土木工程文献翻译(钢筋混凝土)

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土木工程外文文献翻译

土木工程外文文献翻译数学模型预测水运输混凝土结构中的渗透性eluozo，s.n全文粗骨料细砂的混凝土构件，大孔隙混凝土率确定孔隙率和混凝土结构孔隙比，渗透系数的影响确定率水运混凝土。

数学模型来预测渗透率对水率交通是数学发展，该模型是监测水运输的混凝土率结构。

渗透性建立大孔上构成的影响下一种关系，即由混凝土制成，应用混凝土浇筑的决定渗透性的沉积速率混凝土结构，渗透性建立是大孔的混合物之间的影响下通过水泥净浆，考虑到系统中的变量，数学模型的建立是为了监测水通过通过具体的速度，也确定渗透系数的率对混凝土结构。

关键字:混凝土结构、渗透性和数学模型一、简介混凝土结构的耐久性依赖于通过频密迁移率的熔化的成分。

这种搬迁就是通过磁导率的影响。

在排序该条件混凝土混合物就是通过中存有的基质中的微孔隙的已连续网络混凝土协调比。

其他影响就是通过存有于的界面的孔隙率骨料的级分体式结构。

本研究中，其特征测量的快速和精确度在煮混凝土的渗透性，这包含创建理论模型的叙述渗透性对混凝土结构的影响。

实验中采用的就是瞬时顺利完成渗透性设备监控措施细骨料细沙和水是这种材料例如混凝土称作孔隙率和孔隙率中的组件之间的微孔混凝土结构中，渗透系数的影响确认水的速率运输在混凝土加水物水分搬迁混凝土，设备容许快速和精确测量在混凝土加水水中搬迁。

混凝土就是一种类型的多孔材料做成，并且可以由于在物理上和化学受损其曝露在各种环境中从混凝土浇筑至其使用寿命。

在特别就是，一些外部有毒元素，例如硫酸根，氯离子，和二氧化碳，扩散在混凝土少于长期周期做为溶液或气体状态，并引致物理侵害，由于化学反应。

这些反应可以影响应用领域中钢筋破损具体内容的，这减少了耐热寿命，例如钢筋和力量。

因此，它是非常重要的是插入腐蚀抑制剂为在超过临界恶化元件的情况下钢棒腐蚀的钢筋的位置量[1]。

然而，这是非常困难的保证在使用该应用传统技术钢筋位置的耐腐蚀性腐蚀抑制剂仅在混凝土[2-3]的表面上。

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程英文文献及翻译in Nanjing, ChinaZhou Jin, Wu Yezheng *, Yan GangDepartment of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiao Tong University,Xi’an 710049, PR ChinaReceived 4 April 2005; accepted 2 October 2005Available online 1 December 2005AbstractThe bin method, as one of the well known and simple steady state methods used to predict heating and cooling energyconsumption of buildings, requires reliable and detailed bin data. Since the long term hourly temperature records are notavailable in China, there is a lack of bin weather data for study and use. In order to keep the bin method practical in China,a stochastic model using only the daily maximum and minimum temperatures to generate bin weather data was establishedand tested by applying one year of measured hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China. By comparison with themeasured values, the bin weather data generated by the model shows adequate accuracy. This stochastic model can be usedto estimate the bin weather data in areas, especially in China, where the long term hourly temperature records are missingor not available.Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Energy analysis; Stochastic method; Bin data; China1. IntroductionIn the sense of minimizing the life cycle cost of a building, energy analysis plays an important role in devel-oping an optimum and cost eﬀective design of a heating or an air conditioning system for a building. Severalmodels are available for estimating energy use in buildings. These models range from simple steady state mod-els to comprehensive dynamic simulation procedures.Today, several computer programs, in which the inﬂuence of many parameters that are mainly functionsof time are taken into consideration, are available for simulating both buildings and systems and performinghour by hour energy calculations using hourly weather data. DOE-2, BLAST and TRNSYS are such* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 8266 8738; fax: +86 29 8266 8725. E-mailaddress:**************(W.Yezheng).0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.10.006NomenclatureZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850 number of daysfrequency of normalized hourly ambient temperatureMAPE mean absolute percentage error (%)number of subintervals into which the interval [0, 1] was equally divided number of normalized temperatures that fall in subintervalprobability densityhourly ambient temperature (°C)normalized hourly ambient temperature (dimensionless)weighting factorSubscriptscalculated valuemeasured valuemax daily maximummin daily minimumprograms that have gained widespread acceptance as reliable estimation tools. Unfortunately, along withthe increased sophistication of these models, they have also become very complex and tedious touse [1].The steady state methods, which are also called single measure methods, require less data and provideadequate results for simple systems and applications. These methods are appropriate if the utilization ofthe building can be considered constant. Among these methods are the degree day and bin data methods.The degree-day methods are the best known and the simplest methods among the steady state models.Traditionally, the degree-day method is based on the assumption that on a long term average, the solarand internal gains will oﬀset the heat loss when the mean daily outdoor temperature is 18.3 °C and thatthe energy consumption will be proportional to the diﬀerence between 18.3 °C and the mean daily tempera-ture. The degree-day method can estimate energy consumption very accurately if the building use and theeﬃciency of the HVAC equipment are suﬃciently constant. However, for many applications, at least oneof the above parameters varies with time. For instance, the eﬃciency of a heat pump system and HVAC equip-ment may be aﬀected directly or indirectly by outdoor temperature. In such cases, the bin method can yieldgood results for the annual energy consumption if diﬀerent temperature intervals and time periods areevaluated separately. In the bin method, the energy consumption is calculated for several values of the outdoortemperature and multiplied by the number of hours in the temperature interval (bin) centered around thattemperature. Bin data is deﬁned as the number of hours that the ambient temperature was in each of a setof equally sized intervals of ambient temperature.In the United States, the necessary bin weather data are available in the literature [2,3]. Some researchers[4–8] have developed bin weather data for other regions of the world. However, there is a lack of informationin the ASHRAE handbooks concerning the bin weather data required to perform energy calculations in build-ings in China. The practice of analysis of weather data for the design of HVAC systems and energy consump-tion predictions in China is quite new. For a long time, only the daily value of meteorological elements, such asdaily maximum, minimum and average temperature, was recorded and available in most meteorologicalobservations in China, but what was needed to obtain the bin weather data, such as temperature bin data,were the long term hourly values of air temperature. The study of bin weather data is very limited in China.Only a few attempts [9,10] in which bin weather data for several cities was given have been found in China.Obviously, this cannot meet the need for actual use and research. So, there is an urgent need for developing binweather data in China. The objective of this paper, therefore, is to study the hourly measured air temperaturedistribution and then to establish a model to generate bin weather data for the long term daily temperaturedata.2. Data usedZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850 In this paper, to study the hourly ambient temperature variation and to establish and evaluate the model, aone year long hourly ambient temperature record for Nanjing in 2002 was used in the study. These data aretaken from the Climatological Center of Lukou Airport in Nanjing, which is located in the southeast of China(latitude 32.0°N, longitude 118.8°E, altitude 9 m).In addition, in order to create the bin weather data for Nanjing, typical weather year data was needed.Based on the long term meteorological data from 1961 to 1989 obtained from the China MeteorologicalAdministration, the typical weather year data for most cities in China has been studied in our former research[11] by means of the TMY (Typical Meteorological Year) method. The typical weather year for Nanjing isshown in Table 1. As only daily values of the meteorological elements were recorded and available in China,the data contained in the typical weather year data was also only daily values. In this study, the daily maxi-mum and minimum ambient temperature in the typical weather year data for Nanjing was used.3. Stochastic model to generate bin dataTraditionally, the generation of bin weather data needs long term hourly ambient temperature records.However, in the generation, the time information, namely the exact time that such a temperature occurredin a day, was omitted, and only the numerical value of the temperature was used. So, the value of each hourlyambient temperature can be treated as the independent random variable, and its distribution within the dailytemperature range can be analyzed by means of probability theory.3.1. Probability distribution of normalized hourly ambient temperature Since the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and temperature range varied day by day, the con-cept of normalized hourly ambient temperature should be introduced to transform the hourly temperatures ineach day into a uniform scale. The new variable, normalized hourly ambient temperature is deﬁned by^ ¼ttmintmaxtminwhere ^ may be termed the normalized hourly ambient temperature, tmaxand tminare the daily maximum andminimum temperatures, respectively, t is the hourly ambient temperature. Obviously, the normalized hourly ambient temperature ^ is a random variable that lies in the interval [0, 1].To analyze its distribution, the interval [0, 1] can be divided equally into several subintervals, and by means ofthe histogram method [12]iin each subinterval can be calculated by1137土木工程英文文献及翻译Based on the one year long hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China, the probability density piwas calculated for the whole day and the 08:00–20:00 period, where the interval [0, 1] was equally divided into50 subintervals, namely n equals 50. The results are shown in Fig. 1. According to the discrete probability density data in Fig. 1, the probability density function of ^ can beobtained by a ﬁtting method. In this study, the quadratic polynomials were used to ﬁt the probability density data, where a, b and c are coeﬃcients. According to the property of theprobability density function, the following equation should be satisﬁedAs shown in Fig. 1, the probability density curve obtained according to the probability density data pointsis also shown. The probability density functions that are ﬁtted are described byp ¼2:7893^23:1228^ þ 1:6316 for the whole day periodp ¼2:2173^20:1827^ þ 0:3522 for the 08 : 00–20 : 00 period3.2. The generation of hourly ambient temperatureAs stated in the beginning of this paper, the objective of this study is to generate the hourly ambient tem-perature needed for bin weather data generation in the case that only the daily maximum and minimum tem-peratures are known. To do this, we can use the obtained probability density function to generate thenormalized hourly ambient temperature and then transform it to hourly temperature. This belongs to theproblem of how to simulate a random variable with a prescribed probability density function and can be doneon a computer by the method described in the literature [13]. For a given probability density function f ð^Þ, ifits distribution function F ð^Þ can be obtained and if u is a random variable with uniform distribution on [0, 1],thenF, we need only setAs stated above, the probability density function of the normalized ambient temperature was ﬁtted using aone year long hourly temperature data. Based on the probability density function obtained, the random nor-malized hourly temperature can be generated. When the daily maximum and minimum temperature areknown, the normalized hourly temperature can be transformed to an actual temperature by the followingequationWhen the hourly temperature for a particular period of the day has been generated using the above method,the bin data can also be obtained. Because the normalized temperature generated using the model in this studyis a random variable, the bin data obtained from each generation shows some diﬀerence, but it has much sim-ilarity. To obtain a stable result of bin data, the generation of the bin data can be performed enough times,and the bin data can be obtained by averaging the result of each generation. In this paper, 50 generations wereaveraged to generate the bin weather data.Z. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850 3.4. Methods of model evaluationThe performance of the model was evaluated in terms of the following statistical error test:土木工程英文文献及翻译一种产生bin气象数据的随机方法——中国南京周晋摘要：bin方法是一种众所周知且简捷的稳态的计算方法，可以用来预计建筑的冷热能耗。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文翻译--钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ , Ⅲ , Ⅳ grade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinforcing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ , Ⅲ grade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil building and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ , Ⅲ grade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，随着国民经济的快速、持久发展，各种钢筋混凝土建筑结构大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大的发展。

土木工程专业英语翻译(词汇篇)

Chapter 3
Words and Phases
carbon dioxide: 二氧化碳（CO2） calcium oxide: 氧化钙（CaO） tricalcium silicate: 硅酸三钙 dicalcium silicate: 硅酸二钙 tricalcium aluminate: 铝酸三钙 tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 铁铝酸四钙 shrinkage: 收缩 calcium hydroxide: 氢氧化钙 calcium silicate hydrate: 水化硅酸钙 sulfate: 硫酸盐 Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Words and Phases
impurities: 有害杂质 mica: 云母 silt: 淤泥 organic substance: 有机物 sulphide: 硫化物 sulphate: 硫酸盐 chloride: 氯化物
Chapter 4
Words and Phases
Words and Phases
pottery陶瓷 steel 钢材 wood 木材 wetting angle 润湿角 hydrophilic property亲水性 hydrophobic property憎水性 water-absorbing quality 吸水性 water absorption吸水率 water percentage 含水率
Chapter 2
Words and Phases
dolomite ground slaked lime 白云石消石灰粉 over-burnt lime 过火石灰 under-burnt lime 欠火石灰 crystallization 结晶 carbonization 碳化 soundness 体积安定性 water retentivity保水性 shrinkage 收缩 Chapter 2

