese Communist Party moved against imperialism and feudalism; advanced people in the Communist Party members and League members with the Kuomintang, played a key role in the Northern Expedition army. With the victory of the Northern Expedition, and rapid development of the leadership of the Party of workers ' and peasants ' movement, shaking the imperialist, feudal forces in China's ruling Foundation. At the critical moment in the struggle, because of the big bourgeoisie in the mutiny and the Communist Party of Chen du-Xiu's capitulationism errors occur, the revolution was a failure.(1927-1937) in 1927 after a failed revolution, in the face of new warlords of brutal rule of the KMT, CPC implementing agrarian reform and the overall orientation of the armed uprising. Chinese Communists represented by Mao Zedong, gradually switched the emphasis of the work of the party by the city to the countryside, the establishment of base areas, opening up the path of countryside surrounding the city, armed seizure of power. Leadership of the party base people armed and political power of workers and peasants of the revolution, many times in a row to beat the KMT's military "encirclement".Revolution towards the rejuvenation of the time, Wang Ming in the party "leftist" dogmatism errors serious loss to the party once again. As the fifth anti-"encirclement" campaign failed, the Red Army was forced to implement the strategic transfer-a long March. Zunyi meeting, held during the long March, correct the party's "left" mistakes and established the Marxist line represented by Mao Zedong's leadership, become a vital turning point in the history of the party, marking the party from an early age to maturity. Subsequently, the party led the Red Army to unusually strong willpower, enemy interception, and various hardships and difficulties, achieved a great victory of the long March.The anti-Japanese war (1937-1945) in July 1937, Japan launched an all-out war of aggression of imperialism. Programme of the nation by the Communist Party of the development of anti-Japanese, proposed route and protracted war strategy, principles of war, fighting for victory in the war of a clear path. The eighth route army under the leadership of the party, army and other armed anti-Japanese people deep behind enemy lines, mobilize the masses, opening up the anti-Japanese base areas behind enemy lines, the construction of anti-Japanese democratic regime. Base area army and gradually become the mainstay of anti-Japanese war. After the Sino-Japanese war entered the stage of stalemate, the party's leadership the enemy's rear area army and a resolute Japan invaders fought and the anti-Communist KMT Bigot to rational compromise countercurrent, profitability, and with the struggle. The Chinese people after eight years of hard work, finally achieved a great victory of the war, as well as international made an indelible contribution to the victory of the antifascist war.Liberation (1945-1949) the end of June 1946, the KMT ruling clique flagrantly launched an all-out civil war. Under the leadership of the CPC, people's Liberation Army to defeat the KMT military attacks, and transferred to the strategic offensive. Liberated areas carried out land reform movement, the broad masses of peasants eagerly supporting the front. KMT ruled areas thrown up to the student movement led by people's movements, as support of the people's Liberation war of the second route. "Middle line" was bankrupt, further consolidate and expand the people's democratic unity front. Surrounded by the Kuomintang government in a nationwide. Party leading the people's Liberation Army in Liao-Shen, North China, Beijing and Tianjin three major battles, the eradication of which maintain their main military power of the reactionary rule of the Kuomintang. Seven at the second plenary session of the party to seize national victories and established new China politically, and ideologically prepared for. People's Liberation Army to cross battle, liberation of Nanjing, proclaimed the collapse of the Kuomintang reactionary rule. New-democratic revolution against imperialism and feudalism under the CPC leadership, achieved a great victory.Building (1949-1956) People's Republic of China was established, the Chinese people to stand up, began a new era of Chinese history. The CPC led the people of all nationalities throughout the country healed war wounds, adjust the economic structure of old China, so that the whole national economy is fully restored and developed rapidly. Under the direction of the party's general line, planned on a large scale economic construction in our country, in most regions of the country is made to the system of socialist transformation, promoted the development of productive forces, and laid the initial foundation of socialist industrialization in China. Socialist transformation in China destroys the exploiting class, the establishment of a new socialist system, this is a great historical victory. The basic completion of Socialist transform in 1956, laying a foundation for all progress and development of China then. The first five-year plan period, China's prosperous development of all aspects of construction.The Dong Cunrui, Pom PokoSee this impressive film of the Dong Cunrui, my feelings, a myriad of thoughts, heart can't be calm once. Be full of hatred against the enemy, a tribute to Dong Cunrui, arises spontaneously in my mind.In 1945, the militia Dong Cunrui joined the eighth route army, aged 16, he in the fierce battle exercises gradually become a resourceful and brave soldier. In the meantime, also joined the Communist Party of China. In 1948, at the battle of liberation of Longhua, our military is resistance by the enemy bunker, Dong Cunrui Uncle hold black powder from under the bridge, unable to find the explosives bracket, they wanted to use the barrel of a gun smashed a hole in, haven't levering rocks, Horn rang up, many soldiers fell to the enemy's gunpoint, suffered heavy casualties. Dong Cunrui uncle to victory in the battle as a whole, to his comrades ' safety, took the hand holding dynamite, destroying the enemy bunker, bravely sacrificed his own precious life. After the concept, I can't help but think of a Deng Shichang, Huang Jiguang, and others, all of them are outstanding sons and daughters of China. Our flag, our red scarf, is their blood. Them by the aggressor in Chinese aggression, for the country's victory in the war, dying for their country. In an environment that we live in peace today, but we still face a challenge, this is the challenge of science, so we have to work hard, study hard, and always meet the challenges of science and technology, as a technological power of the motherland.I loved the film of the Dong Cunrui, want it to motivate more people to fight for countryXibaipo travelsIn order to gain some deeper