A Multiple Hypothesis Approach to Satellite Navigation Integrity1998(MHSS方法)
hypothesis动词形式
hypothesis动词形式Hypothesis动词形式Hypothesis是指假设，通常用于科学实验中，通过实验来验证假设的正确性。
在语法中，hypothesis动词形式是指以“hypothesize”为动词的形式，用于表达一个假设或假说。
hypothesize的意思是通过假设来解释一件事情，或者用假设来证明某个理论的正确性。
这个动词常常出现在科学实验、研究和学术论文中，是一种常见的科学用语。
一、hypothesis的定义Hypothesis是指某种未经证实的、可能的解释或推断，通过科学实验、研究和观察来验证其正确性。
在科学研究中，hypothesis是一个非常重要的概念，因为只有通过hypothesis的验证，才能得出准确的结论。
二、hypothesize的词形变化在hypothesis这个词汇中，hypothesize是其动词形式。
hypothesize的词形变化如下：- 基本形式：hypothesize - 现在分词：hypothesizing - 过去式：hypothesized - 过去分词：hypothesized例如，我们可以用以下句子来说明hypothesize的四个词形变化：- I hypothesize that there is life on other planets.（我假设其他星球上有生命。
） - Currently, scientists are hypothesizing about the cause of the disease.（目前，科学家正在假设这种疾病的原因。
） - Many years ago, researchers hypothesized that the Earth was flat.（很多年前，研究人员假设地球是扁平的。
） - The hypothesis that the new medication would be effective was proven to be correct.（新药物有效的假说得到了证实。
ASQ CQE (考试题目与答案)
Study Questions and Answers This material is protected under United States copyright laws. It may not be reproduced, transmitted ordistributed in any form without the express written consent of Carl Nocera.Copyright © 2004 by Carl D. Nocera. All rights reserved.Produced in the United States of America.QREVIEW STUDY QUESTIONS and ANSWERSBasic Quality Concepts 1Basic Probability 7Statistics 15 Statistical Inference 23Sampling 27 Control Charts 31Reliability 35 Regression and Correlation 37Cost of Quality 39Design of Experiments 43Metrology and Calibration 47Answer Sheet 49Basic Quality Concepts 1 QREVIEW STUDY QUESTIONSINTRODUCTIONThe following questions include key concepts which are representative of the CQE examination. Each question should be worked out as completely as possible before looking at the answer. Some questions have been taken from previously published ASQ CQE exams.BASIC QUALITY CONCEPTS1. In many companies, what is generally the weakest link in the quality auditingprogram?a) Audit reportingb) Follow-up of corrective action implementationc) Scheduling of auditsd) Inadequate audit checklists2. A quality control program is considered to bea) a collection of quality control procedures and guidelines.b) a step by step list of all quality control check points.c) a summary of company quality control policies.d) a system of activities to provide quality of products and services.3. The "quality function" of a company is best described asa) the degree to which the company product conforms to a design or specification.b) that collection of activities through which "fitness for use" is achieved.c) the degree to which a class or category of product possesses satisfaction forpeople generally.d) All of the above.4. In preparing a product quality policy for your company, you should do all of the followingexcepta) specify the means by which quality performance is measured.b) develop criteria for identifying risk situations and specify whose approval isrequired when there are known risks.c) include procedural matters and functional responsibilities.d) state quality goals.2 QReview Study Questions5. What natural phenomenon created the necessity to control product and process quality?a) Gravityb) Variationc) Human Errord) Management6. The three basic elements of a quality system area) Quality Management, Purchasing and Document Controlb) Quality Management, Quality Control and Quality Assurancec) SPC, Inspection and Quality Assuranced) Quality Control, Quality Costs and Control Charts7. What are the two basic categories of quality?a) Design and Conformance Qualityb) Good and Bad Qualityc) Defective and Non-Defective Qualityd) Attribute and Variable Quality8. The Law of Large Numbers states thata) individual occurrences are predictable and group occurrences are unpredictable.b) group data always follows a normal pattern.c) individual occurrences are unpredictable and group occurrences are predictable.d) the standard deviation of group data will always be greater than ten.9. Statistical quality control is best described asa) keeping product characteristics within certain bounds.b) calculating the mean and standard deviation.c) the study of the characteristics of a product or process, with the help of numbers,to make them behave the way we want them to behave.d) the implementation of ISO 9000.10. Which of the following is the most important element in Statistical Quality Control?a) The Feedback Loopb) Make Operationc) Inspectiond) Quality of Incoming MaterialBasic Quality Concepts 311. When measurements are accurate and precise,a) the data are distributed randomly throughout the entire range.b) the data are clustered closely around the central value.c) minimum variation will exist.d) the data are normally distributed.12. All of the following are included in a quality system excepta) document control.b) corrective action.c) management responsibility.d) employee salaries.13. Which of the following best describes a statistical distribution?a) A model that shows how data are distributed over a range of measurements.b) An Analysis of Variance table.c) A sampling plan.d) A graph that contains data plotted on a normal curve.14. Which of the following are two types of data used in statistical quality control?a) Design and Conformance Datab) Precise and Accurate Datac) Variables and Attributes Datad) Mean and Variance Data15. The primary reason for evaluating and maintaining surveillance over a supplier's qualityprogram is toa) perform product inspection at source.b) eliminate incoming inspection cost.c) motivate suppliers to improve quality.d) make sure the supplier's quality program is functioning effectively.16. Which one of the following are ISO 9001 requirements?a) Process Flow Chartb) Quality Manualc) Operations Manuald) TQM Program4 QReview Study Questions17. Which of the following does not generate product-quality characteristics?a) Designerb) Inspectorc) Machinistd) Equipment engineer18. Incoming material inspection is based most directly ona) design requirements.b) purchase order requirements.c) manufacturing requirements.d) customer use of the end product.19. The acronym ISO meansa) International Standards Organization.b) Internal Service Organization.c) equal.d) third party auditing organization.20. Products should be subjected to tests which are designed toa) demonstrate advertised performance.b) demonstrate basic function at minimum testing cost.c) approximate the conditions to be experienced in customer's application.d) assure that specifications are met under laboratory conditions.21. The advantage of a written procedure isa) it provides flexibility in dealing with problems.b) unusual conditions are handled better.c) it is a perpetual coordination device.d) coordination with other departments is not required.22. In spite of the Quality Engineer's best efforts, situations may develop in which hisdecision is overruled. The most appropriate action would be toa) resign from the position based upon convictions.b) report findings to an outside source such as a regulatory agency or the press.c) document findings, report them to superiors and move on the next assignment.d) discuss findings with co-workers in order to gain support, thereby forcing action.Basic Quality Concepts 523. If a test data does not support a Quality Engineer's expectations, the best thing to do isa) adjust the data to support expectations if it is only slightly off.b) draw the expected conclusion omitting the data not supporting it.c) re-evaluate the expectations of the test based upon the data.d) report the data and expected conclusion with no reference to one another.24. In case of conflict between contract specifications and shop practice,a) arbitration is necessary.b) the customer