钢筋混凝土中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料对照外文翻译目录1 中文翻译 (1)1.1钢筋混凝土 (1)1.2土方工程 (2)1.3结构的安全度 (3)2 外文翻译 (6)2.1 Reinforced Concrete (6)2.2 Earthwork (7)2.3 Safety of Structures (9)1 中文翻译1.1钢筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。

将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。

其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。

其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。

因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。

由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。

将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。

这一要求是可以达到的。

因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。

如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。

浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。

对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。

浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。

一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。

必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。

水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。

土木工程英语翻译2

土木工程英语翻译2The history of civil engineering Another advance in steel construction（结构） is the method of fastening together （连在一起） the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw（圆头螺丝钉） without threads（螺纹）. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel（钢构件）, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering（锤击）it to hold it in place（固定就位）. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of ste Fundamentally, engineering is an end-product-oriented discipline that is innovative, cost-conscious and mindful of human factors. It is concerned with the creation of new entities, devices or methods of solution: a new process, a new material, an improved power source, a more efficient arrangement of tasks to aomplish a desired goal or a new structure. Engineering is also more often than not concerned with obtaining economical solutions. And, finally, human safety is always a key consideration.Engineering is concerned with the use of abstract scientific ways of thinking and of defining real world problems. The use of idealizations and development of procedures for establishing bounds within which behavior can be ascertained are part of the process.Many problems, by their very nature, can’t be fully described—even after the fact, much less at the outset.Yet aeptable engineering solutions to these problems mustbe found which satisfy the defined needs. Engineering, then, frequently concerns the determination of possible solutions within a context of limited data. Intuition or judgment isa key factor in establishing possible alternative strategies, processes, or solutions. And this, too, is alla part of engineering.Civil engineering is one of the most diverse branches of engineering. The civil engineer plans, designs, constructs, and maintains a large variety of structures and facilities for public, mercial and industrial use. These structures include residential, office, and factory buildings; highways, railways, airports, tunnels, bridges, harbors, channels, and pipelines. They also include many other facilities that are a part of the transportation systems of most countries, as well as sewage and waste disposal systems that add to our convenience and safeguard our health.The term “civil engineer” did not e into use until about 1750, when John Smeaton, the builder of famous Eddystone lighthouse near Plymouth, England, is said tohave begun calling himself a “civil engineer” to distinguish himself from the military engineers of his time. However, the profession is as old as civilization.In ancient Egypt the simplest mechanical principles and devices were used to construct many temples and pyramidsthat are still standing, including the great pyramid atGiza and the temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak. The great pyramid, 481 feet(146.6 meters)high, is made of 2.25 million stone blocks having an average weight of more than 1.5tons (1.4 metric tons). Great numbers of men were used in the construction of such monuments. The Egyptians also made obelisks by cutting huge blocks of stone, some weighing as much as 1000 tons (900 metric tons). Cutting tools of hard bronze were used.The Egyptians built causeways and roadsfor transporting stone from the quarries to the Nile. The large blocks of stone that were erected by the Egyptians were moved by using levers, inclined planes, rollers, and sledges.The Egyptians were primarily interested in theknow-how of construction; They had very little interest in why-for of use .In contrast, the Greeks made great stridesin introducing theory into engineering problems during the6th to 3rd centuries B.C. They developed an abstract knowledge of lines, angles, surfaces, and solids ratherthan referring to specific objects. The geometric base for Greek building construction included figures such as the square, rectangle, and triangle.The Greek architekton was usually the designer, as well as the builder, of architectural and engineering masterpieces.He was an architect and engineer. Craftsmen, masons, and sculptors worked under his supervision. In the classical period of Greece all important buildings were built of limestone or marble; the Parthenon, for example, was built of marble.The principal construction materials The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry-brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers（砖层）were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tarlike substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens（雅典的帕台农神庙）, for example, have holes drilled （钻孔） in them for iron bars that have now rusted away （锈蚀殆尽）. The Romans also used a natural cement called pozzolana, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water. Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced（推广） in the nieenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron （铁合金）and a small amount of carbon, had been made up to that time（到那个时候） by a laborious （繁复的） process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades（刀刃）. After the invention of the Bessemer process （贝塞麦炼钢法）in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormousadvantage of steel is its tensile strength; that is, it does not lose its strength when it is under a calculated degree (适当的) of tension, a force which, as we have seen, tends to （往往）pull apart many materials. New alloys have further increased the strength of steel and eliminated some of its problems, such as fatigue, which is a tendency forit to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress（连续的应力变化）.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone（石灰石）and clay, which is heated and then ground into a powder（磨成粉末）. It is mixed at or near the construction site （施工现场）with sand, aggregate (small stones, crushed rock, or gravel), and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients （配料）produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into （喷射成）all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under pression. Thus, the two substances plement each other（互补）.They also plement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where（在…情况下） both pression and tension are factors（主要因素）. Steel rods（钢筋） are embedded in（埋入）concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures wheretension will develop（出现）. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond - the force that unites（粘合） them - that the steel cannotslip（滑移） with the concrete. Still（还有） another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid （酸） corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices （施工作业）. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors（防火地面）. Both these changes served to（有利于） reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect（建造）buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried（承受） by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have bee curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls（承重墙）. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various binations.el by melting（熔化） a steel material between them under high heat.Prestressed concrete is an improved form of reinforcement （加强方法）. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to prestress （对..预加应力）concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to（相应于）the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete byfilling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more mon) method, the prestressed steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form（模板）that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure（成品结构）, and the concrete is poured around them. Prestressed concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is so economical, it is a highly desirable（非常理想） material.Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop（建造） buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern sports arenas, with large space unbroken by any obstructing supports（阻碍的支撑物）. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed（不断地扩大）.The current tendency is to develop （采用） lighter materials, aluminum, for example, weighs much less than steel but has many of the same properties.Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few buildings. Lightweight concretes, another example, are now rapidly developing（开展） throughout the world. They are used for their thermal insulation(绝热性). The three types are illustrated below（举例说明如下）: (a) Concretes made with lightweight aggregates; (b) Aerated concretes (US gas concretes) foamed（起泡） by whisking（搅拌）or by some chemical process during casting; (c) No-fines concretes.All three types are used for their insulating properties （绝热性）, mainly in housing, where they give high（非常）fort in cold climates and a low cost of cooling（降温本钱）in hot climates. In housing, the relative weakness of lightweight concrete walls is unimportant, but it matters （有重大关系） in roof slabs, floor slabs and beams.In some locations, some lightweight aggregates cost little more than（几乎等于） the best dense（致密） aggregates and a large number of （大量） floor slabs have therefore been built of lightweight aggregate concrete purely for its weight saving, with no thought of（没考虑） its insulation value.The lightweight aggregate reduces the floor dead load（恒载） by about 20 per cent resulting in（导致）considerable savings in the floor（楼盖结构） steel in every floor and the roof, as well as in the column steel and (less) in thefoundations. One London contractor（承包商）prefers to use lightweight aggregate because it gives him the same weight reduction in the floor slab as the use of hollow tiles, with simpler organization and therefore higher speed and profit. The insulation value of the lightweight aggregateis only important in the roof insulation, which is greatly improved（改良）.Structural Analysis A structure consists of（由..组成）a series of connected parts used to support loads. Notable （显著的） examples include buildings, bridges, towers, tanks, and dams. The process（过程）of creating any of these structures requires planning（规划）, analysis, design, and construction（施工）. Structural analysis consists of （包括）a variety of mathematical procedures （数学程序）for determining such quantities as the member forces and various structural displacements（位移） as a structure responds to its loads. Estimating realistic loads for the structure considering（根据）its use and locationis often a part of structural analysis. Only two assumptions are made regarding（关于）the materials used in the structures of this chapter. First, the material has a linear stress-strain relationship（线性的应力-应变关系）. Second, there is no difference in the material behavior when stressed in tension vis-a-vis（与..相比）pression. The frames and trusses studied are plane structural systems（平面结构体系）. It will be assumed that there is adequate bracing perpendicular to（垂直于）the plane so that no member will fail due to an elastic instability（弹性失稳）. The very important consideration regarding such instability will be left for the specific（具体的）design course.All structures are assumed to undergo only small deformations as they are loaded. As a consequence（因此）we assume no change in the position or direction of a force as a result of （由于）structural deflections（变位）. Finally, since linear elastic materials and small displacement are assumed, the principle of superposition will apply in all cases. Thus the displacements or internal forces that arise from two different forces systems applied one at a time（一次一个）may be added algebraically（几何相加）to determine the structure’s response when both system(s) are applied simultaneously.In the real sense（真正意义上）an exact analysis of a structure can never be carried out since estimates always have to be made of the loadings and the strength of the materials posing（构成）the structure. Furthermore, points of application（作用点）for theloadings must also be estimated. It is important, therefore, that the structural engineers develop（形成）the ability to model（模拟）or idealize（使..理想化）a structure so thathe or she can perform a practical force analysis of the members.Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on the intent（意图）of the designer. The two types of joints most often specified（规定的）are the pin connection and the fixed joint（节点）. A pin-connected joint allows some freedom for slight（轻微）rotation, whereas the fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the connected members. In reality, however, all connections exhibit（显现）some stiffness toward joint rotations, owing to friction（摩擦）and material behavior. When selecting a particular model for each support （支座）or joint, the engineer must be aware of how the assumptions will affect the actual performance（运行）of the member and whether the assumptions are reasonable for the structural design. In reality, all structural supports actually exert（产生）distributed surface loads（面荷载）on their contacting members. The resultants（合力） of these load distributions are often idealized as the concentrated forces（集中力）and moments, since the surface area （外表积）over which the distributed load acts is considerably smaller than thetotal surface area of the connecting members. The ability to reduce an actual structure to（将..简化为）an idealized form can only be gained by experience. In engineering practice, if it bees doubtful（不明确）as to how to model a structure or transfer the loads to the members, it is best to consider several idealized structures and loadings andthen design the actual structure so that it can resist（抵抗）the loadings in all the idealized models.Almost all truss systems are configured（装配）so that analysis using the method of joints must begin at one end and proceed（继续）joint by joint toward the other end. If it is necessary to evaluate the forces carried by a member located（位于）some distance from the ends, the method of joints requires the calculation of the forces in many members before the desired one is reached. The method of sections provides a means（方法）for a direct calculationin these cases. After the support reactions have been calculated the truss is cut through（切开）(analytically分析上) so that one part of the truss is pletely severed from the rest. When this is done, no more than three unknown members should be cut. If possible（如果可能）the cut（切口）should pass through the member or members whoseinternal forces are to be found. A free-body diagram of the part of the truss on one side of（在..一边）this section is drawn, and the internal forces are found through the equilibrium equations. Since the system of forces（力系）on the free-body diagram is a plane non-concurrent（非共点）force system, three equilibrium equations may be written and solved for the three unknowns.Influence lines（影响线）have important application for（应用）the design of structures that resist large live loads（活荷载）. An influence line represents（代表）thevariation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at a specific （特定的）point in a member as concentrated force moves over the member. Once this line is constructed（作图）, one can tell at a glance（一眼便知）where a live load should be placed on the structure so that it creates（引起）the greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the magnitude（大小）of the associated （相关的）reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at thepoint can then be calculated from the ordinates（纵坐标）of the influence-line diagram. For these reasons（因此）, influence lines play an important part in the design of bridges, industrial crane rails（吊车轨道）, conveyors, and other structures where loads move across their span（全长）. Although the procedure（步骤）for constructing an influence line is rather basic（根本的）, one should clearly be aware of the difference between constructing an influence lineand constructing a shear or moment diagram. Influence lines represent the effect of a moving load only at a specified point on a member, whereas shear and moment diagrams represent the effect of fixed loads at all points along the axis of the member.Deflections of structures can our from various sources（原因）, such as loads, temperature, fabrication errors, or settlement. In design, deflections must be limited in orderto prevent cracking of attached（附属的） brittle materials such as concrete or plaster (石膏) . Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect（变位）severely in order to “appear” safe for its oupants（居住者）. More important, though（然而）, deflections at specified points in a structure must be puted if one is to analyzestatically indeterminate structures. We often determine the elastic deflections of a structure using both geometrical and energy methods. Also, the methods of double integration （双重积分）are used. The geometrical methods include the moment-area theorems（弯矩图面积定理）and the conjugate-beam method（共轭梁法）, and the energy methods to be considered are based on virtual work（虚功）and Castigliano’s theorem（卡氏最小功定理）. Each of these methods has particular advantages or disadvantages. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant（主要的） structural material in engineered construction（建造的建筑物）. The universal（通用的）nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from（归因于）the wide availability of reinforcing bars（钢筋）and the constituents（组成局部）of concrete, gravel,sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction（施工）, and the economy（经济性）ofreinforced concrete pared to other form of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts（各种各样）, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures（近海石油开采和生产结构）, dams, and even in ships.value of Reinforced Concrete Concrete is strong in pression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop（形成）whenever（每当）loads, or restrained shrinkage（收缩限制）or temperature changes, give rise to（导致）tensile stresses in excess of（超过）the tensile strength of the concrete. In the plain concrete（素混凝土）beam, the moments due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-pression couple（拉压力偶）involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and pletely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars（钢筋）are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.Economy Frequently, the foremost（最重要的）consideration is the overall cost（总费用）of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs（费用函数）of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time（总的建造时间）since the contractor andowner must allocate（分配）money（资金）to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment （收回投资）until the building is ready for oupancy（居住）. As a result, financial savings（财务的节约）due to rapid construction may more than offset（足以抵消）increased material costs. Any measures designer can take to standardize the design and forming（加工）will generally pay off（使人得益）in reduced overall costs.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber（木材）depends on the availability（可得性）of materials and on a number of（许多）value decisions（价值判断）.Economy Frequently, the foremost（最重要的）considerationis the overall cost（总费用）of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs（费用函数）of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time（总的建造时间）since the contractor and owner must allocate（分配）money（资金）to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment （收回投资）until the building is ready for oupancy（居住）. As a result, financial savings（财务的节约）due to rapid construction may more than offset（足以抵消）increased material costs. Any measures designer can take to standardize the design and forming（加工）willgenerally pay off（使人得益）in reduced overall costs. In many cases the long-term economy（长期的经济性）of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance（维护）and durability（耐久性）are important considerations.Suitability of Material for Architectural and Structural Function A reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to bine the architectural and structural functions （功能）. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition（塑性状态）and is given the desired shape and texture（密度）by means of the forms and the finishing techniques（加工技术）. This allows such elements（构件）as flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and ceiling surface（楼面和顶棚面）. Similarly, reinforced concrete walls can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size or shape is governed（决定）by the designer and not by the availability of standard manufactured members.Fire Resistance The structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing（直立）while the building is evacuated（撤空）and the fire is extinguished （熄灭）. A concrete building inherently（固有地）has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating（耐火等级）without specialfireproofing （防火）or other details（说明）. Structural steel or timber（钢结构或木结构） buildings must be fireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.Rigidity The oupants of a building may be disturbed （干扰）if their building oscillates（摇动）in the wind or the floors vibrate as people walk by（走过）. Due to the greater stiffness and mass（刚度和质量）of a concrete structure, vibrations are seldom a problem. Low Maintenance Concrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members （结构钢构件或结构木构件）. This is particularly true（尤其正确）if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away （使水排出） from the structure.Availability of Materials Sand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities（搅拌设施） are very widely available, and reinforcing steel（钢筋）can be transported to most job sites（施工现场）more easily than canstructural steel（结构钢）. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than (..除外，不是..）reinforced concrete. These include：Low Tensile Strength As stated（表达）earlier, the tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its pressive strength (about 1/10), and hence concrete is subject to（易遭受）cracking. In structural uses this is overe by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths（宽度）to within aeptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly（难看）or may allow（使..能）peration（渗透）of water.Relatively Low Strength Per Unit of Weight or Volume The pressive strength of concrete is roughly 5% to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does a parable（类似的） steel structure. As a result, long-span structures（大跨结构）are often built from steel.。