understanding of the Chinese Communist Party history, understand the party in the Chinese revolution is the most critical moment of the tide and achieved victory in the end, I visited the Holy places of the Chinese revolution--xibaipo.After more than four hours by car, we've arrived at this austere and sacred lands. Out of the car and, after a short photo, we went to the former site of the CPC Central Committee. Courtyard of former site of the CPC Central Committee, made up of several ordinary small courtyard. From the East and West, followed by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, ren Bishi, and Dong bi-Wu's old House, back yard was Zhu de's former residence, there are military operations office and canteen. Yard buildings are all ordinary dwelling-style home, black plain wall, cross House music room is in each small homes built around modest fence. Look at all this, we thought we would naturally think of Jinggangshan dajing slim, thought of Yan ' an jujube gardens in yangjialing, that Interior simply "stand" how similar is similar. Interior wood table wooden chair, oil lamp Heatable Adobe sleeping platform, simple and crude as farmers in mountain areas. Only the pen and ink, books, maps and other items, ordinary and unusual. Corner window, Mau Huai tall bamboos, lush luxuriant Yu indifferent to quiet those reported in an elegant, poetic.Mao Zedong's small courtyard next to Zhou Enlai's small courtyard, horizontal sliding window will be laughing asked. Outside the yard they have a large rolling pan, listen to guide speaking, every major issues difficult to resolve, Mao Zedong used to push and grind, Zhou Enlai next to help, and around and around, the two giant wheels of promoting historical booming sound. Liu Shao-Qi and two fellow Hunan ren Bishi became a neighbor on the xibaipo, parents-in woven bamboo trunk hongfeng xiangjiang river water into the wind and rain in the village of Taihang, how much feeling. Tung and old in the room of an old spinning wheel, that was brought by Mrs Tung Yan, humming sound of spinning, often accompanied by Tung's old window light, ushered in xibaipo dawn. Backyard three cave-style living Commander-in-Chief Zhu, soil in front of a large ping, CEOs fist sword then often in the morning breeze in this acquisition, to show their skill. Exposure here, still feel Ying Grand and heroic air blowing to.I think xibaipo as the last stop of new-democratic revolution in China, is not only a great witness of the people's Liberation war to victory, but historical records of the Chinese people's revolution of the eternal. She will give us bearing in mind that part of glorious history, and continue to inspire us to work hard for our country create a more brilliant page[由Microsoft® Translator 自动翻译]。
介绍理论英文作文模板范文
介绍理论英文作文模板范文英文回答：Introduction to Theory Essay Template。
I. Introduction。
Begin with a hook to capture the reader's attention.Provide a brief overview of the theory and its significance.State the thesis statement, which should articulate the main argument of the essay.II. Background and Context。
Discuss the historical background and development of the theory.Describe the key concepts and assumptions underlying the theory.Explore the broader context in which the theory emerged.III. Analysis of the Theory。
Examine the strengths and limitations of the theory.Evaluate its validity and reliability.Discuss the empirical evidence that supports or refutes the theory.IV. Application of the Theory。
Illustrate how the theory has been applied in various fields.Discuss the practical implications and benefits of using the theory.Analyze case studies or examples that demonstrate the application of the theory.V. Comparison to Other Theories。
介绍生活或课堂的一次劳动实践英语作文
介绍生活或课堂的一次劳动实践英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1As part of our school curriculum, we recently participated in a labor practice activity aimed at teaching us valuable life skills and fostering a sense of responsibility and teamwork. The experience was not only educational but also enriching, as it allowed us to apply what we have learned in the classroom to real-life situations.The labor practice took place in a local community center, where we were tasked with organizing and cleaning up the space. We were divided into groups and assigned specific areas to work on, such as the library, playground, and garden. Each group had a designated leader who was responsible for delegating tasks and ensuring that everything ran smoothly.My group was assigned to the library, where our main task was to sort and organize the books on the shelves. It was a daunting task at first, as the library was in disarray with books scattered everywhere. However, with teamwork and coordination, we were able to complete the task efficiently andeffectively. It was not only satisfying to see the library transformed into a neat and organized space but also rewarding to know that our efforts would benefit the community.Throughout the labor practice, we learned the importance of communication, organization, and cooperation. We also developed a greater appreciation for the hard work and dedication of those who work tirelessly to maintain public spaces. It was a valuable lesson in humility and gratitude, reminding us of the privilege we have to receive education and the responsibility we have to give back to society.Overall, the labor practice was a memorable and enriching experience that taught us valuable life skills and instilled in us a sense of duty and responsibility. It was a reminder that education is not just about academics but also about learning how to be active and contributing members of society. I am grateful for the opportunity to participate in such a meaningful activity and look forward to applying the lessons learned in my future endeavors.篇2IntroductionLabor practice is an essential component of our daily life and classroom learning. It not only helps us gain practical skills andknowledge but also instills a sense of responsibility and discipline. In this essay, I will share my personal experience of a labor practice session both in my daily life and classroom setting.Daily Life ExperienceIn my daily life, labor practice is a common occurrence as I am responsible for various household chores. One memorable experience was when I helped my parents with gardening. We spent the entire morning planting flowers and vegetables in our backyard. I learned how to properly plant seeds, water the plants, and remove weeds. Throughout the process, I gained a deeper appreciation for nature and the hard work required to maintain a garden.Another labor practice activity in my daily life is cooking. I enjoy experimenting with different recipes and cooking meals for my family. I have learned how to chop vegetables, marinate meat, and cook various dishes. Cooking not only nurtures my creativity but