is always right.c) good judgment should be exercised.d) contract specifications normally apply.25. A quality audit program should begin witha) a study of the quality documentation system.b) an evaluation of the work being performed.c) a report listing findings, the action taken and recommendations.d) a charter of policy, objectives and procedures.26. Selection of auditors shall ensure thata) auditors are completely independent from the organization being audited.b) management is aware of the audit activities.c) auditors do not audit their own work.d) auditors are trained.27. Analysis of data on all product returns is important becausea) failure rates change with length of product usage.b) changes in design and in customer use are often well reflected.c) immediate feedback and analysis of product performance becomes available.d) All of the above.28. All of the following are considerations when a total quality management (TQM) programis implemented excepta) the use of statistical tools and techniques.b) a program of continuous quality improvement.c) the manager responsible for product quality.d) total involvement from management to production associates.6 QReview Study Questions29. According to Juran, all of the following are widespread errors in perception that have ledmany managers astray excepta) the work force is mainly responsible for the company's quality problems.b) workers could do quality work but they lack the motivation to do so.c) quality will get top priority if upper management so decrees.d) return on investment is everything.30. An essential technique in making training programs effective is toa) set group goals.b) have training classes which teach skills and knowledge required.c) feed back to the employee meaningful measures of his performance.d) post results of performance before and after the training program.31. An engineer has the job of providing a written plan of quality related tasks to hismanager, including a detailed timeline, for the following year. Which of the following tools should be used?a) Histogramb) Flow Chartc) Gantt Chartd) Frequency DistributionBasic Probability 7 BASIC PROBABILITY32. The time it takes to answer a technical support line has a continuous uniform distributionover an interval from 17 to 20 minutes. All of the following are true excepta) P(x = 18.5) = 1/2b) P(x ≤ 20) = 1c) P(17 ≤ x ≤ 18) = 1/3d) P(x ≥ 17) = 133. For two events, A and B, which one of the following is a true probabilitystatement?a) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) if A and B are independentb) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) if A and B are mutually exclusivec) P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B) if A and B are mutually exclusived) P(A or B) = P(A) x P(B) if A and B are independent34. What is the probability of getting a head or a tail in 1 toss of a coin?a) 1/16b) 1/4c) 1/2d) 135. What is the probability of getting a head and a tail in 2 tosses of a fair coin? And, what isthe probability of getting a head and a tail, in that order, in 2 tosses of a fair coin?a) 1/2, 1/2b) 1/4, 1/4c) 1/2, 1/4d) 1/4, 1/236. A coin is tossed 10 times. The first 9 tosses come up heads. What is the probability thatthe 10th toss will come up heads?a) 1/512b) 1/256c) 1/32d) 1/237. What is the probability of obtaining exactly 2 heads in 4 tosses of a fair coin?a) 1/4b) 3/8c) 1/2d) 1/68 QReview Study Questions38. What is the probability of getting a 3 when rolling a single die? ( A die is one of a pair ofdice)a) 1/5b) 3/5c) 1/6d) 1/339. What is the probability of getting an odd number when rolling a pair of dice? (Spots onthe two dice sum to odd number)a) 1/4b) 1/2c) 1/3d) 3/1040. What is the probability of obtaining a sum of 7 when rolling a pair of dice?a) 1/5b) 3/5c) 1/6d) 1/3Use the following information to answer questions 41, 42 and 43. The probability is 1/2 that Bob will pass the CQE exam, 1/3 that Amy will pass and 3/4 that Jon will pass.41. What is the probability that Bob, Amy and Jon will all pass the exam?a) 1/8b) 4/9c) 4/11d) 1/342. What is the probability that neither Bob, Amy nor Jon will pass the exam?a) 1/9b) 7/8c) 1/12d) 2/343. What is the probability that only one of the three will pass the exam?a) 1/4b) 1/3c) 3/4d) 3/8Basic Probability 9 44. Four people shoot at a target and the probability that each will hit the target is 1/2 (50%).What is the probability that the target will be hit?a) 1/16b) 15/16c) 1/2d) 1/445. A committee of 5 people is chosen at random from a room that contains 4 men and 6women. What is the probability that the committee is composed of 2 men and 3 women?a) 1/2b) 10/21c) 5/21d) 1/346. A vendor is trying to sell you a box of 50 fuses that contains exactly 5 defective fuses.You select 2 fuses from the box for testing. If both are good you will buy the entire box. If one or both are defective, you will not buy the box. What is the probability that you will buy the box?a) .7533b) .8082c) .9769d) .853147. What is the probability of winning the Super Lotto? (Winning = getting all 6 numbers outof 47)a) 1/10,737,573b) 1/7,731,052,560c) 1/3,457,296d) 1/12,966,82148. A box contains 12 connectors, 9 good and 3 defective. What is the probability ofobtaining exactly 2 good and 1 defective connector in drawing 3 parts from the boxwithout replacement?a) .4219b) .4909c) .5022d) .691510 QReview Study Questions49. A box contains 12 connectors, 9 good ones and 3 defective ones. What is the probabilityof obtaining exactly 2 good and 1 defective connector in drawing 3 parts from the box with replacement?a) .4219b) .4909c) .5022d) .691550. You have been asked to sample a lot of 300 units from a vendor whose past quality hasbeen about 2% defective. A sample of 40 pieces is drawn from the lot and you have been told to reject the lot if you find two or more parts defective. What is the probability of rejecting the lot?a) 0.953b) 0.809c) 0.191d) 0.047Use the following information to answer questions 51 and 52. A company produces capacitors by a process that normally yields 5% defective product. A sample of 4 capacitors is selected.51. What is the probability that all 4 capacitors are good?a) .9790b) .9213c) .8617d) .814552. What is the probability that all 4 capacitors are defective?a) .1383b) .1855c) .0000258d) .00000625Use the following information to answer questions 53, 54, 55 and 56. A company makes ball bearings that are found to be 10% defective in the long run. A sample of 10 bearings is selected.53. What is the probability that 0 bearings will be defective?a) .3487b) .3874c) .4126d) .1110Basic Probability 1154. What is the probability of obtaining exactly 1 defective bearing?a) .3487b) .3874c) .4126d) .257455. What is the probability of obtaining exactly 3 defective bearings?a) .0574b) .4448c) .7361d) .156256. What is the probability of obtaining more than 1 defective bearing?a) .3874b) .4126c) .2639d) .228557. How many defective connectors would be expected in a sample of 200 parts if theprocess averages 2% defective?a) 1b) 2c) 4d) 758. What is the probability of obtaining exactly 2 defective connectors in a sample of 6 partsif the process averages 2% defective?a) .0135b) .0055c) .0009d) .000159. All of the following are probabilistic events excepta) the number rolled in a game of dice.b) the number of defects in a random sample.c) the acceleration of an apple when it drops from a tree.d) the number of games played in the world series.12 QReview Study QuestionsUse the following information to answer problems 60, 61 and 62. A company produces integrated circuits (chips) by a process that normally yields 2000 ppm defective product for electrical test requirements (ppm = defective parts per million). A sample of 5 chips is selected