土木工程专业钢筋混凝土结构设计毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土结构设计文献、资料英文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：土木工程班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and thestress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , thedeflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large cross sections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usuallystiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(b)Reinfoced concrete beam(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures are cheaper.(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforcedconcrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressed concrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid。

(完整版)土木工程专业英语翻译

(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction.(1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。

在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。

(2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction.(2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。

(3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.(3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。

土木工程外文文献翻译

数学模型预测水运输混凝土结构中的渗透性Eluozo，S.N土木工程，工程学院，尼日利亚大学恩苏卡学院电子邮件：solomoneluozo2000@摘要粗骨料细砂的混凝土构件，大孔隙混凝土率确定孔隙率和混凝土结构孔隙比，渗透系数的影响确定率水运混凝土。

数学模型来预测渗透率对水率交通是数学发展，该模型是监测水运输的混凝土率结构。

关键字:混凝土结构、渗透性和数学模型一、简介混凝土结构的耐久性取决于通过频繁迁移率的溶解的成分。

这种迁移是通过磁导率的影响。

在计算该条件混凝土混合物是通过中存在的基质中的微孔隙的连续网络混凝土配合比。

其他影响是通过存在于的界面的孔隙率骨料的级配结构。

本研究中，其特征测量的快速和精确度在拌混凝土的渗透性，这包括建立理论模型的描述渗透性对混凝土结构的影响。

实验中使用的是瞬时完成渗透性设备监控措施粗骨料细沙和水是这种材料如混凝土称为孔隙率和孔隙率中的组件之间的微孔混凝土结构中，渗透系数的影响确定水的速率运输在混凝土拌合物水分迁移混凝土，设备允许快速和精确测量在混凝土拌合水中迁移。