also enables me to bond with my family over shared meals.Classroom ExperienceIn the classroom, labor practice takes on a different form but is equally important. One such experience was when weparticipated in a school-wide cleaning campaign. Each student was assigned a specific area to clean, such as classrooms, hallways, or the schoolyard. Through this activity, we learned the importance of maintaining a clean and orderly environment and working together as a team.Another classroom labor practice session was when we conducted a science experiment. We had to set up the experiment, collect data, analyze the results, and present our findings to the class. This hands-on experience helped us understand the scientific concepts taught in class and honed our critical thinking and problem-solving skills.ConclusionLabor practice plays a vital role in both our daily lives and classroom learning. It enables us to acquire practical skills, cultivate a strong work ethic, and foster a sense of responsibility. By engaging in labor practice, we not only enhance our knowledge and capabilities but also develop important life skills that will serve us well in the future.篇3A Labor Practice in LifeAs students, we often focus on studying hard to achieve good grades. However, it is also important for us to participate in practical activities to apply what we have learned in the classroom to real-life situations. Recently, my classmates and I had the opportunity to participate in a labor practice at a local farm, which turned out to be a valuable learning experience.On a sunny Saturday morning, we gathered at the farm and were greeted by the owner who gave us a brief introduction to the tasks we would be doing that day. We were divided into groups and assigned different responsibilities such as planting seeds, watering crops, and harvesting vegetables. I was assigned to the group in charge of planting seeds, and I was excited to get started.As we worked in the fields, I realized how much effort and dedication it takes to grow crops. We had to pay attention to details such as the depth at which the seeds were planted and the spacing between each seed. It was a physically demanding task, but it was also satisfying to see the results of our hard work as the crops began to grow.Throughout the day, we worked together as a team, helping each other out and encouraging one another. We learned the importance of cooperation and communication, as well as thevalue of hard work and perseverance. It was a hands-on experience that allowed us to apply the theories we had learned in the classroom to a real-world setting.At the end of the day, we gathered for a reflection session where we shared our thoughts and feelings about the experience. We talked about the challenges we faced, the lessons we learned, and the impact it had on us. It was a meaningful discussion that helped us gain a deeper understanding of the importance of labor practices in our lives.Overall, the labor practice at the farm was a valuable experience that taught us important life lessons. It not only helped us apply our knowledge in a practical setting but also instilled in us a sense of responsibility and appreciation for hard work. It was a reminder that success is not only achieved through academic achievements but also through dedication and perseverance in all aspects of life. I am grateful for the opportunity to participate in such a meaningful activity and look forward to applying the lessons I have learned in my future endeavors.。
A brief introduction to literature 现代大学英语精读5课件
with the hero) , • foils（陪衬help to enhance the intensity of
the hero by strengthening or contrasting ）
Elements of the novel
• 3. Setting : the background against which a character is depicted or an event is narrated. It helps to make possible the events in the novel. It goes along with every event in the novel.
A brief introduction to literature
• 5) sociological novel treats social, political or religious problems, call attention to certain social problems and sometimes offer solutions.
Elements of the novel
4. plot:
A plot is the deliberately arranged sequence of interrelated events/ happenings which convey the novelist’s ideas and constitute the basic narrative structure of a novel or a short story. Sometimes it is called a story line. Very often a plot starts from a significant conflict. This conflict sets the plot of a story in motion. It retains the reader’s attention, builds the suspense of the work and arouses the expectation for the events that are to follow. The plot of
The_Study_of_America
The special issue of American literature in the literary journal: Modern , Oct., 1934 the development of American novels modern American drama modern American poetry modern American literary criticism writers discussed: Jack London, Upton discussed:
A Study of Contemporary American Novels, 2000 (黄铁池 《当代美国小说研究》2000) 当代美国小说研究》 A New History of American Literature, 2003-2004, 2003-2004, (刘海平,王守仁《新编美国文学史》2003-2004) 刘海平,王守仁《新编美国文学史》2003- American Postmodernist Novels, 2003(扬任敬《美 2003(扬任敬《 国后现代派小说论》 国后现代派小说论》2004) A History of Popular American Literature, 2003 (黄禄善《美国通俗文学史》2003) 黄禄善《美国通俗文学史》 Selected Readings of American Literature, 2000 (陶洁《美国文学选读》2000) 陶洁《美国文学选读》 Selected Readings of Twentieth Century American Literature, 2006 (陶洁《20世纪美国文学选读》2006) (陶洁《20世纪美国文学选读》
The Study of American Literature in China: American Content and Chinese Perspective
文学翻译unit 1《概论》
Literary Translation陈水平helen.csp@Lecture One1.Definition of TranslationBy translation here I specrifically mean translating, the process of translation, in which something is translated, instead of the work translated.翻译是将一种文字之真义全部移至另一种文字而绝不失其风格的神韵。
（吴献书，1949）翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。
（张培基，1980）翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。
（刘宓庆，1990）翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。
（王克非，1997）翻译是语际之间的信息传递和语族之间的文化交流。
（萧立明，2001）A good translation is one which the merit of the original work is socompletely transfused into another language as to be as distinctly apprehended and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. 好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译人语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。
（泰特勒，1790）翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。
论英语广告中的双关修辞和翻译
information recipients----the advertisement receivers. Thirdly, “communication” has been
newspapers, TV, radios, etc. that can make the information reach the information
recipie Advertising
Generally speaking, a full print advertisement is composed of two parts: the verbal
“paid” reflects the fact that the space or time for advertisements generally must be
exchanged with money. Secondly, the “non-personal” indicates that advertisements involve
translator approaches the translation of puns from the perspective of Relevance Theory.