and tested.60. What is the probability that all 5 chips are good?a) .9900b) .9603c) .9213d) .856361. What is the probability that 1 or more chips are defective?a) .0051b) .0009c) .0269d) .010062. What is the probability that more than 1 chip is defective?a) .01931b) .00510c) .00008d) .01000Use the following information to answer problems 63, 64 and 65. A capability study was made to determine the defective rate of 28AZ transistors. The study showed the rate to be 5000 ppm. Ten of the transistors were shipped to a customer.63. What is the probability that the shipment contains no defective transistors?a) .9511b) .9066c) .8512d) .921364. What is the probability that the shipment contains exactly 1 defective transistor?a) .0001b) .0478c) .1048d) .1165Basic Probability 1365. What is the probability that the shipment contains 2 or more defective transistors?a) .0001b) .0478c) .0237d) .0011Use the following information to answer problems 66, 67 and 68. A circuit board operation yields 2 defects per board on the average. A sample of 1 board is selected at random.66. What is the probability of finding exactly 2 defects on the selected board?a) .3522b) .2706c) .1550d) .029567. What is the probability of finding less than 2 defects on the selected board?a) .4060b) .6352c) .3522d) .384968. What is the probability of finding more than 2 defects on the selected board?a) .4060b) .2706c) .3522d) .3235Use the following information to answer problems 69, 70 and 71. In manufacturing material for automobile seats it was found that each 100-foot roll contained, on average, 2 defects (flaws). A sample of 1 roll is selected at random from the process.69. What is the probability that the selected roll contains 0 defects?a) .1353b) .2707c) .8647d) .729314 QReview Study Questions70. What is the probability that the selected roll contains exactly 1 defect?a) .1353b) .7293c) .8647d) .270671. What is the probability that the selected roll contains more than 1 defect?a) .3233b) .5941c) .7293d) .8647Use the following information to answer problems 72 and 73. A firm that makes T-shirt decals has determined that their process yields, on average, 3 defects per day. Fifty decals are inspected each day.72. What is the probability of finding exactly 2 defective decals in any given day? (Assumeone defect per defective decal.)a) .7361b) .1494c) .2240d) .074673. What is the probability of buying a decal that contains more than 1 defect?a) .0005b) .0042c) .0001d) .001774. A parts dealer buys parts from a warehouse. Parts are made by either Company A orCompany B but are not identified as to which company produces them. One company produces all parts in one shipment or lot. On the average, we know:Company A produces 2.5% defective parts.Company B produces 5.0% defective parts.The warehouse states that 70% of parts will come from Company A and 30% from Company B. If the dealer selects 4 parts at random from a lot and finds 1 defective part, what is the probability that the lot was produced by Company A?a) .4422b) .5580c) .6915d) .3085Statistics 15 STATISTICS75. What is the expected value of the random variable x for the following data?x f(x)12 0.210 0.514 0.120 0.2a) 13.6b) 14.0c) 12.8d) 14.576. In the standard normal table, what value of z has 5% of the area in the tail beyond it?a) 1.960b) 1.645c) 2.576d) 1.28277. Which distribution should be used to determine a confidence interval when σ is notknown and the sample size is 10?a) zb) tc) Fd) χ278. Which of the following methods should be used to test 6 population means for statisticalsignificance?a) Chi Square Testb) Analysis of Variancec) F Testd) Duncan's Multiple Range Test79. A sample size of 120 is taken from a process and is represented graphically on ahistogram. What is the appropriate number of histogram cells to use?a) 1 - 8b) 9 - 20c) 21 - 35d) 12016 QReview Study Questions80. Which of the following conditions makes it possible for a process to produce a largenumber of defective units while it is in statistical control?a) When the specification limits are not set correctly.b) When the process capability is wider than the tolerance.c) When unknown external forces affect the process.d) When the sample size, from which the reject data is found, is too small.81. For the normal probability distribution, which of the following is true about therelationship among the median, mean and mode?a) They are all equal to the same value.b) The mean and mode have the same value but the median is different.c) Each has a value different from the other two.d) The mean and median are the same but the mode is different.82. All of the following statistical techniques can be used to determine the effectiveness of asupplier improvement program excepta) Pareto analysis.b) x bar and R charts.c) a PERT chart.d) a flow chart.83. A sample of n observations has a mean x and a standard deviation s > 0. If a singleobservation, which equals the value of the sample mean x, is removed from the sample, which of the following is true?a) x and s both changeb) x and s remain the samec) x remains the same but s increasesd) x remains the same but s decreases84. The factory installed brake linings for a certain kind of car have a mean lifetime of 60,000miles with a 6,000 mile standard deviation. A sample of 100 cars has been selected for testing. What is the standard error of x? (Assume that the finite population correction may be ignored.)a) 60 milesb) 6000 milesc) 600 milesd) 6100 milesStatistics 17 Use the following information to answer problems 85 - 90. A sample of 7 rivets was taken from a shipment of 1000 rivets and the length was measured. The following data are obtained:Sample Number Length (inches)1 3.12 3.13 3.24 3.75 3.66 3.77 3.185. What is the mean length of the rivets?a) 3.20 inchesb) 3.36 inchesc) 4.00 inchesd) 3.65 inches86. What is the standard deviation of the length of the rivets (estimate of population standarddeviation)?a) 0.27 inchesb) 2.16 inchesc) 0.29 inchesd) 2.00 inchesNote: In the following 4 problems, the sample sizes are less than 30 and the t statistics should be used to solve the problems. Analyses of this type usually involve sample sizes of 30 or greater. Handle the problems just as if the sample sizes were greater than 30 and use the z statistics.87. What percentage of rivets have lengths less than 2.80 inches?a) 2.69%b) 5.00%c) 1.22%d) 3.23%18 QReview Study Questions88. What percentage of rivets have lengths greater than 3.65 inches?a) 17.1%b) 14.2%c) 15.9%d) 7.10%89. What percentage of rivets have lengths between 3.1 inches and 3.9 inches?a) 89.37%b) 78.45%c) 52.25%d) 99.75%90. In the shipment of 1000 rivets, how many good parts will we find if a good part is definedas having a minimum of 3 inches and a maximum of 4 inches?a) 999b) 967c) 912d) 878The following information is used to answer problems 91 - 95. Data are taken from a manufacturing process that produces optical glass. The sample size is 5 parts and the characteristic measured is the diameter of the plates.