混凝土是一种类型的多孔材料制成，并且可由于在物理上和化学损伤其暴露在各种环境中从混凝土浇注到其使用寿命。

在特别是，一些外部有害元素，如硫酸根，氯离子，和二氧化碳，渗透在混凝土超过长期周期作为溶液或气体状态，并导致物理损害，由于化学反应。

这些反应会影响应用中钢筋锈蚀具体的，这降低了耐久寿命，例如钢筋和力量。

因此，它是非常重要的是插入腐蚀抑制剂为在超过临界恶化元件的情况下钢棒腐蚀的钢筋的位置量[1]。

然而，这是非常困难的保证在使用该应用传统技术钢筋位置的耐腐蚀性腐蚀抑制剂仅在混凝土[2-3]的表面上。

土木工程专业钢筋混凝土结构抗震性能外文翻译文献

文献信息：文献标题：Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Masonry Infill（砌体填充钢筋混凝土建筑的抗震性能研究）文献作者：Girma Zewdie Tsige，Adil Zekaria文献出处：《American Journal of Civil Engineering》,2018,6(1):24-33 字数统计：英文3088单词，16137字符；中文4799汉字外文文献：Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Buildings withMasonry InfillAbstract Unreinforced masonry Infills modify the behavior of framed structures under lateral loads; however, in practice, the infill stiffness is commonly ignored in frame analysis, resulting in an under-estimation of stiffness and natural frequency. The structural effect of hollow concrete block infill is generally not considered in the design of columns as well as other structural components of RC frame structures. The hollow concrete block walls have significant in-plane stiffness contributing to the stiffness of the frame against lateral load. The scope of present work was to study seismic performance of reinforced concrete buildings with masonry infill in medium rise building. The office medium rise building is analyzed for earthquake force by considering three type of structural system. i.e. Bare Frame system, partially-infilled and fully- Infilled frame system. Effectiveness of masonry wall has been studied with the help of five different models. Infills were modeled using the equivalent strut approach. Nonlinear static analyses for lateral loads were performed by using standard package ETABS, 2015 software. The comparison of these models for different earthquake response parameters like base shear vs roof displacement, Story displacement, Story shear and member forces are carried out. It is observed that the seismic demand in the bare frame is significantly large when infillstiffness is not considered, with larger displacements. This effect, however, is not found to be significant in the infilled frame systems. The results are described in detail in this paper.Keywords: Bare Frame, Infilled Frame, Equivalent Diagonal Strut, Infill, Plastic Hinge1.IntroductionInfill have been generally considered as non-structural elements, although there are codes such as the Eurocode-8 that include rather detailed procedures for designing infilled R/C frames, presence of infill has been ignored in most of the current seismic codes except their weight. However, even though they are considered non-structural elements the presence of infill in the reinforced concrete frames can substantially change the seismic response of buildings in certain cases producing undesirable effects (tensional effects, dangerous collapse mechanisms, soft story, variations in the vibration period, etc.) or favorable effects of increasing the seismic resistance capacity of the building.The present practice of structural analysis is also to treat the masonry infill as non- structural element and the analysis as well as design is carried out by only using the mass but neglecting the strength and stiffness contribution of infill. Therefore, the entire lateral load is assumed to be resisted by the frame only.Contrary to common practice, the presence of masonry infill influence the over- all behavior of structures when subjected to lateral forces. When masonry infill are considered to interact with their surrounding frames, the lateral stiffness and the lateral load capacity of the structure largely increase.The recent advent of structural design for a particular level of earthquake performance, such as immediate post-earthquake occupancy, (termed performance based earthquake engineering), has resulted in guidelines such as ATC-40 (1996) FEMA-273 (1996) and FEMA-356 (2000) and standards such as ASCE-41 (2006), among others. The different types of analyses described in these documents, pushover analysis comes forward because of its optimal accuracy, efficiency and ease of use.The infill may be integral or non-integral depending on the connectivity of the infill to the frame. In the case of buildings under consideration, integral connection is assumed. The composite behavior of an infilled frame imparts lateral stiffness and strength to the building. The typical behavior of an infilled frame subjected to lateral load is illustrated in Figures 1 (a) and (b).Figure1. Behavior of infilled frames (Govindan, 1986).In this present paper five models of office building with different configuration of masonry infill are generated with the help of ETABS 2015 and effectiveness has been checked. Pushover analysis is adopted for the evaluation of the seismic response of the frames. Each frame is subjected to pushover loading case along negative X-direction.2.Building DescriptionMulti-storey rigid jointed frame mixed use building G+9 (Figure 2), was selected in the seismic zone (Zone IV) of Ethiopia and designed based on the Ethiopian Building Code Standard ESEN: 2015 and European Code-2005. ETABS 2015 was used for the analysis and design of the building by modeling as a 3-D space frame system.Figure 2. Typical building plan.Seismic performance is predicted by using performance based analysis of simulation models of bare and infilled non ductile RC frame buildings with different arrangement of masonry wall. The structure will be assumed to be new, with no existing infill damage.Building Data:1.Type of structure = Multi-storey rigid jointed frameyout = as shown in figure 23.Zone = Iv4.Importance Factor = 15.Soil Condition = hard6.Number of stories = Ten (G+9)7.Height of Building =30 m8.Floor to floor height = 3 m9.External wall thickness =20cm10.Internal wall thickness=15cm11.Depth of the floor slab =15cm12.depth of roof slab=12cm13.Size of all columns = 70×70cm14.Size of all beams = 70 × 40cm15.Door opening size=100×200cm16.Window opening size =200×120cm3.Structural Modeling and AnalysisTo understand the effect of masonry wall in reinforced concrete frame, with a total of five models are developed and pushover analysis has been made in standard computer program ETABS2015. In this particular study pushover loading case along negative X-axis is considered to study seismic performance of all models. Since the out of plane effect is not studied in this paper, only the equivalent strut along X-axis are considered to study the in plane effect and masonry walls along Y-axis are not considered in all models. From this different condition, all models are identified by their names which are given below.3.1.Different Arrangement of the Building ModelsTo understand the effect of masonry wall in reinforced concrete frame, with a total of five models are developed and pushover analysis has been made in standard computer program ETABS2015. In this particular study pushover loading case along negative X-axis is considered to study seismic performance of all models.Model 1:- Bare reinforced concrete frame: masonry infill walls are removed from the building along all storiesModel 2:-Reinforced concrete frame with 75% of masonry wall removed from fully infilled frameFigure 3. Plan View Model 2.Model 3:- Reinforced concrete frame with half of of masonry wall removed from fully infilled frameModel 4:- Reinforced concrete frame with 25% of masonry wall removed from fully infilled frameFigure 5. Plan view of Model 4.Model 5:- Fully infilled reinforced concrete frame (Base frame)3.2.Modeling of Masonry InfillIn the case of an infill wall located in a lateral load resisting frame the stiffness and strength contribution of the infill are considered by modelling the infill as an equivalent compression strut (Smith).Because of its simplicity, several investigators have recommended the equivalent strut concept. In the present analysis, a trussed frame model is considered. This type of model does not neglect the bending moment in beams and columns. Rigid joints connect the beams and columns, but pin joints at the beam-to-column Junctions connect the equivalent struts.Infill parameters (effective width, elastic modulus and strength) are calculated using the method recommended by Smith. The length of the strut is given by the diagonal distance D of the panel (Figure 7) and its thickness is given by the thickness of the infill wall. The estimation of width w of the strut is given below. The initial elastic modulus of the strut Ei is equated to Em the elastic modulus of masonry. As per UBC (1997), Em is given as 750fm, where fm is the compressive stress of masonry in MPa. The effective width was found to depend on the relative stiffness of the infill to the frame, the magnitude of the diagonal load and the aspect ratio of the infilled panel.Figure 7. Strut geometry (Ghassan Al-Chaar).The equivalent strut width, a, depends on the relative flexural stiffness of the infill to that of the columns of the confining frame. The relative infill to frame stiffness shall be evaluated using equation 1 (Stafford-Smith and Carter 1969):Using this expression, Mainstone (1971) considers the relative infill to frame flexibility in the evaluation of the equivalent strut width of the panel as shown in equation 2.Where:λ1= Relatire infill to frame stiffness garameterα= Equivalent width of infill strut, cmE m = modulus of elasticity of masonry infill, MPaE c = modulus of elasticity of confining frame, MPaI column = moment of inertia of masonry infill, cm4t = Gross thickness of the infill, cmh = height of the infill panel, cmθ = Angle of the concentric equivalent strut, radiansD = Diagonal length of infill, cmH = Height of the confining frame, cm3.3.Eccentricity of Equivalent StrutThe equivalent masonry strut is to be connected to the frame members as depicted in Figure 8. The infill forces are assumed to be mainly resisted by the columns, and the struts are placed accordingly. The strut should be pin-connected to the column at a distance l column from the face of the beam. This distance is defined in Equations 3 and 4 and is calculated using the strut width, a.Figure 8. Placement of strut (Ghassan Al-Chaar).3.4.Plastic Hinge PlacementPlastic hinges in columns should capture the interaction between axial load and moment capacity. These hinges should be located at a minimum distance l column from the face of the beam as shown in figure 9. Hinges in beams need only characterize the flexural behavior of the member.Figure 9. Plastic hinge placement (Ghassan Al-Chaar).3.5. Analysis of the Building ModelsThe non-structural elements and components that do not significantly influence the building behavior were not modeled. The floor slabs are assumed to act as diaphragms, which ensure integral action of all the vertical lateral load-resisting elements. Beams and columns were modeled as frame elements with the centerlines joined at nodes. Rigid offsets were provided from the nodes to the faces of the columns or beams. The stiffness for columns and beams were taken as 0.7EcIg, 0.35EcIg respectively accounting for the cracking in the members and the contribution of flanges in the beams.The weight of the slab was distributed to the surrounding beams as per ESEN1992:2015. The mass of the slab was lumped at the Centre of mass location at each floor level. This was located at the design eccentricity from the calculated centre of stiffness. Design lateral forces at each storey level were applied at the Centre of mass locations independently in two horizontal directions (X- and Y- directions).Staircases and water tanks were not modeled for their stiffness but their masses were considered in the static and dynamic analyses. The design spectrum for hard soil as specified in ESEN1998:2015 was used for the analysis.The effect of soil-structure interaction was ignored in the analyses. The columns were assumed to be fixed at the level of the bottom of the base slabs of respective isolated footings.Figure 10. Force-Deformation Relation for Plastic Hinge in Pushover Analysis (Habibullah. et al.,1998).4.Analysis Results and DiscussionsThe results of pushover analysis of reinforced concrete frame with different configuration of masonry wall are presented. Analysis of the models under the static and dynamic loads has been performed using Etabs 2015 software. All required data are provided in software and analyzed for total five models to get the result in terms of Base shear vs monitored roof displacement, Storey shear, story displacement and Element force. Subsequently these results are compared for reinforced concrete frame with different configuration of masonry wall.4.1.Base Shear vs Monitored Roof Displacement CurveBased up on the Displacement coefficient method of ASCE 41-13 all the five building models are analyzed in ETABS 2015 standard structural software and the static pushover curve is generated as shown in figure 11.Figure 11. Pushover analysis result for 10-story RC building.The presence of the infill wall both strengthens and stiffens the system, as illustrated in figure 11. For the case study building, the fully-infilled frame has approximately 3 times larger intial stiffness and 1.5 times greater peak strength than the bare frame. In figure 11, the first drop in strength for the fully and partially-infilled frame is due to the brittle failure of masonry materials initiating in the first-story infill walls. This behavior after first-story wall failure is due towall-frame interaction and depends on the relative strength of the infill and framing.So, based on these results, infill walls can be beneficial as long as they are properly taken into consideration in the design process and the failure mechanism is controlled.4.2.Story Displacement for Different ModelsFigure 12. shows the comparative study of seismic demand in terms of lateral story displacement amongst all the five types of reinforced concrete frame with different configuration of infill. The lateral displacement obtained from the bare frame model is the maximum which is about 60% greater than that of fully infilled frame, nearly 50% greater than that of frame with 25% of the masonry wall reduced, about 40% greater than that of frame with 50% of the masonry wall reduced and 30% greater than that of frame with 75% of the masonry wall reduced.Figure 12. Comparison of Story displacements for different models.Thus, the infill panel reduces the seismic demand of reinforced concrete buildings. The lateral story displacement is dramatically reduced due to introduction of infill. This probably is the cause of building designed in conventional way behaving near elastically even during strong earthquake.4.3.Member ForcesIn this project to understand the effect of different configuration of infill in reinforced concrete frame; study of the behavior of the column in all models for axialloads was conducted. Total of five nonlinear models are analyzed in ETABS 2015 and all models have same plan of building, therefore the position and label of columns are same in all plans of models which is shown in figure 2. After analysis consider the column no. 1(C1) shown in figure 2. from all models for pushover load case and get the axial forces of column at performance point at every story from software, which is given in table 1 and the values for each model is compared with the bare frame model.Table 1. Comparison of axial force for different models. (KN)From this observation, it is evident that when an infilled frame is loaded laterally, the columns take the majority of the force and shear force exerted on the frame by the infill which is modeled as the eccentric equivalent struts. Generally, the relative increase of axial force is observed when the percentage of infill in reinforced concrete frame increases. It is observed that fully infilled reinforced concrete frame showed around 10% increase in axial force relative to bare frame model. The other infill models showed a lesser increase. The effect of infill on columns is to increase the shear force and to reduce bending moments.In general compared to bare frame model, the infilled models predicted higher axial and shear forces in columns but lower bending moments in both beams and columns. Thus, the effect of infill panel is to change the predominantly a frame action of a moment resisting frame system towards truss action.4.4.Story ShearStory shear is the total horizontal seismic shear force at the base of structure. Results from static pushover analysis at performance point for the case study buildings are shown in figure 13.Figure 13. Comparison of story shear for different model.As observed from the figure 13 the story shear calculated on the basis of bare frame model gave a lesser value than the other infilled frames; It was observed that the story shear in fully infilled frame is nearly 15% greater compared to bare frame model and frame with 25% of the masonry wall reduced was nearly 10% greater compared to the bare frame, frame with 50% of the masonry wall reduced is nearly 8% greater compared to the bare frame and frame with 75% of the masonry wall reduced is about 5% greater compared to the bare frame.Since the bare frame models do not take in to account the stiffness rendered by the infill panel, it gives significantly longer time period. And hence smaller lateral forces. And when the infill is modeled, the structure becomes much stiffer than the bare frame model. Therefore, it has been found that calculation of earthquake forces by treating RC frames as ordinary frames without regards to infill leads to underestimation of base shear. This is because of bare frame is having larger value of fundamental natural time period as compared to other models due to absence of masonry infill walls. Fundamental natural period get increased and therefore base shear get reduced.5.ConclusionsFrom above results it is clear that pushover curve show an increase in initial stiffness, strength, and energy dissipation of the infilled frame, compared to the bareframe, despite the wall’s brittle failure modes.Due to the introduction of infill the displacement capacity decreases as depicted from the displacement profile (Figure 12). The lateral displacement obtained from the bare frame model is the maximum which is about 60% greater than that of infilled frame.The presence of masonry walls is to change a frame action of a moment resisting frame structure towards a truss action. When infills are present, shear and axial force demands are considerably higher leaving the beam or column vulnerable to shear failure. The axial force and shear force of the bare frame is less than that of the infilled frame. Columns take the majority of the forces exerted on the frame by the infill because the eccentrically modeled equivalent struts transfers the axial load and shear force transferred from the action of lateral loads directly to the columns.The story shear calculated on the basis of bare frame model gave a lesser value than the other infilled frames. It was observed that fully infilled frame is nearly 15% greater compared to bare frame model; frame with 25% of the masonry wall reduced was nearly 10% greater compared to the bare frame; frame with 50% of the masonry wall reduced is nearly 8% greater compared to the bare frame and frame with 75% of the masonry wall reduced is about 5% greater compared to the bare frame. This is because the bare frame models do not takes in to account the stiffness rendered by the infill panel, it gives significantly longer time period.中文译文：砌体填充钢筋混凝土建筑的抗震性能研究摘要无配筋砌体填充对框架结构在侧向荷载作用下的受力性能有很大的影响，但在实际应用中，往往忽略了框架结构的填充刚度，导致对框架结构的刚度和固有频率的估计不足。

土木工程专业英语课文_翻译_考试必备

土木工程专业英语课文_翻译_考试必备土木工程专业英语课文翻译The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romanssometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.早期时代的主要施工材料，木材和砌体砖，石，或瓷砖，和类似的材料。

这些课程或层密切联系在一起，用砂浆或沥青，焦油一个样物质，或其他一些有约束力的代理人。

希腊人和罗马人有时用铁棍或拍手以加强其建设。

在雅典的帕台农神庙列，例如，在他们的铁钻的酒吧现在已经生锈了孔。

罗马人还使用了天然水泥称为令人费解的，由火山灰制成，变得像石头一样坚硬在水中。

Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile force which, as we have seen,tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.钢铁和水泥，两个最重要的现代建筑材料，介绍了在十九世纪。