Many scholars have carried out researches on the translation of puns from different
With China's opening up to the outside world, especially after China's entry into the World
考研英语阅读模拟题
考研英语阅读模拟题2018考研英语阅读模拟题引导语：为了帮助大家更好地准备考研英语，以下是店铺为大家整理的2018考研英语阅读模拟题，欢迎阅读!阅读一With the start of BBC World Service Television, millions of viewers in Asia and America can now watch the Corporation's news coverage, as well as listen to it.And of course in Britain listeners and viewers can tune in to two BBC television channels, five BBC national radio services and dozens of local radio station. They are brought sport, comedy, drama, music, news and current affairs, education, religion, parliamentary coverage, children's programmes and films for an annual licence fee of ￡83 per household.It is a remarkable record, stretching back over 70 years - yet the BBC's future is now in doubt. The Corporation will survive as a publicly-funded broadcasting organisation, at least for the time being, but its role, its size and its programmes are now the subject of a nation-wide debate in Britain.The debate was launched by the Government, which invited anyone with an opinion of the BBC - including ordinary listeners and viewers - to say what was good or bad about the Corporation, and even whether they thought it was worth keeping. The reason for its inquiry is that the BBC's royal charter runs out in 1996 and it must decide whether to keep the organisation as it is, or to make changes.Defenders of the Corporation - of whom there are many - are fond of quoting the American slogan. If it ain't broke, don't fix it. The BBC ain't broke, they say, by which they mean it is not broken(as distinct from the word broke, meaning having no money), so why bother to change it?Yet the BBC will have to change, because the broadcasting world around it is changing. The commercial TV channels - ITV and Channel 4 - were required by the Thatcher Government's Broadcasting Act to become more commercial, competing with each other for advertisers, and cutting costs and jobs. But it is the arrival of new satellite channels - funded partly by advertising and partly by viewers' subscriptions - which will bring about the biggest changes in the long term.55. The world famous BBC now faces ________.(A) the problem of new coverage(B) an uncertain prospect(C) inquiries by the general public(D) shrinkage of audience56. In the passage, which of the following about the BBC is not mentioned as the key issue?(A) Extension of its TV service to Far East.(B) Programmes as the subject of a nation-wide debate.(C) Potentials for further international co-operations.(D) Its existence as a broadcasting organisation.57. The BBC's royal charter (line 4, paragraph 4) stands for ________.(A) the financial support from the royal family(B) the privileges granted by the Queen(C) a contract with the Queen(D) a unique relationship with the royal family58. The foremost reason why the BBC has to readjust itself is no other than ________.(A) the emergence of commercial TV channels(B) the enforcement of Broadcasting Act by the government(C) the urgent necessity to reduce costs and jobs(D) the challenge of new satellite channels阅读二In the last half of the nineteenth century capital and labor were enlarging and perfecting their rival organizations on modern lines. Many an old firm was replaced by a limited liability company with a bureaucracy of salaried managers. The change met the technical requirements of the new age by engaging a large professional element and prevented the decline in efficiency that so commonly spoiled the fortunes of family firms in the second and third generation after the energetic founders. It was moreover a step away from individual initiative, towards collectivism and municipal and state-owned business. The railway companies, though still private business managed for the benefit of shareholders, were very unlike old family business. At the same time the great municipalities went into business to supply lighting, trams and other services to the taxpayers.The growth of the limited liability company and municipal business had important consequences. Such large, impersonal manipulation of capital and industry greatly increased the numbers and importance of shareholders as a class, an element in national life representing irresponsible wealth detached from the land and the duties of the landowners; and almost equally detached from the responsible management of business. All through the nineteenth century, America, Africa, India, Australia and parts of Europe were being developed by British capital, and British shareholders were thus enriched by the world's movement towards industrialization. Towns like Bournemouth and East Bourne sprang up to house large comfortable classes who hadretired on their incomes, and who had no relation to the rest of the community except that of drawing dividends and occasionally attending a shareholders' meeting to dictate their orders to the management. On the other hand Shareholding meant leisure and freedom which was used by many of the later Victorians for the highest purpose of a great civilization.The shareholders as such had no knowledge of the lives, thoughts or needs of the workmen employed by the company in which he held shares, and his influence on the relations of capital and labour was not good. The paid manager acting for the company was in more direct relation with the men and their demands, but even he had seldom that familiar personal knowledge of the workmen which the employer had often had under the more patriarchal system of the old family business now passing away. Indeed the mere size of operations and the numbers of workmen involved rendered such personal relations impossible. Fortunately, however, the increasing power and organisation of the trade unions, at least in all skilled trades, enabled the workmen to meet on equal terms the managers of the companies who employed them. The cruel discipline of the strike and lockout taught the two parties to respect each other's strength and understand the value of fair negotiation.59. It's true of the old family firms that ________.(A)they were spoiled by the younger generations(B)they failed for lack of individual initiative(C)they lacked efficiency compared with modern companies(D)they could supply adequate services to the taxpayers60. The growth of limited liability companies resulted in ________.(A)the separation of capital from management(B)the ownership of capital by managers(C)the emergence of capital and labour as two classes(D)the participation of shareholders in municipal business61. According to the passage, all of the following are true except that ________.(A)the shareholders were unaware of the needs of the workers(B)the old firm owners had a better understanding of their workers(C)the limited liability companies were too large to run smoothly(D)the trade unions seemed to play a positive role62. The author is most critical of ________.