(mm)SampleNumber Diameter1 302 313 294 335 3491. What is the mean diameter of the optical glass?a) 31.4 mmb) 29.0 mmc) 31.0 mmd) 34.0 mmStatistics 1992. What is the standard deviation of the population?a) 1.00 mmb) 2.07 mmc) 2.22 mmd) 1.22 mm93. The specifications for the glass plates are 30.5 ± 2 mm. What percentage of parts madeby this company will not meet specifications?a) 32.5%b) 5.00%c) 35.0%d) 37.9%94. What percentage of parts will be less than 29.5 mm?a) 17.9%b) 7.21%c) 15.9%d) 24.3%95. What percentage of parts will be greater than 33 mm?a) 78.5%b) 24.3%c) 15.9%d) 22.1%96. The Zoglen Corporation markets a product, which is a blend of 3 ingredients (A, B, C). Ifthe individual tolerances for the weight of the 3 ingredients are as shown, what should the tolerance be for the net weight of the product?A: 40.5 ± 2.236 grams, B: 30.4 ± 2.000 grams, C: 18.1 ± 1.732 gramsa) 89.0 ± 2.443 gramsb) 89.0 ± 3.464 gramsc) 89.0 ± 5.968 gramsd) 89.0 ± 4.732 grams20 QReview Study Questions97. A random sample of size n is to be taken from a large population that has a standarddeviation of 1 inch. The sample size is determined so that there will be a 95% chance that the sample average will be within ±0.1 inch of the true mean. Which of the following values is nearest to the required sample size?a) 385b) 200c) 100d) 4098. All of the following conditions must be met for the process capability to be within thespecification limits excepta) C pk≥ 1.0b) C p≥ 1.0c) C p = C pkd) a stable process.99. A value on the abscissa of the t distribution is 1.093. What is the area to the right of thisvalue if the sample size is 11?a) 0.30b) 0.15c) 0.05d) 0.10100. The spread of individual observations from a normal process capability distribution may be expressed numerically asa) 6R/d2b) 2 x A2Rc) R/d2d) D4R101. What percentage of data will normally fall within a process capability?a) 99.00%b) 99.73%c) 1.00%d) 0.27%Statistics 21 Use the following information to answer problems 102 - 105. A winding machine wraps wire around a metal core to make small transformers. The design engineers have determined that the nominal number of windings are to be 10,060 with a minimum of 10,025 and a maximum of 10,095. A sample of 300 transformers was selected in a three month period and the wire was unwrapped on each part to determine the number of windings. The results were:x = 10,052 windings and s = 10 windings102. What is the process capability?a) 10020 - 10100b) 10052 - 10020c) 10022 - 10082d) 10020 - 10060103. Compute the value of C pa) 30.0b) 10.0c) 0.67d) 1.17104. Compute the value of C pka) 0.90b) 0.72c) 3.22d) 2.67105. What is the expected percent defective?a) 1.00%b) 0.35%c) 2.13%d) 0.49%22 QReview Study Questions Blank PageStatistical Inference 23 STATISTICAL INFERENCE106. Which of the following cannot be a null hypothesis?a) The population means are equal.b) p = 0.5c) The sample means are equal.d) The difference in the population means is 3.85.107. In a sampling distribution which of the following represents the critical region?a) αb) βc) 1 - βd) 1 - α108. In a hypothesis test which of the following represents the acceptance region?a) αb) βc) 1 - βd) 1 - α109. The Chi Square distribution isa) a distribution of averages.b) a distribution of variances.c) a distribution of standard deviations.d) a distribution of frequencies.110. Which of the following is a number derived from sample data that describes the data in some useful way?a) constantb) statisticc) parameterd) critical value111. A null hypothesis assumes that a process is producing no more than the maximum allowable rate of defective items. What does the type II error conclude about theprocess?a) It is producing too many defectives when it actually isn't.b) It is not producing too many defectives when it actually is.c) It is not producing too many defectives when it is not.d) It is producing too many defectives when it is.。
概率论与数理统计英文文献
Introduction to probability theory andmathematical statisticsThe theory of probability and the mathematical statistic are carries on deductive and the induction science to the stochastic phenomenon statistical rule, from the quantity side research stochastic phenomenon statistical regular foundation mathematics discipline, the theory of probability and the mathematical statistic may divide into the theory of probability and the mathematical statistic two branches. The probability uses for the possible size quantity which portrays the random event to occur. Theory of probability main content including classical generally computation, random variable distribution and characteristic numeral and limit theorem and so on. The mathematical statistic is one of mathematics Zhonglian department actually most directly most widespread branches, it introduced an estimate (rectangular method estimate, enormousestimate), the parameter supposition examination, the non-parameter supposition examination, the variance analysis and the multiple regression analysis, the fail-safe analysis and so on the elementary knowledge and the principle, enable the student to have a profound understanding tostatistics principle function. Through this curriculum study, enables the student comprehensively to understand, to grasp the theory of probability and the mathematical statistic thought and the method, grasps basic and the commonly used analysis and the computational method, and can studies in the solution economy and the management practice question using the theory of probability and the mathematical statistic viewpoint and the method.Random phenomenonFrom random phenomenon, in the nature and real life, some things are interrelated and continuous development. In the relationship between each other and developing, according to whether there is a causal relationship, very different can be divided into two categories: one is deterministic phenomenon. This kind of phenomenon is under certain conditions, will lead to certain results. For example, under normal atmospheric pressure, water heated to 100 degrees Celsius, is bound to a boil. This link is belong to the inevitability between things. Usually in natural science is interdisciplinary studies and know the inevitability, seeking this kind of inevitable phenomenon.Another kind is the phenomenon of uncertainty. This kind of phenomenon is under certain conditions, the resultis uncertain. The same workers on the same machine tools, for example, processing a number of the same kind of parts, they are the size of the there will always be a little difference. As another example, under the same conditions, artificial accelerating germination test of wheat varieties, each tree seed germination is also different, there is strength and sooner or later, respectively, and so on. Why in the same situation, will appear this kind of uncertain results? This is because, we say "same conditions" refers to some of the main conditions, in addition to these main conditions, there are many minor conditions and the accidental factor is people can't in advance one by one to grasp. Because of this, in this kind of phenomenon, we can't use the inevitability of cause and effect, the results of individual phenomenon in advance to make sure of the answer. The relationship between things is belong to accidental, this phenomenon is called accidental phenomenon, or a random phenomenon.In nature, in the production, life, random phenomenon is very common, that is to say, there is a lot of random phenomenon. Issue such as: sports lottery of the winning Numbers, the same production line production, the life of the bulb, etc., is a random phenomenon. So we say: randomphenomenon is: under the same conditions, many times the same test or survey the same phenomenon, the results are not identical, and unable to accurately predict the results of the next. Random phenomena in the uncertainties of the results, it is because of some minor, caused by the accidental factors.Random phenomenon on the surface, seems to be messy, there is no regular phenomenon. But practice has proved that if the same kind of a large number of repeated random phenomenon, its overall present certain regularity. A large number of similar random phenomena of this kind of regularity, as we observed increase in the number of the number of times and more obvious. Flip a coin, for example, each throw is difficult to judge on that side, but if repeated many times of toss the coin, it will be more and more clearly find them up is