土木工程混凝土强度中英文对照外文翻译文献

<文献翻译一：原文>Strength of Concrete in Slabs, Investigates along Direction of Concreting ABSTRACTIn theory of concrete it is assumed that concrete composites are isotropic on a macro scale. For example, it is assumed that a floor slab’s or a beam’s streng th is identical in all directions and its nonhomogeneity is random. Hence neither calculations of the load-bearing capacity of structural components nor the techniques of investigating concrete in structure in situ take into account to a sufficient degree the fact that the assumption about concrete isotropy is overly optimistic. The present research shows that variation in concrete strength along the direction of concreting has not only a qualitative effect (as is commonly believed), but also a significant quantitative effect. This indicates that concrete is a composite which has not been fully understood yet. The paper presents evaluations of ordinary concrete (OC) homogeneity along component thickness along the direction of concreting. The ultrasonic method and modified exponential heads with a point contact with concrete were used in the investigations [1-3].Keywords: Concrete; Compressive Strength of Concrete; Non-Destructive1. IntroductionIn a building structure there are components which are expected to have special properties but not necessarily in the whole cross section. Components under bending, such as beams and floor slabs are generally compressed in their upper zone and the concrete’s compressive strength is vital mainly in this zone. The components are usually moulded in the same position in which they later remain in service, i.e. with their upper zone under compression. Concrete in the upper zone is expected to be slightly weaker than in the lower zone, but it is unclear how much weaker [4,5]. Also flooring slabs in production halls are most exposed to abrasion and impact loads in their upper zone which is not their strongest part. It is known from practice that industrial floors belong to the most often damaged building components.When reinforced concrete beams or floor slabs are to be tested they can be accessed only from their undersides and so only the bottom parts are tested and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the strength of the concrete in the whole cross section, including in the compressed upper zone. Thus a question arises: how large are the errors committed in this kind of investigations?In order to answer the above and other questions, tests of the strength of concrete in various structural components, especially in horizontally concreted slabs, were carried out. The variation of strength along the thickness of the components was analyzed.2. Research SignificanceThe research results presented in the paper show that the compressive strength of concrete in horizontally formed structural elements varies along their thickness. In the top zone the strength is by 25% - 30% lower than the strength in the middle zone, and it can be by as much as 100% lower than the strength in the bottom zone. The observations are based on the results of nondestructive tests carried out on drill cores taken from the structure, and verified by a destructive method. It is interesting to note that despite the great advances in concrete technology, the variation in compressive strength along the thickness of structural elements is characteristic of both old (over 60 years old) concretes and contemporary ordinary concretes.3. Test MethodologyBefore Concrete strength was tested by the ultrasonic method using exponential heads with a point contact with concrete. The detailed specifications of the heads can be found in [2,3]. The heads’ frequency was 40 and 100 kHz and the diameter of their concentrators amounted to 1 mm.In order to determine the real strength distributions in the existing structures, cylindrical cores 80 mm or 114 mm diameter (Figure 2) were drilled from them in the direction of concreting. Then specimens with their height equal to their diameter were cut out of the cores.Ultrasonic measurements were performed on the cores according to the scheme shown in Figure3. Ultrasonic pulses (pings) were passed through in two perpendicular directions I and II in planes spaced every 10 mm. In this way one could determine how ping velocity varied along the core’s height, i.e. along the thickness of the tested component.In both test directions ping pass times were determined and velocities CL were calculated. The velocities from the two directions in a tested measurement plane were averaged.Subsequently, specimens with their height equal to their diameter of 80 mm were cut out of the cores. Aver-age ultrasonic pulse velocity CL for the specimen’s central zone was correlated with fatigue strength fc determined by destructive tests carried out in a strength tester.For the different concretes different correlation curves with a linear, exponential or power equation were obtained. Exemplary correlation curve equations are given below:Lc c L c C f L f C f 38.1exp 0951.01.003.56705.232621.4=⋅=-⨯=where:fc —the compressive strength of concrete MPa,CL —ping velocity km/s.The determined correlation curve was used to calculate the strength of concrete in each tested core cross section and the results are presented in the form of graphs illustrating concrete strength distribution along the thickness of the tested component. 4. Investigation of Concrete in Industrial FloorsAfter Floor in sugar factory’s raw materials storage hall Concrete in an industrial floor must have particularly good characteristics in the top layer. Since it was to be loaded with warehouse trucks and stored sugar beets and frequently washed the investigated concrete floor (built in 1944) was designed as consisting of a 150 mm thick underlay and a 50 mm thick surface layer and made of concrete with a strength of 20 MPa (concrete A).As part of the investigations eight cores, each 80 mm in diameter, were drilled from the floor. The investigations showed significant departures from the design. The concrete subfloor’s thickness varied from 40 to 150 mm. The surface layer was not made of concrete, but of cement mortar with sand used as the aggregate. Also the thickness of this layer was uneven, varying from 40 to 122mm. After the ultrasonic tests specimens with their height equal to their diameter of 80 mm were cut out of the cores. Two scaling curves: one for the surface layer and the other for the bottom concrete layer were determined.A characteristic concrete compressive strength distribution along the floor’s thickness is shown in Figure 4.Strength in the upper zone is much lower than in thelower zone: ranging from 4.7 to 9.8 MPa for the mortar and from 13.9 to 29.0 MPa for the concrete layer. The very low strength of the upper layer of mortar is the result of strong porosity caused by air bubbles escaping upwards during the vibration of concrete. Figure 5 shows t he specimen’s porous top surface.Floor in warehouse hall with forklift truck transport The floor was built in 1998. Cellular concrete was used as for the underlay and the 150 mm thick surface layer was made of ordinary concrete with fibre (steel wires) reinforcement (concrete B). Cores 80 mm high and 80 mm in diameter were drilled from the surface layer. Ultrasonic measurements and destructive tests were performed as described above. Also the test results were handled in a similar way. An exemplary strength distribution along the floor’s thickness is shown in Figure 6.5. ConclusionsTests of ordinary concretes show unexpectedly greatly reduced strength in the upper zone of horizontally moulded structural components. This is to a large degree due to the vibration of concrete as a result of which coarse aggregate displaces downwards making the lower layers more compact while air moves upwards aerating the upper layers and thereby increasing their porosity. The increase in the concrete’s porosity results in a large drop in its compressive strength. Thanks to the use of the ultrasonic method and probes with exponential concentrators it could be demonstrated how the compressive strength of ordinary concrete is distributed along the thickness of structural components in building structures. It became apparent that the reduction in compressive strength in the compressed zone of structural components under bending and in industrial concrete floors can be very large (amounting to as much as 50% of the strength of t he slab’s lower zone). Therefore this phenomenon should be taken into account at the stage of calculating slabs, reinforced concrete beams and industrial floors [6].The results of the presented investigations apply to ordinary concretes (OC) which are increasingly supplanted by self-compacting concretes (SCC) and high-performance concretes (HPC). Since no intensive vibration is required to mould structures from such concretes one can expect that they are much more homogenous along their thickness [7]. This will be known once the ongoing experimental research is completed.Bohdan StawiskiStrength of Concrete in Slabs, Investigates along Direction of Concreting[D]Institute of Building Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego, Wroclaw, Poland Received October 15, 2011; revised November 21, 2011; accepted November 30, 2011<文献翻译一：译文>混凝土强度与混凝土浇筑方向关系的研究摘要从理论上看，假设混凝土复合材料是各项同性的从宏观尺度上讲。

土木工程混凝土论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

土木工程混凝土论文中英文资料外文翻译文献外文资料STUDIES ON IMPACT STRENGTH OF CONCRETESUBJECTED TO SUSTAINEDELEVATED TEMPERATUREConcrete has a remarkable fire resisting properties. Damage in concrete due to fire depends on a great extent on the intensity and duration of fire. Spalling cracking during heating are common concrete behaviour observed in the investigation of the fire affected structures. Plenty of literature is available on the studies of concrete based on time temperature cures. In power, oil sectorsand nuclear reactors concrete is exposed to high temperature for considerable period of time. These effects can be reckoned as exposure to sustained elevated temperature. The sustained elevated temperature may be varying from a few hours to a number of years depending upon practical condition of exposures. The knowledge on properties under such conditions is also of prime importance apart from the structures subjected to high intensity fire. Impact studies of structure subjected to sustained elevated temperature becomes more important as it involves sensitive structures which is more prone to attacks and accidents. In this paper impact studies on concrete subjected to sustained elevated temperature has been discussed. Experiments have been conducted on 180 specimens along with 180 companion cube specimens. The temperatures of 100°C, 200°C and 300°C for a duration of exposure of 2 hours 4 hours and 6 hours has been considered in the experiments. The results are logically analyzed and concluded.1. INTRODUCTIONThe remarkable property of concrete to resist the fire reduces the damage in a concrete structure whenever there is an accidental fire. In most of the cases the concrete remains intact with minor damages only. The reason being low thermal conductivity of concrete at higher temperatures and hence limiting the depth of penetration of firedamage. But when the concrete is subjected to high temperature for long duration the deterioration of concrete takes place. Hence it is essential to understand the strength and deformation characteristics of concrete subjected to temperature for long duration. In this paper an attempt has been made to study the variation in Impact Strength of concrete when subjected to a temperature range 100oC, 200oC and 300oC sustained for a period of 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs.The review of the literature shows that a lot of research work [1 – 3] has taken place on the effect of elevated temperature on concrete. All these studies are based on time –temperature curves. Hence an attempt has been made to study the effect of sustained elevated temperature on impact strength of concrete and the results are compared with the compressive strength. The experimental programme has been planned for unstressed residual strength test based on the available facilities. Residual strength is the strength of heated and subsequently cooled concrete specimens expressed as percentage of the strength of unheated specimens.2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION2.1. TEST SPECIMEN AND MATERIALSA total of 180 specimens were tested in the present study along with 180 companion cubes. An electric oven capable of reaching a maximum temperature of 300oC has been used for investigation. Fine and coarse aggregates conforming to IS383 has been used to prepare the specimen with mix proportions M1 = 1:2.1:3.95 w/c = 0.58, M2 = 1:1.15:3.56 w/c = 0.53, M3 = 1:0.8:2.4 w/c = 0.4.2.2 TEST VARIABLESThe effects of the following variables were studied.2.2.1 Size sSize of Impact Strength Test Specimen was 150 mm dial and 64 mm thickness and size of companion cube 150 x 150 x 150 mm.2.2.2 Maximum TemperatureIn addition to room temperature, the effect of three different temperatures (100oC, 200oC and 300oC) on the compressive strength was investigated.2.2.3 Exposure Time at Maximum TemperatureThree different exposure times were used to investigate the influence of heat on compressive strength; they are 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs.2.2.4 Cooling MethodSpecimens were cooled in air to room temperature.3. TEST PROCEDUREAll the specimens were cast in steel moulds as per IS516 and each layer was compacted. Specimens were then kept in their moulds for 24 hours after which they were decoupled and placed into a curing tank until 28 days. After which the specimens were removed and were allowed to dry in room temperature. These specimens were kept in the oven and the required target temperature was set. Depending on the number of specimen kept inside the oven the time taken to reach the steady state was found to vary. After the steady state was reached the specimens were subjected to predetermined steady duration at the end of which the specimens are cooled to room temperature and tested.ACI drop weight impact strength test was adopted. This is the simplest method for evaluating impact resistance of concrete. The size of the specimen is 150 mm dial and 64 mm thickness. The disc specimens were prepared using steel moulds cured and heated and cooled as. This consists of a standard manually operated 4.54 kg hammer with 457 mm drop. A 64 mm hardened steel ball and a flat base plate with positioning bracket and lugs. The specimen is placed between the four guides pieces (lugs) located 4.8 mm away from the sample. A frame (positioning bracket) is then built in order to target the steel ball at the centre of concrete disc. The disc is coated at the bottom with a thin layer of petroleum jelly or heavy grease to reduce the friction between the specimen and base plate. The bottom part of the hammer unit was placed with its base upon the steel ball and the load was applied by dropping weight repeatedly. The loading was continued until the disc failed and opened up such that it touched three of the four positioning lugs. The number of blows that caused this condition is recorded as the failure strength. The companion cubes were tested for cube compression strength (fake).4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS4.1 RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VS. TEMPERATUREFrom Table 1, at 100°C sustained elevated temperature it is seen that the residual strength of air cooled specimens of mixes M1, M2 and M3 has increased in strength 114% for M1 mix, 109% for M2 mix and 111% for M3 mix for 6 hours duration of exposure. When the sustained elevated temperature is to 200°C for air cooled specimens there is a decrease in strength up to 910% approximately for M1 mix for a duration of 6 hours, but in case of M2 mix it is 82% and for M3 mix it is 63% maximum for 6 hours duration of exposure. When the concrete mixes M1, M2 and M3 are exposed to 300°C sustained temperature there is a reduction in strength up to 78% for M1 mix for 6 hour duration of exposure.4.2 RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VS DURATION OF EXPOSUREFrom Table 1, result shows that heating up to 100°C for 2 hours and 4 hours, the residual strength of mix M1 has decreased where as the residual strength of mix M2 and M3 has increased. The residual strength is further increased for 6 hours duration of exposure in all the three mixes M1, M2 and M3 even beyond the strength at room temperature. When the specimens of mixes M1, M2 and M3 are exposed to 200°C for 2,4 and 6 hours of duration, it is observed that the residual strength has decreased below the room temperature and has reached 92% for M1 mix, 82 and 73% for M2 and M3 mix respectively. Concrete cubes of mixes M1, M2 and M3 when subjected to 300°C temperature for 2,4 and 6 hours the residual strength for mix M1 reduces to 92% for 2 hours up to 78% for six hours duration of exposure, for M2 mix 90% for 2 hours duration of exposure up to 76% for six hour duration of exposure, for M3 mix 88% up to 68% between 2 and 6 hours of duration of exposure.5. IMPACT STRENGTH OF CONCRETE5.1 RESIDUAL IMPACT STRENGTH VS TEMPERATUREFrom the table 1, it can be observed that for the sustained elevated temperature of 100°C the residual impact strength of all the specimens reduces and vary between 20 and 50% for mix M1, 15 to 40% for mix M2 and M3. When the sustained elevated temperature is 200°C the residual impact strength of all the mixes further decreases. The reduction is around 60-70% for mix M1, 55 to 65% for M2 and M3 mix. When the sustained elevated temperature is 300°C it is observed that the residual impact strength reduces further and vary between 85 and 70% for mix M1 and 85 to 90% for mix M2 and mix M3.5.2 RESIDUAL IMPACT STRENGTH VS DURATION OF EXPOSUREFrom the Table 1 and Figures 1 to 3, it can be observed that there is a reduction in impact strength when the sustained elevated temperature is 100°C for 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs, and its range is 15 to 50% for all the mixes M1, M2 and M3. The influence of duration of exposure is higher for mix M1 which decreases more rapidly as compared to mix M2 and mix M3 for the same duration of exposure. When the specimens are subjected to sustained elevated temperature of 200°C for 2,4 and 6 hour of duration, further reduction in residual impact strength is observed as compared to at 100°C. The reduction is in the range of 55-70% for all the mixes. The six hour duration of exposure has a greater influence on the residual impact strength of concrete. When the sustained elevated temperature is 300°C for 2,4 and 6 hours duration of exposure the residualimpact strength reduces. It can be seen that both temperature and duration of exposure have a very high influence on the residual impact strength of concrete which shows a reduction up to 90% approximately for all the mixes.6. CONCLUSIONThe compressive strength of concrete increases at 100oC when exposed to sustained elevated temperature. The compressive strength of concrete decreases when exposed to 200°C and 300°C from 10 to 30% for 6 hours of exposure. Residual impact strength reduces irrespective of temperature and duration. Residual impact strength decreases at a higher rate of 20% to 85% as compared to compressive strength between 15% and 30 % when subjected to sustained elevated temperature. The impact strength reduces at a higher rate as compared to compressive strength when subjected to sustained elevated temperature.混凝土受持续高温影响的强度的研究混凝土具有显着的耐火性能。