(A)family firm owners (B)landowners(C)managers (D)shareholders阅读三Rumor has it that more than 20 books on creationism/evolution are in the publisher's pipelines. A few have already appeared. The goal of all will be to try to explain to a confused and often unenlightened citizenry that there are not two equally valid scientific theories for the origin and evolution of universe and life. Cosmology, geology, and biology have provided a consistent, unified, and constantly improving account of what happened. Scientific creationism, which is being pushed by some for equal time in the classrooms whenever the scientific accounts of evolution are given, is based on religion, not science. Virtually all scientists and the majority of non-fundamentalist religious leaders have come to regard scientific creationism as bad science and bad religion.The first four chapters of Kitcher's book give a very briefintroduction to evolution. At appropriate places, he introduces the criticisms of the creationists and provides answers. In the last three chapters, he takes off his gloves and gives the creationists a good beating. He describes their programmes and tactics, and, for those unfamiliar with the ways of creationists, the extent of their deception and distortion may come as an unpleasant surprise. When their basic motivation is religious, one might have expected more Christian behavior.Kitcher is philosopher, and this may account, in part, for the clarity and effectiveness of his arguments. The non-specialist will be able to obtain at least a notion of the sorts of data and argument that support evolutionary theory. The final chapter on the creationists will be extremely clear to all. On the dust jacket of this fine book, Stephen Jay Gould says: This book stands for reason itself. And so it does-and all would be well were reason the only judge in the creationism/evolution debate.67. Creationism in the passage refers to ________.(A)evolution in its true sense as to the origin of the universe(B)a notion of the creation of religion(C)the scientific explanation of the earth formation(D)the deceptive theory about the origin of the universe68. Kitcher's book is intended to ________.(A)recommend the views of the evolutionists(B)expose the true features of creationists(C)curse bitterly at this opponents(D)launch a surprise attack on creationists69. From the passage we can infer that ________.(A)reasoning has played a decisive role in the debate(B)creationists do not base their argument on reasoning(C)evolutionary theory is too difficult for non-specialists(D)creationism is supported by scientific findings70. This passage appears to be a digest of ________.(A)a book review(B)a scientific paper(C)a magazine feature(D)a newspaper editorial阅读四Personality is to a large extent inherent-A-type parents usually bring about A-type offspring. But the environment must also have a profound effect, since if competition is important to the parents, it is likely to become a major factor in the lives of their children.One place where children soak up A characteristics is school, which is, by its very nature, a highly competitive institution. T oo many schools adopt the win at all costs moral standard and measure their success by sporting achievements. The current passion for making children compete against their classmates or against the clock produces a two-layer system, in which competitive A-types seem in some way better than their B-type fellows. Being too keen to win can have dangerous consequences: remember that Pheidippides, the first marathon runner, dropped dead seconds after saying: Rejoice, we conquer!By far the worst form of competition in schools is the disproportionate emphasis on examinations. It is a rare school that allows pupils to concentrate on those things they do well. The merits of competition by examination are somewhat questionable, but competition in the certain knowledge of failure is positively harmful.Obviously, it is neither practical nor desirable that all A youngsters change into B's. The world needs types, and schoolshave an important duty to try to fit a child's personality to his possible future employment. It is top management.If the preoccupation of schools with academic work was lessened, more time might be spent teaching children surer values. Perhaps selection for the caring professions, especially medicine, could be made less by good grades in chemistry and more by such considerations as sensitivity and sympathy. It is surely a mistake to choose our doctors exclusively from A- type stock. B's are important and should be encouraged.63. According to the passage, A-type individuals are usually ________.(A)impatient(B)considerate(C)aggressive(D)agreeable64. The author is strongly opposed to the practice of examinations at schools because ________.(A)the pressure is too great on the students(B)some students are bound to fail(C)failure rates are too high(D)the results of examinations are doubtful65. The selection of medical professionals is currently based on ________.(A)candidates' sensitivity (B)academic achievements(C)competitive spirit (D)surer values66. From the passage we can draw the conclusion that ________.(A)the personality of a child is well established at birth(B)family influence dominates the shaping of one's characteristics(C)the development of one's personality is due to multiple factors(D)B-type characteristics can find no place in a competitive society阅读五A report consistently brought back by visitors to the US is how friendly, courteous, and helpful most Americans were to them. To be fair, this observation is also frequently made of Canada and Canadians, and should best be considered North American. There are, of course, exceptions. Small-minded officials, rude waiters, and ill-mannered taxi drivers are hardly unknown in the US. Yet it is an observation made so frequently that it deserves comment.For a long period of time and in many parts of the country, a traveler was a welcome break in an otherwise dull existence. Dullness and loneliness were common problems of the families who generally lived distant from one another. Strangers and travelers were welcome sources of diversion, and brought news of the outside world.The harsh realities of the frontier also shaped this tradition of hospitality. Someone traveling alone, if hungry, injured, or ill, often had nowhere to turn except to the nearest cabin or settlement. It was not a matter of choice for the traveler or merely a charitable impulse on the part of the settlers. It reflected the harshness of daily life: if you didn't take in the stranger and take care of him, there was no one else who would. And someday, remember, you might be in the same situation.Today there are many charitable organizations which specialize in helping the weary traveler. Yet, the old tradition of hospitality to strangers is still very strong in the US, especially in the smaller cities and towns away from the busy tourist trails. I was just traveling through, got talking with this American, andpretty soon he invited me home for dinner-amazing. Such observations reported by visitors to the US are not uncommon, but are not always understood properly. The casual friendliness of many Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial, but as the result of a historically developed cultural tradition.As is true of any developed society, in America a complex set of cultural signals, assumptions, and conventions underlies all social interrelationships. And, of course, speaking a language does not necessarily mean that someone understands social and cultural patterns. Visitors who fail to translate cultural meanings properly often draw wrong conclusions. For example, when an American uses the word friend, the cultural implications of the word may be quite different from those it has in the visitor's language and culture. It takes more than a brief encounter on a bus to distinguish between courteous convention and individual interest. Yet, being friendly is a virtue that many Americans value highly and expect from both neighbors and strangers.55. In the eyes of visitors from the outside world, ________.