approximately the same number.We call this presented by a large number of similar random phenomena of collective regularity, is called the statistical regularity. Probability theory and mathematical statistics is the study of a large number of similar random phenomena statistical regularity of the mathematical disciplines.The emergence and development of probability theoryProbability theory was created in the 17th century, it is by the development of insurance business, but from the gambler's request, is that mathematicians thought the source of problem in probability theory.As early as in 1654, there was a gambler may tired to the mathematician PASCAL proposes a question troubling him for a long time: "meet two gamblers betting on a number of bureau, who will win the first m innings wins, all bets will be who. But when one of them wins a (a < m), the other won b (b < m) bureau, gambling aborted. Q: how should bets points method is only reasonable?" Who in 1642 invented the world's first mechanical addition of computer.Three years later, in 1657, the Dutch famous astronomy, physics, and a mathematician huygens is trying to solve this problem, the results into a book concerning the calculation of a game of chance, this is the earliest probability theory works.In recent decades, with the vigorous development of science and technology, the application of probability theory to the national economy, industrial and agricultural production and interdisciplinary field. Many of applied mathematics, such as information theory, game theory, queuing theory, cybernetics, etc., are based on the theory of probability.Probability theory and mathematical statistics is a branch of mathematics, random they similar disciplines are closely linked. But should point out that the theory of probability and mathematical statistics, statistical methods are each have their own contain different content.Probability theory, is based on a large number of similar random phenomena statistical regularity, the possibility that a result of random phenomenon to make an objective and scientific judgment, the possibility of its occurrence for this size to make quantitative description; Compare the size of these possibilities, study the contact between them, thus forming a set of mathematical theories and methods.Mathematical statistics - is the application of probability theory to study the phenomenon of large number of random regularity; To through the scientific arrangement of a number of experiments, the statistical method given strict theoretical proof; And determining various methods applied conditions and reliability of the method, the formula, the conclusion and limitations. We can from a set of samples to decide whether can with quite large probability to ensure that a judgment is correct, and can control the probability of error.- is a statistical method provides methods are used in avariety of specific issues, it does not pay attention to the method according to the theory, mathematical reasoning.Should point out that the probability and statistics on the research method has its particularity, and other mathematical subject of the main differences are:First, because the random phenomena statistical regularity is a collective rule, must to present in a large number of similar random phenomena, therefore, observation, experiment, research is the cornerstone of the subject research methods of probability and statistics. But, as a branch of mathematics, it still has the definition of this discipline, axioms, theorems, the definitions and axioms, theorems are derived from the random rule of nature, but these definitions and axioms, theorems is certain, there is no randomness.Second, in the study of probability statistics, using the "by part concluded all" methods of statistical inference. This is because it the object of the research - the range of random phenomenon is very big, at the time of experiment, observation, not all may be unnecessary. But by this part of the data obtained from some conclusions, concluded that the reliability of the conclusion to all the scope.Third, the randomness of the random phenomenon, refers to the experiment, investigation before speaking. After the real results for each test, it can only get the results of the uncertainty of a certain result. When we study this phenomenon, it should be noted before the test can find itself inherent law of this phenomenon.The content of the theory of probabilityProbability theory as a branch of mathematics, it studies the content general include the probability of random events, the regularity of statistical independence and deeper administrative levels.Probability is a quantitative index of the possibility of random events. In independent random events, if an event frequency in all events, in a larger range of stable around a fixed constant. You can think the probability of the incident to the constant. For any event probability value must be between 0 and 1.There is a certain type of random events, it has two characteristics: first, only a finite number of possible results; Second, the results the possibility of the same. Have the characteristics of the two random phenomenon called"classical subscheme".In the objective world, there are a large number of random phenomena, the result of a random phenomenon poses a random event. If the variable is used to describe each random phenomenon as a result, is known as random variables.Random variable has a finite and the infinite, and according to the variable values is usually divided into discrete random variables and the discrete random variable. List all possible values can be according to certain order, such a random variable is called a discrete random variable; If possible values with an interval, unable to make the order list, the random variable is called a discrete random variable.The content of the mathematical statisticsIncluding sampling, optimum line problem of mathematical statistics, hypothesis testing, analysis of variance, correlation analysis, etc. Sampling inspection is to pair through sample investigation, to infer the overall situation. Exactly how much sampling, this is a very important problem, therefore, is produced in the sampling inspection "small sample theory", this is in the case of the sample is small, the analysis judgment theory.Also called curve fitting and optimal line problem. Some problems need to be according to the experience data to find a theoretical distribution curve, so that the whole problem get understanding. But according to what principles and theoretical curve? How to compare out of several different curve in the same issue? Selecting good curve, is how to determine their error? ...... Is belong to the scope of the optimum line issues of mathematical statistics.Hypothesis testing is only at the time of inspection products with mathematical statistical method, first make a hypothesis, according to the result of sampling in reliable to a certain extent, to judge the null hypothesis.Also called deviation analysis, variance analysis is to use the concept of variance to analyze by a handful of experiment can make the judgment.Due to the random phenomenon is abundant in human practical activities, probability and statistics with the development of modern industry and agriculture, modern science and technology and continuous development, which formed many important branch. Such as stochastic process, information theory, experimental design, limit theory, multivariate analysis, etc.译文：概率论和数理统计简介概率论与数理统计是对随机现象的统计规律进行演绎和归纳的科学，从数量侧面研究随机现象的统计规律性的基础数学学科，概率论与数理统计又可分为概率论和数理统计两个分支。
1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇方便打印版