建筑土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土桥梁.doc

Concrete BridgesConcrete is the most-used construction material for bridges in the United States, and indeed in the world. The application of prestressing to bridges has grown rapidly and steadily, beginning in 1949 with high-strength steel wires in the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. According to the Federal Highway Administration’s 1994 National Bridge Inventory data, from 1950 to the early 1990s, prestressed concrete bridges have gone from being virtually nonexistent to representing over 50 percent of all bridges built in the United States.Prestressing has also played an important role in extending the span capability of concrete bridges. By the late 1990s, spliced-girder spans reached a record 100 m (330 ft). Construction of segmental concrete bridges began in the United States in 1974.Curretly, close to 200 segmental concrete bridges have been built or are under construction, with spans up to 240 m (800 ft).Late in the 1970s, cable-stayed construction raised the bar for concrete bridges. By 1982, the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa, Florida, had set a new record for concrete bridges, with a main span of 365 m (1,200 ft). The next year, the Dames Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida, extended the record to 400 m (1,300 ft).HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETECompressive StrengthFor many years the design of precast prestressed concrete girders was based on concrete compressive strengths of 34 to 41 MPa (5,000 to 6,000 psi). This strength level served the industry well and provided the basis for establishing the prestressed concrete bridge industry in the United States. In the 1990s the industry began to utilize higher concrete compressive strengths in design, and at the start of the new millennium the industry is poised to accept the use of concrete compressive strengths up to 70 MPa (10,000 psi).For the future, the industry needs to seek ways to effectively utilize even higher concrete compressive strengths. The ready-mixed concrete industry has been producing concretes with compressive strengths in excess of 70 MPa for over 20 years. Several demonstration projects have illustrated that strengths above 70 MPa can be achieved for prestressed concrete girders. Barriers need to be removed to allow the greater use of these materials. At the same time, owners, designers, contractors, and fabricators need to be more receptive to the use of higher-compressive-strength concretes.DurabilityHigh-performance concrete (HPC) can be specified as high compressive strength (e.g., in prestressed girders) or as conventional compressive strength with improveddurability (e.g., in cast-in-place bridge decks and substructures). There is a need to develop a better understanding of all the parameters that affect durability, such as resistance to chemical, electrochemical, and environmental mechanisms that attack the integrity of the material. Significant differences might occur in the long-term durability of adjacent twin structures constructed at the same time using identical materials. This reveals our lack of understanding and control of the parameters that affect durability. NEW MATERIALSConcrete design specifications have in the past focused primarily on the compressive strength. Concrete is slowly moving toward an engineered material whose direct performance can be altered by the designer. Material properties such as permeability, ductility, freeze-thaw resistance, durability, abrasion resistance, reactivity, and strength will be specified. The HPC initiative has gone a long way in promoting these specifications, but much more can be done. Additives, such a fibers or chemicals, can significantly alter the basic properties of concrete. Other new materials, such as fiber-reinforced polymer composites, nonmetallic reinforcement (glass fiber-reinforced and carbon fiber-reinforced plastic, etc.), new metallic reinforcements, or high-strength steel reinforcement can also be used to enhance the performance of what is considered to be a traditional material. Higher-strength reinforcement could be particularly useful when coupled with high-strength concrete. As our natural resources diminish, alternative aggregate sources (e.g., recycled aggregate) and further replacement of cementitious materials with recycled products are being examined. Highly reactive cements and reactive aggregates will be concerns of the past as new materials with long-term durability become commonplace.New materials will also find increasing demand in repair and retrofitting. As the bridge inventory continues to get older, increasing the usable life of structures will become critical. Some innovative materials, although not economical for complete bridges, will find their niche in retrofit and repair.OPTIMIZED SECTIONSIn early applications of prestressed concrete to bridges, designers developed their own ideas of the best girder sections. The result is that each contractor used slightly different girder shapes. It was too expensive to design custom girders for each project.As a result, representatives for the Bureau of Public Roads (now FHWA), the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) (now AASHTO), and the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) began work to standardize bridge girder sections. The AASHTO-PCI standard girder sections Types I through IV were developed in the late 1950s and Types V and VI in the early 1960s. There is no doubt that standardization of girders has simplified design, has led to wider utilization of prestressed concrete for bridges, and, more importantly, has led to reduction in cost.With advancements in the technology of prestressed concrete design and construction, numerous states started to refine their designs and to develop their own standard sections. As a result, in the late 1970s, FHWA sponsored a study to evaluate existing standard girder sections and determine the most efficient girders. This study concluded that bulb-tees were the most efficient sections. These sections could lead toreduction in girder weights of up to 35 percent compared with the AASHTO Type VI and cost savings up to 17 percent compared with the AASHTO-PCI girders, for equal span capability. On the basis of the FHWA study, PCI developed the PCI bulb-tee standard, which was endorsed by bridge engineers at the 1987 AASHTO annual meeting. Subsequently, the PCI bulb-tee cross section was adopted in several states. In addition, similar cross sections were developed and adopted in Florida, Nebraska, and the New England states. These cross sections are also cost-effective with high-strength concretes for span lengths up to about 60 m (200 ft).SPLICED GIRDERSSpliced concrete I-girder bridges are cost-effective for a span range of 35 to 90 m (120 to 300 ft). Other shapes besides I-girders include U, T, and rectangular girders, although the dominant shape in applications to date has been the I-girder, primarily because of its relatively low cost. A feature of spliced bridges is the flexibility they provide in selection of span length, number and locations of piers, segment lengths, and splice locations. Spliced girders have the ability to adapt to curved superstructure alignments by utilizing short segment lengths and accommodating the change in direction in the cast-in-place joints. Continuity in spliced girder bridges can be achieved through full-length posttensioning, conventional reinforcement in the deck, high-strength threaded bar splicing, or pretensioned strand splicing, although the great majority of applications utilize full-length posttensioning. The availability of concrete compressive strengths higher than the traditional 34 MPa (5,000 psi) significantly improves the economy of spliced girder designs, in which high flexural and shear stresses are concentrated near the piers. Development of standardized haunched girder pier segments is needed for efficiency in negative-moment zones. Currently, the segment shapes vary from a gradually thickening bottom flange to a curved haunch with constant-sized bottom flange and variable web depth.SEGMENTAL BRIDGESSegmental concrete bridges have become an established type of construction for highway and transit projects on constrained sites. Typical applications include transit systems over existing urban streets and highways, reconstruction of existing interchanges and bridges under traffic, or projects that cross environmentally sensitive sites. In addition, segmental construction has been proved to be appropriate for large-scale, repetitive bridges such as long waterway crossings or urban freeway viaducts or where the aesthetics of the project are particularly important.Current developments suggest that segmental construction will be used on a larger number of projects in the future. Standard cross sections have been developed to allow for wider application of this construction method to smaller-scale projects. Surveys of existing segmental bridges have demonstrated the durability of this structure type and suggest that additional increases in design life are possible with the use of HPC. Segmental bridges with concrete strengths of 55 MPa (8,000 psi) or more have been constructed over the past 5 years. Erection with overhead equipment has extended applications to more congested urban areas. Use of prestressed composite steel and concrete in bridges reduces the dead weight of the superstructure and offers increased span lengths.LOAD RATING OF EXISTING BRIDGESExisting bridges are currently evaluated by maintaining agencies using working stress, load factor, or load testing methods. Each method gives different results, for several reasons. In order to get national consistency, FHWA requests that all states report bridge ratings using the load factor method. However, the new AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) bridge design specifications are different from load factor method. A discrepancy exists, therefore, between bridge design and bridge rating.A draft of a manual on condition evaluation of bridges, currently under development for AASHTO, has specifications for load and resistance factor rating of bridges. These specifications represent a significant change from existing ones. States will be asked to compare current load ratings with the LRFD load ratings using a sampling of bridges over the next year, and adjustments will be proposed. The revised specifications and corresponding evaluation guidelines should complete the LRFD cycle of design, construction, and evaluation for the nation's bridges.LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSISThe goal of design and management of highway bridges is to determine and implement the best possible strategy that ensures an adequate level of reliability at the lowest possible life-cycle cost. Several recent regulatory requirements call for consideration of life-cycle cost analysis for bridge infrastructure investments. Thus far, however, the integration of life-cycle cost analysis with structural reliability analysis has been limited. There is no accepted methodology for developing criteria for life-cycle cost design and analysis of new and existing bridges. Issues such as target reliability level, whole-life performance assessment rules, and optimum inspection-repair-replacement strategies for bridges must be analyzed and resolved from a life-cycle cost perspective. To achieve this design and management goal, state departments of transportation must begin to collect the data needed to determine bridge life-cycle costs in a systematic manner. The data must include inspection, maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation expenditures and the timing of these expenditures. At present, selected state departments of transportation are considering life-cycle cost methodologies and software with the goal of developing a standard method for assessing the cost-effectiveness of concrete bridges. DECKSCast-in-place (CIP) deck slabs are the predominant method of deck construction in the United States. Their main advantage is the ability to provide a smooth riding surface by field-adjustment of the roadway profile during concrete placement. In recent years automation of concrete placement and finishing has made this system cost-effective. However, CIP slabs have disadvantages that include excessive differential shrinkage with the supporting beams and slow construction. Recent innovations in bridge decks have focused on improvement to current practice with CIP decks and development of alternative systems that are cost-competitive, fast to construct, and durable. Focus has been on developing mixes and curing methods that produce performance characteristics such as freeze-thaw resistance, high abrasion resistance, low stiffness, and low shrinkage, rather than high strength. Full-depth precast panels have the advantages of significant reduction of shrinkage effects and increased construction speed and have been used in states with high traffic volumes for deck replacement projects. NCHRP Report 407 onrapid replacement of bridge decks has provided a proposed full-depth panel system with panels pretensioned in the transverse direction and posttensioned in the longitudinal direction.Several states use stay-in-place (SIP) precast prestressed panels combined with CIP topping for new structures as well as for deck replacement. This system is cost-competitive with CIP decks. The SIP panels act as forms for the topping concrete and also as part of the structural depth of the deck. This system can significantly reduce construction time because field forming is only needed for the exterior girder overhangs. The SIP panel system suffers from reflective cracking, which commonly appears over the panel-to-panel joints. A modified SIP precast panel system has recently been developed in NCHRP Project 12-41.SUBSTRUCTURESContinuity has increasingly been used for precast concrete bridges. For bridges with total lengths less than 300 m (1,000 ft), integral bridge abutments and integral diaphragms at piers allow for simplicity in construction and eliminate the need for maintenance-prone expansion joints. Although the majority of bridge substructure components continue to be constructed from reinforced concrete, prestressing has been increasingly used. Prestressed bents allow for longer spans, improving durability and aesthetics and reducing conflicts with streets and utilities in urban areas. Prestressed concrete bents are also being used for structural steel bridges to reduce the overall structure depth and increase vertical clearance under bridges. Precast construction has been increasingly used for concrete bridge substructure components. Segmental hollow box piers and precast pier caps allow for rapid construction and reduced dead loads on the foundations. Precasting also enables the use of more complex forms and textures in substructure components, improving the aesthetics of bridges in urban and rural areas. RETAINING WALLSThe design of earth retaining structures has changed dramatically during the last century. Retaining wall design has evolved from short stone gravity sections to concrete structures integrating new materials such as geosynthetic soil reinforcements and high-strength tie-back soil anchors.The design of retaining structures has evolved into three distinct areas. The first is the traditional gravity design using the mass of the soil and the wall to resist sliding and overturning forces. The second is referred to as mechanically stabilized earth design. This method uses the backfill soil exclusively as the mass to resist the soil forces by engaging the soil using steel or polymeric soil reinforcements. A third design method is the tie-back soil or rock anchor design, which uses discrete high-strength rods or cables that are drilled deep into the soil behind the wall to provide a dead anchorage to resist the soil forces.A major advancement in the evolution of earth retaining structures has been the proliferation of innovative proprietary retaining walls. Many companies have developed modular wall designs that are highly adaptable to many design scenarios. The innovative designs combined with the modular standard sections and panels have led to a significant decrease in the cost for retaining walls. Much research has been done to verify thestructural integrity of these systems, and many states have embraced these technologies. RESEARCHThe primary objectives for concrete bridge research in the 21st century are to develop and test new materials that will enable lighter, longer, more economical, and more durable concrete bridge structures and to transfer this technology into the hands of the bridge designers for application. The HPCs developed toward the end of the 20th century would be enhanced by development of more durable reinforcement. In addition, higher-strength prestressing reinforcement could more effectively utilize the achievable higher concrete strengths. Lower-relaxation steel could benefit anchor zones. Also, posttensioning tendons and cable-stays could be better designed for eventual repair and replacement. As our natural resources diminish, the investigation of the use of recycled materials is as important as the research on new materials.The development of more efficient structural sections to better utilize the performance characteristics of new materials is important. In addition, more research is required in the areas of deck replacement panels, continuity regions of spliced girder sections, and safe,durable, cost-effective retaining wall structures.Research in the areas of design and evaluation will continue into the next millennium.The use of HPC will be facilitated by the removal of the implied strength limitation of 70 MPa (10.0 ksi) and other barriers in the LRFD bridge design specifications. As our nation’s infrastructure continues to age and as the vehicle loads continue to increase, it is important to better evaluate the capacity of existing structures and to develop effective retrofitting techniques. Improved quantification of bridge system reliability is expected through the calibration of system factors to assess the member capacities as a function of the level of redundancy. Data regarding inspection, maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation expenditures and their timing must be systematically collected and evaluated to develop better methods of assessing cost-effectiveness of concrete bridges. Performance-based seismic design methods will require a higher level of computing and better analysis tools.In both new and existing structures, it is important to be able to monitor the “health” of these structures through the development of instrumentation (e.g., fiber optics) to determine the state of stresses and corrosion in the members.CONCLUSIONIntroduced into the United States in 1949, prestressed concrete bridges today represent over 50 percent of all bridges built. This increase has resulted from advancements in design and analysis procedures and the development of new bridge systems and improved materials.The year 2000 sets the stage for even greater advancements. An exciting future lies ahead for concrete bridges!混凝土桥梁在美国甚至在世界桥梁上，混凝土是最常用的建设材料。