(A)rude taxi drivers are rarely seen in the US(B)small-minded officials deserve a serious comment(C)Canadians are not so friendly as their neighbors(D)most Americans are ready to offer help56. It could be inferred from the last paragraph that ________.(A)culture exercises an influence over social interrelationship(B)courteous convention and individual interest are interrelated(C)various virtues manifest themselves exclusively among friends(D)social interrelationships equal the complex set of culturalconventions57. Families in frontier settlements used to entertain strangers ________.(A)to improve their hard life(B)in view of their long-distance travel(C)to add some flavor to their own daily life(D)out of a charitable impulse58. The tradition of hospitality to strangers ________.(A)tends to be superficial and artificial(B)is generally well kept up in the United States(C)is always understood properly(D)has something to do with the busy tourist trails答案及分析阅读一55. (B)意为：前景不定。
英语诗歌的汉语翻译
ON POETRY TRANSLATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF RELEVANCE THEORY──A CASE STUDY OF CHINESE TRANSLATIONOF KEATS’S ODEAbstractWith the help of relevance theory (hereinafter RT), this thesis tries to probe into Chinese translation of English poetry. RT is firstly put forward by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in 1986, and it exerts a great influence on pragmatics, and translation studies as well. The most significant outcome is the study of translation from the perspective of relevance by Deirdre Wilson‘s student Ernst-August Gutt in 1991. Unfortunately, Gutt just focuses his attention on the description of translation theories under RT without the convincing translation examples, especially the poetry translation examples.There are a number of papers discussing translation and relevance by domestic scholars; however, these papers are limited by either the paper space or the theory-oriented approaches. Studies of Keats and his poems have never been stopped by scholars at home and abroad. But these studies are mainly done from the perspective of literature; there is no paper or thesis that studies Keats‘s poems from the angle of translation. Study of Keats‘s odes translation has never been done in China, not to mention the study of Chinese translation of Keats‘s odes abroad. So this thesis tries to study poetry translation under the guidance of RT considering the shortcomings of studies above.The degree of relevance of RT is the main theoretical basis on studying poetry translation. The optimal relevance is the assessing measure between the sourcelanguage and the target language and the task of a translator is to appropriately transfer the relevance degree of the source poetry into the translated poetry to make sure the closest equivalence between two languages. The author studies the relevance degree between the two languages from the angle of ―rhyme‖, ―form‖, and ―information‖ of the poetry, upon which the author puts forward a descriptive formula describing the relationship between relevance and poetry translation. In order to demonstrate the topic better and more specifically, the author borrows Chinese versions of Keats‘s odes to exemplify the corresponding relationship between relevance and poetry translation. Owing to the limitation of the thesis space, the author only selects four Chinese versions of Keats‘s―Ode on a Grecian Urn‖ as the object of the exemplification and the discussion. Through the careful comparison of relevance in ―rhyme‖, ―form‖, and ―information‖between the original ode and the four Chinese versions, the author depicts the result of the detailed discussion in the descriptive formula. In the end, positions and triangles in the descriptive formula confirm the guiding function in theory and the applicable function in practice concerning RT in poetry translation.This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction, which mainly discusses the necessity of the study, the gist of the title, the theoretical foundation of the research, the expected result of the research and the outline of the thesis. The necessity of the study is the focus of this chapter. The second chapter is a survey of theories employed in this thesis, and accordingly they are the survey of RT, which consists of some key terms of RT, the survey of RT and poetry translation, and the importance of the study. The third chapter is mainly about the study of John Keats, and it is composed of a brief introduction to the life of John Keats, some aesthetic theories of John Keats, which have two vital concepts serving as the subsections of it, and the practice of his aesthetic theories, which serves as a transition why ―Ode on a Grecian Urn‖ is selected as a case study to the next chapter. The fourth chapter is the case study of RT and Chinese translation of John Keats‘s ode. The details are formed by ―Survey of Translation of ‗Ode on a Grecian Urn‘‖and ―A Case Study of Relevance Theory and Chinese Translation of Keats‘s Ode‖. The last chapter is aconclusion including the main idea of the thesis, the main findings of the thesis, the theoretical and the practical significance of RT in poetry translation, the limitations of the study and advice for further research.Key words:RT; the optimal relevance; poetry translation; John Keats; ode摘要本文借助关联理论，旨在通过该理论来探究英语诗歌的汉语翻译。
全新版大学英语第一册课件Unit 共153页
Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched. Click the sayings to see the details!
Before Reading
Global Reading
Detailed Reading
After Reading
Home
The Fox and the Grapes
One day a fox passed under a vine. From the vine a lot of grapes were hanging. He was very hungry and thirsty. He said, “What a fine
Dove and the Ant. In it a dove saves an ant from drowning in a river. Later the ant saves the dove’s life by stinging a hunter in the foot, making him miss his aim at the dove.
Before Reading
Global Reading
Detailed Reading
After Reading
Home
Killing the goose that lays the golden eggs.
It means “杀鸡取蛋” in Chinese. This saying
BR（ Some 3 ） comes from the fable The Goose with the Golden Eggs. In it the owner of the goose is not satisfied with one golden egg a day. He cuts the goose open to see if there is gold inside.