1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇方便打印版1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)able ability disable disabled enable unable Word List 1absorb absorbent absorbing absorption abundant abundance abound redundant acquaintance acquaint act action active activate activist activity transact transaction action interact interaction react reaction act actor actress enact actual actually exact act enact agency agent agenda adapt adopt apt opt option optional optimum optimism optimist optimistic add. addition additional advance advanced advance advancement advantage advantageous disadvantage adventure venture advice advise advisable age aged teenager agree agreeable agreement disagreeagriculture acre agronomy cultivate culture air aircraft airplaneairfield airport airline airway aerial aeroplane allow allowance ally alliance alloy rally alphabet alphabetic(al) alter alternate alternative alien alienate ambulance ambition ambitious ambassador embassy ambiguous among(st) mingle mix mixture ample amplify amplifier analyse/yzeanalysis analyst analytic(al) analytically electrolyse/yze paralyse/yze ancient ancestor ancestry anterior anticipate antique angle rectangle triangle ankle anchor angry anger animal animate animated unanimous answer swear ant antenna anxious anxiety appear appearance disappear apparent transparent transparency apply appliance applicable Word List 2 applicant application approach approximate approximately proximate proximity arc arcade arch argue argument army arm? arm? disarm armo(u)ralarm arrange arrangement range ranger rank arrive arrival art artist artistic artificial craft handicraft aircraft spacecraft article articulate astonish stun amaze amazing amazement atmosphere sphere hemisphere atom atomic attack tack attach detach attend tend attendance attendant attention August inaugurate augment auction author authority authoritative authorize/ise authentic authenticate auto automatic automation automobile autonomy autonomous avenge revenge avoid void devoid back background backward bad badly worse worst bag baggage handbag bake baker bakery batch ball? balloon ballot belly bullet basketball baseball volleyball ball? ballet bank? bank? banker banking bankrupt bankruptcy bar barrack barrel barrier barricade embarrass embarrassing embarrassment barrister bare barely base database basis basic basically basement bath bathe be being bear? bear? born birth bearing beat bat? bat? battle batter battery combat debate beautiful beauty because cause accuse accused excuse bed embed before fore former first foremost Word List 3foreground forehead forecast foresee forward forth straightforward forthcoming henceforth beg beggar begin beginner beginning end ending endless behind hind hinder hindrance- 1 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)believe belief below low lower? lower? beneath underneath bible bibliography bicycle cycle? cycle? cyclone recycle encyclop(a)edia cylinder circle circular circulate circulation circuit circuscircumstance biology biochemistry antibiotic biography autobiography bit bite bait biting bitter blackboard board aboard cupboard keyboard board border blanket blank blind blend blunder blood bloody bleed blow? blow? blast body anybody nobody somebody embody boil boiler book booklet handbook notebook textbook bow? bow? elbow rainbow bracket brace bracelet embrace bracket brace brandy brand break breakdown breakthrough outbreak brake broken breach breath breathe breed brood brief abbreviate abbreviation brevity bring upbringing broad abroad broadcast broaden breadth build building rebuild shipbuilding bureau bureaucracy bureaucrat bureaucratic burn burner sunburn bury burial burrow busy business calculate calculator calculation calendar calculus calcium call recall socalled challenge reconcile reconciliation council counsel camp campaign campus champion Word List 4champagne canal channel candle kindle candidate candy cane sugarcane canoe cannon capable capability incapable capital cape captain caption chapter precipitate escape capture captive capacity capsule cabbage cabin cabinet car carry carrier career carpenter carriage cart caravan van cargo charge discharge chariot card discard postcard cartoon chart charter care careful careless chary charity charitable cherish cure accurate accuracy curious curiosity secure security case? briefcase suitcase cassette cash cashier case? casual casually casualty occasion occasional occasionally cast broadcast forecast telecast catch chase purchase cautious caution precaution cave cavern cavity concave excavatecell cellar conceal cent century percent percentage centigrade centimetre/ter center/tre central concentrate concentration eccentric certainly certain ascertain certainty certificate certify chair armchair chairman change exchange character characteristic characterize/ise charming charm cheer cheerful chemistry chemist chemical chief achieve achievement child childhood childish childlike choose Word List 5 choice chop chip Christmas Christ Christian cigar cigaret(te) city citizen citizenship civil civilian civil civilize/ise civilization/isatioclaim reclaim exclaim exclamation proclaimnproclamation class classic classical classify classification classmate mate match? match? matchless clean cleanly clear clearance clarify clarity declare declaration climb clamp clasp clip? clip? cling clutch clock o'clock clockwise close? closet disclose enclose enclosure include- 2 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)inclusion inclusive exclude exclusion exclusive exclusively conclude conclusion In conclusion, preclude preclusion close? close? closelycloth clothes clothe clothing cloud cloudy coat overcoat raincoat cock cocktail peacock chick chicken chuck chuckle coffee cafe cafeteria colony colonial colonialist colonist colour colo(u)rful combine combination come income outcome become overcome welcome comfort comfortable comforting command commander demand mandate mandatorycommittee commit? commit? commitment commission common commonplace commonsense common commonwealth commune communism communist community communicate communication telecommunicatiimmune immunize company accompany Word List 6onscompanion pan panel compare comparison comparable comparative compel compulsion compulsory expel propel propeller repel expulsion expulsive propulsion propulsive repulsion repulsive impulse pulse compete competition competitive competent competence complain complaint concern concerning concerned discern discerning condition airconditional unconditionaconfidence confident confidential conflict conditioning lafflict inflict connect connection/exiconquer conqueror conquest onconsider considering considerable considerate consideration contain container content? content? contents contempt contemptible contemptuous continue continual continuous continuation continuance continuity cook cooker cool chill chilly copper cop copy copyright cope cord chord corps corpse corporate corporation incorporate incorporated correct rectify rectification cost costly count? account accountant accounting counter? discount compute computer dispute reputation deputy count? county viscount country countryside country counter? counterpart encounter contradict contradiction contrary contrast control controversycontroversial courage courageous discourage encourage encouragemencourse intercourse excursetexcursion curriculum current currency incur occur occurrence recur court courteous courtesy cover coverage discover uncover recover recovery cow? cowboy cow? coward cowardly crack clash crash crush create Word List 7 creative creation creator creature creation recreate recreation concrete discrete credit credible incredible credulous incredulous creep cripple crime criminal