土木工程专业英语翻译

1.1 许多天然物质，如粘土、砂子和岩石，甚至树枝和树叶都已经被用作建筑材料。

Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings.1.2 砖块是由窑中烧制材料作成的块体，通常由粘土或页岩制成，但也可由炉渣制成。

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also maybe of lower quality mud.1.3 与水混合后，水泥便发生水化反应，并最终形成像石头一样的材料。

After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material.1.4 金属可用作大型结构的框架，也可用来装饰建筑物外表。

Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering.1.5 明亮的窗户不但能使光线进入建筑物，而且也能将恶劣气候隔绝于建筑物之外。

Clear windows provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside.2.1 材料的抗拉强度是一种广延性质，因此它并不因试件尺寸的不同而改变。

Tensile strength is an intensive property and, consequently, does not depend on the side of the test specimen.2.2 屈服强度是材料从弹性变形到塑性变形转化时的应力。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇

XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译课题名称英语翻译学号学生专业、年级所在院系指导教师选题时间Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced ConcreteBehaviorThe chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimensions will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded under service condition.The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:1.The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal andshear stresses, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest only if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.2.The strain in an embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that of thesurrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.3.Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in themember under load. Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.4.In view of the fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction ofits compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so sorrow as to be hardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in fact, concrete prior to cracking, as well as the concrete located between cracks, does resist tension stresses of small magnitude. Later in discussions of the resistance of reinforced concrete beams to shear, it will become apparent that under certain conditions this particular assumption is dispensed with and advantage is taken of the modest tensile strength that concrete can develop.5.The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strengthproperties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory, that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for members made of a single, substantially elastic material.These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the performance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to purely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified and improved as additional test evidence becomes available.钢筋混凝土的基本假设作为结构工程师的主要任务是结构设计。

土木工程文献外文翻译(中英互译版)

使用加固纤维聚合物增强混凝土梁的延性作者：Nabil F. Grace, George Abel-Sayed, Wael F. Ragheb摘要：一种为加强结构延性的新型单轴柔软加强质地的聚合物(FRP)已在被研究，开发和生产(在结构测试的中心在劳伦斯技术大学)。

这种织物是两种碳纤维和一种玻璃纤维的混合物，而且经过设计它们在受拉屈服时应变值较低，从而体现出伪延性的性能。

通过对八根混凝土梁在弯曲荷载作用下的加固和检测对研制中的织物的效果和延性进行了研究。

用现在常用的单向碳纤维薄片、织物和板进行加固的相似梁也进行了检测，以便同用研制中的织物加固梁进行性能上的比较。

这种织物经过设计具有和加固梁中的钢筋同时屈服的潜力，从而和未加固梁一样，它也能得到屈服台阶。

相对于那些用现在常用的碳纤维加固体系进行加固的梁，这种研制中的织物加固的梁承受更高的屈服荷载，并且有更高的延性指标。

这种研制中的织物对加固机制体现出更大的贡献。

关键词：混凝土，延性，纤维加固，变形介绍外贴粘合纤维增强聚合物（FRP）片和条带近来已经被确定是一种对钢筋混凝土结构进行修复和加固的有效手段。

关于应用外贴粘合FRP板、薄片和织物对混凝土梁进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能，一些试验研究调查已经进行过报告。

Saadatmanesh和Ehsani（1991）检测了应用玻璃纤维增强聚合物(GFRP)板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。

Ritchie等人（1991）检测了应用GFRP，碳纤维增强聚合物（CFRP）和G/CFRP板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。

Grace等人（1999）和Triantafillou（1992）研究了应用CFRP薄片进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。