国际合作交流英语;AbriefintroductiontoIndia的原文与翻译。
A Brief Introduction to IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India, is a country is South Asia. New Delhi is its capital. It is bordered by Pakistan to the West; Bhutan, the people’s Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the west. The subcon nent India is bounded by the India Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengalthe Himalayas——lies in on the east. The planet’s highest mountain chain—the Himalayasthe north and northeast of India. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra, which are two of India’s major rivers, originate from the Himalayas. Under the influence of the Himalayas in the east and the Thar Desert in the west, India is warmer and we er than other places at the similar la tudesIndia is the home to ancient Indus Valley Civiliza on. The first known permanent se lements appeared about 8500 years ago ,Four ofHinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and word’s major religions—religions—Hinduism,Sikhism——originated from India. But form 16th-century, European Sikhismimperialist countries started establishing trading posts in India and gradually establishingcolonies. By 1856, most of India had come under the control of the Bri sh East India Company, and gradually became a colony of Great Britain. In the 20th-century, a na onwide struggle for independence was launched by the India Na onal Congress and otherpoli cal organiza ons. The most famous and defining part of this movement was the nonviolenceresistance led by Mahatam Gandhi. On 15 Augest 1947, the Bri sh rule was dissolved. But the Muslim-majority areas were separated from India which led to the crea on of a separate sovereign country know as Pakistan. Form 1950s to 1980s, India went through a period of pervasive corrup on and slow economic growth due to conserva ve economy polices. But in 1991, significant economic reforms have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economy in the world. Today, India has become the eleventh-largest economy in the world according to its GDP the world according to its GDP. And if purchasing power parity is taken . And if purchasing power parity is taken into account, it is the fourth largest in the world. During the late 2000s, India’s economy grew at an average annual rate of 7.5%. It has the world’s fastest growing telecommunica on industry and the world’s second fastest growing automobile industry .Despite its impressive growth in recent years, India s ll has the largest concentra on of poor people in the word.India has a large and diverse popula on. It is the world’s second most populous country with its popula on of around 1.2 billion. 80.5% of them are Hindu; 13.4% are Muslim; 2.3% are Chris ans; 1.9% are Sikhs; 0.8% are Buddhists; 0.4% are Jains; 0.7% are Jews, Zoroastrians and Baha’is. Neither the Cons tu on of India, nor any India law defines any na onal language, while Hindi is spoken by the largest number ofspeakers and English is used widely in business, administra on and educa on.Due to its long history, India has a plural and mixed culture. It successfully preserved its tradi onal culture while absorbing new customs, tradi ons from invaders and immigrants. It is greatly influenced by its divers religions and is shown in architecture, literature and music etc.. The most famous architecture of deceased wife, represents a blend of varied local tradi ons from several parts of the country and abroad.Tradi onal India society is defined by strict society hierarchy. Family value is highly respected, and mul -genera onal family is s ll very common in India society. Marriage is thought to last forever and divorce rate is extremely low.Another achievement which should not be overseen about India is its film industry. The India film industry is the largest in the world. Bollywood, which is based in Mumbai, is the most prolific film industry in the world.印度，正式的名字叫印度共和国，是东南亚的一个国家。
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A Brief Introduction to Theories on International Relations and Foreign PolicyPOLI 468Bill NewmannThe selections we will be reading have one main focus. They seek to answer the big question in international relations and foreign policy: Why do states behave the way they do in the international system? Some people argue that this is a question of international relations theory and others say it is a question of foreign policy theory. For our purposes, we can consider them the same issue. Why do states behave the way they do is the question that theories of international relations and theories of foreign policy are trying to answer. The fact that these are treated as separate bodies of theory says more about political scientists than it does about the nature of state behavior.Since political science is concerned with theory building, each of these books focuses on theories. As stated in the syllabus, the search for theory is a search for rules to explain social science phenomenon (in this case foreign policy behavior). Each author is developing a theory to explain the behavior of all states, not just one state. That is the trick here. Can you find universal patterns of activity, universal rules that can used to explain how any state behaves? Each author is developing a theory (a rule about state behavior) and then testing it with case studies. You are assessing those theories and the evidence that supports them. So think in th ose terms. Don’t be confused by scientific jargon. Just remember that theories are statements about cause and effect. When I heat up a liquid, it will boil. That’s cause and effect. To become a scientist, you start to experiment – you heat up different liquids to see if they all boil at the same temperature, then you try to make rules about the different types of liquids you heat up, say types of juices vs. types of oil. That’s science. Now, since this is social science and we’re dealing with nations, we can’t run experiments. You can’t invade several nations to see what their different reactions to invasion might be. So you use historical data to test your theories. That’s what you’re examining in your papers. An author has developed a theory or t ested two theories. How well does the author’s argument hold up when tested against the historical data?The authors might use terms that you are unfamiliar with. I am going to provide a brief introduction to some of the key ideas in international relations that will give you a starting point and a quick reference for dealing with the theoretical issues. The authors are very good at illustrating their theories, but this might help just in case. Also, these are starting points for the authors. They take some of these basic notions and redevelop them. So their views of each of these theories might be slightly different from the way I describe them. Theories evolve and below I’ve given you the basic starting points for each theory.Levels of AnalysisOne of the key questions in international relations and foreign policy is the question of how you examine state behavior. This is the level of analysis problem. Scholars see several levels of analysis through which state behavior can be examined.System level analysis examines state behavior by looking at the international system. In this level of analysis, the international system is the cause and state behavior is the effect. Characteristics of the international system cause states to behave the way they do. Change in the international system will cause change in state behavior. The key variable in the international system is the power of a state within the system. Some states are powerful; others are weak. So for example, the cold war had two powerful states. Therefore the central cause of all state behavior in the cold war was the fact that the US and USSR were the two powerful states in a bipolar system. Today, there is unipolar system – one superpower (or hyperpower) -- and that defines the behavior of all other states in the system. (See neo-realism below). So this level of analysis might explain the US intervention in Iraq as a matter of the US, the one and only powerful state, flexing its muscles to police the world against states that threaten it. The US wants to preserve its dominance and therefore crushes all challengers.State level analysis examines the foreign policy behavior of states in terms of state characteristics. For example, some scholars say that all democracies behave a certain way; they don’t fight with other democracies. Some scholars might look at the