discriminatediscriminatiocriticalncritic crisis criticism criticize/ise criterion cross acrosscrossing crossroads crucify crucial cruise cruiser custom accustom accustomed customary customer costume cut haircut shortcut damn condemn damage indemnify danger dangerous endanger dare daring date out of date up to date update day daily everyday diary dial daze dazzle - 3 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)dizzy doze dozy deaf deafen dear darling December decade decimal dean decide decision decisive decided insecticide suicide concise precise precision scissors decorate decent deep deepen deeply depth dip defeat feat defence fence? fence? defend defendant defence/nse defensive offend offence/nse offensive delicious elicit democracy democrat democratic epidemic dense condense density dentist dental indent denydenial depend dependent dependence independent independencdescribe description ascribe ascriptioneprescribe prescription subscribe subscription manuscript script scrabble scrub scrape scrap desert? desert? assert insert desire desirable desirous develop development develop envelop envelope devote vote dialog(ue) catalog(ue) monolog(ue) prolog(ue) epilog(ue) analogy logic logical colloquial eloquent apology apologize/ise apologetic dictation dictate dictator dictatorship Word List 8dictionary diction addict addicted contradict predict verdict dedicate indicate indication indicative index die dead deadly death different difference differ differentiate indifferent confer conference infer inference offer prefer preferable preference refer referee reference suffer transfer transference difficult difficulty facile facilitate facility dig ditch dignity indignant indignation dinner dine dining room direct directly indirect direction director directory erect rectangle rectangular dirty dirt disappoint disappointment disappointing discuss discussion dish disk,disc disco discus dismiss missile emit emission omit omission submit submission transmit transmission distinguish distinct distinction extinguish extinct extinction instinct disturb disturbance perturb turbine turbulent divide dividend individual subdivide division divisor widow do undo deed indeed doctor doctrine document door indoor outdoor double duple duplicate diploma diplomat diplomatic dual triple multiple multiply multiplication multitude doubtdoubtful doubtless undoubtedly dubious drama dramatic dramatics draw drawback drawer drawing withdraw draw draft overdraw overdraft drag draggle dragon dread dreadful dreadfully dress dressing dressmaker hairdresser undressdrink drunk drunken drunkard eat edible Word List 9inedible drive driver drift drop drip dry drought during durable duration endure endurance duty due earn earnings earth earthquake east north south west northeast northwest southeast southwest eastern northern southern western easy uneasy disease ease economy economics economic economical edit edition editor editorial either neither neutral negative elect election collect collection collective select selection delegate elegant eligible neglect negligible intellect intelligible intellectual intelligence- 4 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)intelligent electricity electric electrical electrician electron electronic email electronics element elementary emphasis emphasize/ise emphatic phase empire emperor empress imperial imperialism imperialist employ employer employee employment unemployment empty exempt exemption energy energetic engage engagement gage mortgage mortgagor mortgagee engine engineer engineering enter entrance entry entertain entertainmenenthusiasm enthusiastic envy jealousytenvious jealous equal equality inequality unequal adequate equate equation equator equivalent equip equipment error erroneous essence essential essentially estimate overestimate underestimate esteem evening eve event eventual eventually exam/examination examine example sample exemplify exemplary except exception exceptional excite exciting excitement exercise exert exhaust exhausted exhausting exhaustive exhibition exhibit inhibit prohibit prohibition exit circuit initial initially initiate Word List 10initiative transit transition expand expanse expansion expect expectation unexpected aspect inspect perspective prospect prospective retrospect spectacle spectacular spectator spectrum suspect speculate speculator conspicuous suspicious suspicion despise experience experienced expert expertise empirical perilous perish experiment experimental experimentation explain explanation explode explosion explosive applaud applause face facet surface superficial fact factual factor affect effect affection effective perfect perfection defect defective infect infectious office officer official efficient efficiency sufficient sufficiency suffice deficient deficiency deficit proficient proficiency benefit profit beneficial profitable feasible featurefactory facture manufacture manufacturer fail failure fair unfair fairly faith faithful faithfully fall spring offspring family familiar familiarity familiarize famous fame fancy fantasy fantastic far farther further fare? fare? farewell welfare fascism fascinate fascinating fashion fashionable fast fasten fastener fate fateful fatal faultfaultless faulty default favo(u)r favo(u)rite favo(u)rable fear fearful fearless feast festive festival feel feeling fellow fellowship figure configuration figment fiction find finding fine? refine refinery finish final finally fine? finance financial confine define definition definite definitely indefinite definitive finite infinite fire fireman fireplace firework firm? Word List 11affirm affirmation affirmative confirm confirmation infirm firm?fish fisherman fishery fit fitting outfit fix fixture flame flare flash flat? flat? flatter inflation deflation flex flexible flex(i)timereflect reflection/exion flow overflow fluent fluid flush influence influential influenza flu fluctuate flutter flower flourish flour- 5 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)floral florid fly? fly? butterfly dragonfly firefly flight? flee flight? fold unfold follow follower following food feed feedback fool foolish foot centipede expedition pedal pedestrian forbid bid force forceful enforce? forcible enforce? reinforce effort fort form conform formal format formation formula formulate forum perform performance reform transform uniform information inform fortune fortunatefortunately misfortune unfortunately found foundation fund fundamental refund profound profundity fragment fragile fraction fracture refract free freedom free freely frequent frequently frequency fresh refresh refreshment friend friendly friendship front confront frontier fruitfruitful full fill fulfil(l) fun funny Funny looking furniture furnish fury rage furious outrage game gamble garden gardener kindergarten yard courtyard orchard gas gaseous gasify gasoline gene genetic genius ingenious genuine Homogeneouheterogeneous generate generation generator sdegenerate regenerative pregnant general In general, I agree with generallyyou. generalize/ise generalization,generous generosity hydrogen nitrogen oxygenisationgeography geology geometry graph graphic paragraph Word List 12photograph telegraph get forget getaway Get together giant gigantic give forgive given gift pardon donate donation endow globe global glory glorious glorify glare gleam glisten glitter glow glance glimpse go foregoing undergo gold golden good well better best goodness government govern governor governess grace graceful gracious grateful gratitude congratulate congratulation grade graduate graduation postgraduate undergraduate centigrade degrade upgrade gradual gradually grain granary grammar diagram telegram gram(me) kilogram(me program(me) grand