Norris，Saadatmanesh和Ehsani（1997）研究了应用单向CFRP薄片和CFRP织物进行加固的混凝土梁的性能。

在所有的这些研究中，加固的梁比未加固的梁承受更高的极限荷载。

土木工程中文文献英文翻译

Carbon fiber reinforcement technology as a new type of structural reinforcement technology in the construction engineering, is the use of resin bonded materials to the concrete surface,making concrete and carbon fiber to form a composite whole, and work together.At the same time, the technology has the advantages of convenient construction, high strength, wide application and light weight.Therefore, carbon fiber reinforcement technology in the construction defects reinforcement treatment has been widely used, so as to ensure the building bearing ability and stability, improve the shear resistance and bending capacity of building structural members, improve the quality of the whole construction project, achieve the purpose to the building structure reinforcement, and prolong the service life of the building.One, carbon fiber reinforced structural component technology principle.Carbon fiber reinforced structural component technology is the concrete structure of the external paste fiber reinforced composite sheet, both work together in order to achieve the purpose of strengthening.Because the carbon fiber material has good corrosion resistance, high strength, light weight and elastic modulus higher advantages, compared with ordinary steel , the tensile strength of carbon fiber is about ten times that of it, and elastic modulus higher than it.For reinforced concrete structures,the carbon fiber materials we used can be divided into two kinds: carbon fiber material and matching pared with the construction steel, the tensile strength of carbon fiber is ten times and elastic modulus is quite equal to it, even some of the elastic modulus of carbon fiber in it more than two times, and has a good durability and construction performance, so carbon fiber is a very good reinforcement and repair materials.In addition, for supporting resin, including resin of the substrate, the leveling resin and bonding resin, the resin of the substrate and leveling resin have an important role on carbon fiber bonding quality, and bonding resin can make concrete and carbon fiber forming a complex whole, work together, in order to improve the bearing capacity of building structural members, to achieve the purpose of building structure member strengthening.Two,the basic characteristics of carbon fiber materials.1, carbon fiber sheet.According to the mechanical properties of the material, the elastic modulus of the carbonfiber material is not the same.According to the mechanical properties of carbon fiber sheet, the main is the high modulus, high strength and medium modulus.The high modulus carbon fiber cloth is characterized by its low elongation at break but high elastic modulus.The unit weight of carbon fiber cloth is not comparable with that of steel,Carbon fiber sheet is very thin,but because of the chemical structure of carbon fiber, the fiber can be used for any acid salt and all kinds of chemical medium environment, do not be afraid of corrosion and can resist the low temperature or high temperature thermal expansion and contraction.2, supporting resin bonded materials.In the construction project, the main material used in the reinforced concrete structure repair technology is bottom coating,putty,bonding resin or impregnated resin,and its functions are different.First of all, for the bottom coating, the concrete surface is more applicable, can speed up the bond, in order to ensure the stability of the interface.Secondly, for the putty, mainly on various parts of the surface are filled, fill up the gap of the entire surface,so that the function of carbon fiber sheet can be fully played.Then, the bonding resin has the function of sticking to the carbon fiber board, and the impregnated resin has the function of sticking to the carbon fiber cloth.The bonding resin and the impregnated resin are used mainly to bond the carbon fiber sheet to each part of the concrete component, which can make the scattered parts form a whole, and the two work together.In addition, the epoxy resin is mainly applied to the highway concrete bridge, the use of carbon fiber sheet reinforcement technology is also more appropriate,when present in a variety of circumstances, with the change of temperature, it has some influence on its curing properties,therefore, to a large extent, the quality of paste is good or bad, which has an important impact on the number of regular traffic disruption time.Three, strengthening construction technology of carbon fiber reinforced materials.Strengthening construction technology of carbon fiber reinforced materials:unloading--basal treatment--base rubber--leveling--paste--protection.1, unloading.For unloading, it is to remove the non tube components, so that it can make the impact on other components reduce effectively.2, basal treatment.（1）If the concrete surface produces the phenomenons of corrosion, hollowing, honeycomb and spalling,you need to cut out of these parts.For a larger area of poor quality, after the cutting operation, the epoxy mortar should be used to repair the work.（2）For the part that produces the crack,it should be treated in a fully closed manner.（3）For the float, oil and other impurities on the concrete surface,we should use concrete grinder, sandpaper to remove.In addition,to ensure the surface of the component is smooth,polish the raised part of the surface,the corner should make Chamfering processing, and be polished into a circular arc.（4）Before the base operation, must keep the concrete surface dry clean, if not in line with the requirements of the construction, we should use the hair dryer to blow it.3, base rubber.（1）The main agent and curing agent should be placed in the container,the proportion of the main agent and the curing agent must be measured accurately according to the standard of construction,then the electric mixer is used to mix it evenly,determine the amount of the dosage according to the actual temperature of the construction site,and control the use of time strictly , usually run out within an hour.（2）Through the use of roller brush brushing the bottom evenly in the concrete surface,and the next process can be carried out only when the glue is solidified.4, leveling.（1）For leveling operation in Construction Engineering,it can make the difference in height has been further reduced,we can use FE glue level the part of the surface of the concrete which is sunken,template joints and other parts.（2）We can also use FE glue to mend the corner to a smooth arc.5, paste.（1）The size and number of layers of carbon fiber cloth shall be determined according to the actual requirements of the construction.（2）To carry out the deployment and mix of FR glue,and apply it evenly to the position where it needs to be pasted.（3）When the carbon fiber cloth is pasted,no bubbles can be created,if there are bubbles,we can use the special roller along the direction of the fiber to carry out repeated rolling, and makethe FR glue fully soaked carbon fiber cloth.Only when the carbon fiber cloth surface dry ,you can carry on the next layer of paste.（4）Apply FR glue evenly on the surface of the last layer of carbon fiber cloth.6, protection.Plastering and fireproof coating should be adopted to Protect the surface of the reinforced carbon fiber cloth.Four, the application of carbon fiber materials in building structure reinforcement.1, the scope of application of carbon fiber reinforced materials.Applicable to various shapes, any part of the structure, brick masonry reinforcement repair.2,Specification for reinforced concrete structures strengthened with carbon fiber sheets.When the concrete is strengthened by carbon fiber sheet, the component and carbon fiber sheet are bonded together seamlessly,at this time, the carbon fiber sheet and concrete integrate into a whole, together to withstand the stress.3,Carbon fiber sheet can be used in the following ways to strengthen the concrete structural member.When the carbon fiber sheet is used for bending and strengthening of the beam and plate member in the tension zone,the direction of the fiber should be consistent with the direction of the reinforcement;When the beams and columns are subjected to shear and reinforcement,it can be closed U paste or side paste,at this time,fiber direction should be perpendicular to the axial direction of the component;The anti seismic reinforcement of buildings can be pasted fully enclosed,at this time, the fiber direction should be perpendicular to the column axial direction;When there is sufficient evidence, the carbon fiber sheet can also be reinforced according to the stress state of the concrete structure;When the carbon fiber sheet is bonded to the concrete structure, we can according to the national standard, use limit state design method based on probability theory,the ultimate bearing capacity and normal carrying capacity of concrete structures are calculated respectively.Meanwhile,on the one hand, reinforced concrete structure should be based on the nationalstandard, determine the corresponding material design index, and then through the detection to sure its actual strength whether can achieve the relevant requirements;On the other hand,the carbon fiber sheet should be based on the elastic stress-strain curve when the component reaches the limit state to determine the corresponding stress;In general,the ultimate tensile strength of carbon fiber sheet should not be less than 95% of the guaranteed rate of the manufacturer as a marker of the tensile strength.When the member is strengthened with carbon fiber sheet,consideration should be given to the effects of strengthening materials on the components and their properties;As before the use of carbon fiber reinforcement, we should try to remove the live load, in order to reduce the impact on other components.The stress of live load bearing should be fully considered if it can not be completely unloaded.In addition,for members subjected to bending, shear reinforcement,the concrete strength of the strengthened member shall not be less than C15.The strength grade of concrete should not be less than C10 in the whole closed type of reinforcement concrete columns.In short,due to the carbon fiber material has the advantages of all kinds of concrete,Carbon fiber reinforcement technology apply in the construction more and more widely,and become the main reinforcement treatment method of the current construction project,it will have broad application prospects.Building is the infrastructure of city construction, and it plays a very important role in the development of urban modernization.Then with the large number of urban population growth,and with the impact of the environment, load, construction and other factors,the carrying capacity of building structure is gradually reduced,It is necessary to take effective reinforce measures to the building structure in order to improve the bearing capacity of the building structure.It is found that the measures of building structure reinforcement mainly include increasing section method, sticking carbon fiber, applying prestressing tendon, sticking steel plate method and so on,but the prestress method can significantly improve the bearing capacity of the structure, improve the stability of the building structure, security.One, Building structure reinforcement technologyIn the use of building structure,we often found that the beam plate structure appear various problems, such as cracks, steel corrosion, torsion spent large and so on.The cracks in the concrete structure of the building is one of the frequently occurring diseases among these,in the process of the long time use of building structure,under the repeated effects of external loading,it is easy to cause the load cracks in the building structure;In addition,in the construction stage,may be due to various reasons, such as unreasonable ratio of concrete mixture, water cement ratio is not reasonable, the construction process of improper placement and so on,these factors can lead to cracks in the beam structure.If the crack width exceeds a certain range, the bearing capacity of the concrete structure will be greatly reduced.Under the action of earthquake, it is very easy to appear the harm of collapse hazard.Steel corrosion,because the building structure is in the outdoor, the structure is subjected to the action of carbon dioxide for a long time, and the carbonation of concrete occurs.If the carbonation depth of concrete exceeds the protective layer of the reinforcing steel bar, the basic protection of the steel bar can be destroyed,resulting in corrosion of steel reinforcement, and reduce the bonding between steel and concrete,the harms it causes to he carrying capacity of the overall structure of the construction can not be ignored.Therefore, it is necessary to reinforce the building structure effectively.(1)prestressed reinforcement technologyThe prestressed reinforcement is arranged on the beam plate of the building structure, and the prestressing force which is applied to the beam plate forms an external prestressing strengtheningforce system to reinforce the beam plate structure.Prestressed reinforcement technology, its reinforcement effect is obvious, and it can greatly improve the bearing capacity of the building structure, can improve the bearing capacity of 30% ~40%, and can reduce the cracks and structural deformation in the structure.In addition,prestressed reinforcement construction has less impact on the construction of the use of space.Generally,we complete prestressed reinforcement construction under the condition of no restriction on the use of buildings.(2)increasing cross section technologyThis method is widely used in the seismic strengthening of the compression building structure, also can be used in the tensile members, mainly used to strengthen the rod which the raw material has consistent performance , such as steel structure reinforcement.After increasing the cross section of the rod, the strength of the component can be greatly enhanced, and the stability of the structure can be improved.At the same time, it can also be strengthened with reinforced concrete wrapped wooden pieces.(3)pasting steel plate technologyIn this method, the steel plate is pasted on the surface of the structure by the construction adhesive, thereby making full use of the bonding force of the steel plate to make the steel plate and the building structure to be effectively bonded together, to form the two force component.In the bonding structure, the steel plate plays the use of the tensile reinforcing steel bar, which greatly increases the bearing capacity of the structure.Problems should be paid attention to in strengthening:First of all,To remove the paint layer on the surface of the concrete structure, expose the surface of concrete structure; and clean the dust on the surface of concrete structures which is to be reinforced;Secondly, when pasting steel plate,we should avoid strengthening if the air outside is under humid conditions , and to ensure that the temperature of the strengthening of the environment is not higher than 60 degrees.(4)anchorage reinforcement methodThis method is mainly used in the bending and compression member of reinforced concrete.The main principle is to drill holes and inject glue in the original structure,to ensure that the steel bars in the borehole are solidified and rooted.It has good anchorage performance and tensile properties for the steel bars which drill hole is shallow.This method is a new structural strengthening method, and the reinforcement process is relatively simple, and it has less influenceon the force of structure.Matters needing attention for anchorage reinforcement method:This method is suitable to be used in the condition of the ambient temperature above 5 ℃, and the performance of the cementing agent is not damaged;When the environment of strengthening is lower than 5 ℃,we can take the appropriate method to increase the temperature, so that the quality of reinforcement can be ensured.Two, Advantages of prestressed reinforcement on architectureBuilding prestress strengthening technology mainly has the following advantages:First, the reinforcement effect is obvious,it can effectively reduce cracks of the beam plate structure , and extend the service life of the building;Second, prestressed reinforcement construction technology does not reduce the use of space, and greatly improve the carrying capacity of building structure.Third, the prestressing reinforcement construction period is short, the labor force is less, the economy is higher;Four,Prestressed reinforcement of the construction has a small increase in weight,and the maintenance is convenient.Three, The strengthening technology of the construction of our countryIn the actual construction project,for the prestressed reinforcement beams and trusses, the steel boots can be used to anchor nodes;For the frame beam, type steel casing hoop or Perforated bolt can be used to anchor node.3.1 transverse prestressed reinforcement technologyIn the building structure, if the distance between the two ends of the reinforced concrete beam is small, then the two ends of the beam can not conduct prestressed tension operation, then you can use the method of transverse prestressing reinforcement construction.This loading method is mainly install prestressed tendons which is reinforced in the lower edge of the main girder of the symmetrical center line,and we need to curved prestressed reinforcement in suitable position at the end of the beam,then anchor effectively in the end of the main beam of the anchor plate with the support of the fulcrum,its "U" - shaped anchor plate is sheathed on the lower flange of the main beam.Meanwhile,the prestressing tendon is divided into several sections in the horizontal section of the prestressing tendon,and the end of the stick can be used as a fulcrum,in the middle of the prestressing tendon, the tightening bolt is used to tighten the symmetry,prestress is producedin the course of the tension of the prestressing tendon.The study found that this method can effectively reduce the positive moment of middle beam, and can not reduce the shear force at the end of the beam.3.2 longitudinal prestressing reinforcement technologyLongitudinal prestressed reinforcement technology is a reinforcement construction method which apply prestressing tendons portrait along the beam plate.Before the longitudinal prestressing reinforcement,we need to arrange the prestressed tendons along the longitudinal beam,and bend the longitudinal prestressing tendon which is in the position of the end of the beam where sets up guide block,then anchor the longitudinal prestressing tendon on the web plate or top plate of the girder,and stretch prestressing tendon so that the shear force of the end of beam can be reduced effectively.It is found that the longitudinal prestressed reinforcement anchoring structure is mainly longitudinal anchorage structure,which is mainly divided into roof bolting and the web anchor.The advantages of longitudinal prestressed reinforcement is cutting through the amount of concrete in bridge deck,that is the tension construction in the deck operation.In the prestressed reinforcement tensioning operation, we need to pay attention to the tension operation of the symmetrical center line, and the tension operation of the same beam should be synchronized to ensure that the prestressed tendons on both sides of the beam have the same stress state.The prestressed tension program is the same as the prestressed concrete beam.3.3 vertical prestressed reinforcement technologyThe vertical prestressed reinforcement technology is a reinforcement construction method which arranges prestressed tendons symmetrically on both sides of the beam and slab.According to the construction experience,most of the vertical prestressing reinforcement technology do side anchorage in the end of the beam,make vertical tension in the middle of the prestressing tendon,and small cross beams are used to fix the prestressing tendon at the bottom of the beam rib.The vertical prestressed reinforcement method not only has the characteristics of small tension and large tension stroke, but also can effectively overcome the excessive loss of the longitudinal stress,compared with other prestressed reinforcement technology, it has obvious strengthening effect, and can effectively reduce the cracks in the existing building structure.In the construction of vertical prestressed tension, it is needed to carry out piece by piece, and the tension operation needs to be symmetrical to the center line, so as to reduce the loss of elastic compressioneffectively.Four, Concluding remarksTo sum up,with the large number of urban population growth, as well as the environment, load, construction and other factors, the bearing capacity of the construction gradually decreased,so it is necessary to take effective measures to strengthen the building structure to improve the bearing capacity of the building structure.The prestressed reinforcement technology not only can effectively strengthen the building beam and plate, improve the bearing characteristics of the overall structure, but also does not change the shape of the building structure,so that it can improve the stability and safety of the building structure.。

什么是钢筋混凝土英语作文

什么是钢筋混凝土英语作文What is Reinforced Concrete?Reinforced concrete is a composite material made of concrete and steel reinforcement. The concrete is poured into a mold, or formwork, and steel reinforcement bars, or rebars, are placed within the concrete before it sets. The steel reinforcement provides additional strength and stiffness to the concrete, making it suitable for use in a wide range of construction applications.The use of reinforced concrete dates back to the mid-19th century, when French engineer Joseph Monier began experimenting with various materials to reinforce concrete. Monier's experiments led to the development of the first reinforced concrete structures, including bridges and buildings.Today, reinforced concrete is used in a wide range of construction projects, from high-rise buildings and bridgesto dams and retaining walls. It is a popular choice for construction because it is strong, durable, and relatively inexpensive.The Advantages of Reinforced Concrete。

土木工程文献翻译(钢筋混凝土)

土木工程外文文献翻译

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文

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