different behaviors of weak or strong states; states that live in rough neighborhoods (Germany or France) vs. states that live in more benign surroundings (the US). Some scholars might say that the foreign policy behavior of every state is a cultural characteristic, defined by the historical legacy of the state, the religious or social traditions, or the economic and geographic nature of the state itself (see constructivism below). State level of analysis might explain the US intervention in Iraq as a function of the missionary quality of US foreign policy. The US has always had an idealist streak in its foreign policy (some disagree with this) and sees “bad guys” out t here in the international system. The US is compelled by the nature of its political system and its belief that some day all states will be like the US. It has a drive to remake the world in its own image. The job of US foreign policy is not done until all states are democratic and all nations have free market economies.Organizational level analysis examines the way in which organizations within a state function to influence foreign policy behavior. States don’t make decisions. Organizations bargain with each other to create a foreign policy that is a compromise between competing organizations. This level of analysis for example, might look at the Iraq war and try to explain it by examining the interests of the US military, the department of defense, the state department, and central intelligence agency. How did these organizations create US foreign policy would be the key question at this level of analysis.Individual level analysis focuses on people. People make decisions within nation states and therefore people make foreign policy. Scholars might look at the roles of different leaders. This level of analysis might explain World War II by examining the role of Hitler. It might look at the end of the cold war by studying Gorbachev. It might suggest that the economic reforms in China are a result of the transition from Mao Zedong’s leadership to Deng Xiaoping’s rule. This level of analysis also includes cognitive theories --- theories that explain foreign policy by looking at the way leaders perce ive the world. Larson’s book is an example of this. This is a focus on perception, misperception, and communication. Individual level analysis might ask questions such as these: Are there aspects of George W. Bush’s character and belief systems that have defined the US response to the 9/11 attacks? Would Al Gore or John Kerry have behaved any differently in a similar situation? How do Bush and his senior decision makers perceive the world and their role in it?The books that we have for this class, examine foreign policy behavior from several different levels. Theories of State BehaviorThe following list illustrates some of the theories that you’ll be reading about. Each one is a specific theory that tries to explain the way states behave. You’ll get plenty of ideas within the books, so I’ll give you the brief outline. Remember though that the authors will take these basic ideas and modify them. Again, these are starting points for theory and the authors are modifying them to build better theory.Classical realism is a state level theory that argues that all states seek power. That is the first and last principle of state behavior. States seek to increase their power; they seek to decrease the power of their enemies; and everything they do is in the name of amassing power. States see other powerful states as rivals because power, when it is not in your hands, is threatening. People are greedy, insecure, and aggressive, so the states they govern will have those same characteristics. This does n’t mean war, however. There can be peace, but a durable peace is based upon a stable balance of power – the big players in the international systems are roughly equal in power resources, so therefore no one thinks they can win a war. If you don’t think you can win a war, you generally don’t start one. The US and USSR were rivals in the cold war because they were the two most powerful states after WW II. They were both wary of each other’s power and became enemies. But they did not go to war because they were roughly equal in power.Neo-realism is a system level theory that is an offshoot of classical realism. It argues all of what classical realism does. However, it sees the cause of all the power struggles and rivalries not as a function of the nature of states, but as a function of the nature of the international system. States are out there alone. There is no world government, no one looking out for states, no rules that can’t be easily broken. The world is anarchy and states do what they can get away with to gain power and they do what they must to protect themselves. Power creates rivalry because it is threatening by its nature. If some other state is more powerful than your state, you have no way to protect yourself but to defend yourself or attack your rival first. A neorealist might say the cold war was caused by the fact that there were only two powerful states that survived WW II. Sine there was no world government or rules of behavior to restrain the rivalry it became the cold war. This theory dominates scholarly thinking today and will be discussed in a lot of the books.Neo-classical realism is a sort of revival of classical realism. It accepts all of the above about power rivalries, but it suggests that state characteristics (state level variables) play a large role in the behavior of states. States don’t just seek power and they don’t just fear other powerful states, there are reasons that states seek po wer and there are reasons that states fear other states. It’s a sort of combination of classical and neo-realism that factors in both system level and state level variables. For example, a neo-classical realist might look at the cold war and say that the differences in ideology between the US and USSR was a factor in the US-USSR rivalry that exacerbated the tendency for two powerful states to form rivalries.Liberalism adds values into the equation. It is often called idealism. It is a state level theory which argues that there is a lot of cooperation in the world, not just rivalry. States don’t just compete or worry about power. States try to build a more just world order. They often do so because they have learned that in many instances cooperation is a better strategy that conflict. States try to create enforceable international law. States are progressive forces for social justice. Liberalism might look at the cold war and examine the different values of the US and USSR and point out the repressive and murderous nature of the Soviet state as the key to the US and USSR animosity. It also might look at the decades-worth of US-USSR cooperation in the midst of the cold war (arms control, the lack of direct conflict).Neo-liberalism is an offshoot of liberalism. It is a system level version of liberalism and focuses on the way in which institutions can influence the behavior of states by spreading values or creating rule-based behavior. Neo-liberals might focus on the role of the United Nations or World Trade Organization in shaping the foreign policy behavior of states. Neo-liberals might look at the cold war and suggest ways to fix the UN to make it more effective.Cognitive Theories are those mentioned above which examine the role of psychological processes –perception, misperception, belief systems – on the foreign policy behavior of states. It can be state, organization, or individual level of analysis depending on whether the research is focusing on the psychological dynamics of a state decision maker or the shared perceptions of an organization, or the shared belief systems of a nation. Cognitive theorists might look at the shared images of the US and USSR political leaders had of each other and explain the cold war as the product of these negative images and the inability of either state to reshape the perceptions of the other.Constructivism is a theory that examines state behavior in the context of state characteristics. All states are unique and have a set of defining political, cultural, economic, social, or religious characteristics that influence its foreign policy. States have identities and those identities define their behavior in the international system. The US has a foreign policy character. Russia has a foreign policy character. The cold war is a product of the clash of those identities. The end of the cold war may be a function of changes in the Russian identity.。