grandfather grandmother grandson granddaughter grasp grip grope grass graze? graze? green evergreen greenhouse greet greeting ground background foreground playground underground grow grownup growth outgrow guard bodyguard safeguard regard disregard regardless regarding garage guardian ward guarantee warrant warrantee warrantor warranty awardreward guide guidance guideline guilt guilty habit cohabit inhabit inhabitant hair haircut half halve behalf quarter? quarterly quart quartz quarter? headquarters Hamburg hamburger hand beforehand handbook handful handicap handkerchief handle handsome handwriting handy shorthand manicure manipulate manoeuvre/maneumanual manuscriptverapprehend comprehend comprehensicomprehensivcommend recommend recommendatioon e n- 6 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)hang hinge hard harden hardware hardship hardy hard hardly harm harmful harmless haste hasten hasty hate hateful hatred have behave Word List 13 head ahead overhead heading headline headmaster headphone headache ache backache heartache stomachache toothache health healthy heal whole wholesome wholly hear hearing overhear heart hearty heartily help helpful helpless hero heroine heroic heroism hesitate cohesive adhere cohere coherent heir heiress heritable heritage inherit inherent high height heighten highly haughty history historian historichistorical hold uphold withhold hole hollow hell helmet holiday holy home dome domestic dominate dominant predominant domain dominionhono(u)r hono(u)rable honorary hope hopeful hopeless horizon horizontal hot heat heating warm warming warmth hotel motel hostel host? hostesshostage hospital hospitality hospitable host? hostile hostility house household housekeeper housewife greenhouse warehouse house housing how anyhow somehow however human humane humanity humanitarian humanitarianis m exhume inhume humble humiliate humid humidity humo(u)r humorous hump bump lump plump? stump? dump pump plump? stump? thump hungry hunger thirsty thirst hunt hint hurry hurricane husband band? band? bandage bind bond bound? bound? boundary bundle ice icecream icy idea ideal idealism ideology idol idolise/ize identical identify identification identity ill sick illness sickness imagine imaginable imaginary imaginative imagination image imitate imitation important importance import VIP, V.I.P. in out inner outer innermost outermost inward outward within without interior exterior intimate? intimate? extreme internal external inn utter? utter? utmost accident incident accidental accidentally WordList 14incidental incidentally incidence coincide coincidence increase increasingly decrease industry industrial industrious industrialize/ise industrializatidestroyon destruction destructive construct construction constructive structure instruct instruction instructor insect section intersection sector segment sex sexual homosexual sexy instrument instrumental interest interested interesting uninterested disinterested interfere interference interrupt abrupt bankrupt corrupt disrupt erupt ruptureintroduce introduction conduct conductor deduce deduct educate education induce reduce reduction conduct conductor semiconductoinduce rinduction reduce reduction invent invention inventor inviteinvitation jack hijack/highjajewel jewel(le)ry join adjoin ck- 7 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)conjoin joint junction conjunction journey journal journalist journalism joy enjoy enjoyable joyful rejoice judge judg(e)ment judicial prejudice jury injure injury just justice justify justification adjust adjustment keep housekeeper shopkeeper kind kindness mankind knee lap? kneel overlap knot knit knob know knowledge acknowledge wellknownlabo(u)r collaborate collaboration elaborate laboratory land inland landlord landscape mainland lapse collapse elapse large enlarge largely late later latest latter last? last? lately laugh laughter law inlaw lawyer legal illegal legislation legitimate illegitimate lax relax Relax. release lay delay layer layout relay lead leader leadership leading mislead Word List 15 leaf leaflet league colleague obligation oblige religion religious liable liability lean? lean? decline incline learn learned learning lecture dialect dialectic(s) allege legend legendarylet inlet outlet letter literal literally literacy literate illiterate literary literator literature liberation liberate liberal libertydeliver delivery deliberate equilibrium lie? lie? lier liar underlyinglife live? alive live? living lively livelihood living revive survive survival vivid evil lift shoplift aloft lofty elevate elevator lever levy alleviate levity relieve relief grave? grave? gravity aggravate grieve grief light? daylight sunlight highlight lighten? lightning enlighten light? lighten? like? dislike like? alike unlike likely likelihood likewise limit limitation limited eliminate preliminary line linear liner deadline guideline headline online outline streamline underline linen line file profile link linking liquid liquify,liquefy liquor load download overload unload local allocate locate location locality lock deadlock locker long length lengthen linger along longitude prolong look outlook overlook lose loss loose loosen loud loudspeaker aloud loud loudly love beloved lovely lover luck lucky unlucky machine machinery mechanic mechanical mechanics mechanism magic magical magnet Word List 16magnetic magnetism magnificent magnify magnitude magnate major majestic majesty mail E-mail mailbox maintain maintenance detain retain retention sustain sustenance make makeup male female masculine feminine man chairman fireman fishman gentleman layman policeman postman salesman sportsman workman woman manage management manager many much more moreover furthermore most almost mostly little less least mark remark marked remarkable margin marginal marginally marry marriage marriageable married wed wedding Marx Marxism Marxist mass massive massacre - 8 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)math(s) mathematics mathematical mathematician matter pattern material materialism maternal paternal matron patron compatriot patriot patriotic mature immature premature maturity may maybe might? might? mighty almighty meal mill measure measurement commensurate dimension immense medicine dose medical remedy meet meeting melt melted molten member membership memory commemoratmemorial memorize/ise remember mendeamend emend merchant merchandise commerce commercial merge emerge emergency immerge submerge immerse emerse message messenger mission missionary metal metallic metallurgy medal meter? centimetre/ter kilometre/ter millimetre/ter metric diameter parameter arithmetic geometry symmetry meter? thermometer multimeter middle amid midst midday midnight mediate? immediate immediately intermediate? medieval Mediterraneamedium media mediate? intermediate?nmedian mean? meantime meanwhile means? means? mean? meaning migrate migrant immigrate emigrate immigrant emigrant military militant militia million millionaire mind remind comment commentary mental mentality psychology mention mine mineral undermine mini miniature minibus minute? WordList17minute? diminish minus minor major minority majority minimum maximum minimal maximal minimize/ise maximize mayor minister ministry administer administration administrative mirror mirage miracle miraculous miserablecommiserate misery miss missing model mode modern modernize/ise module mo(u)ld mood moderate modest modify accommodate accommodation commodity moist moisture mole molecule molecular Monday monarch monarchy monopoly monopolize monotonous moment momentum money monetary mint moon month monthly moral immoral unmoral morality virtue virtual virtually mountain mount dismount amount mouse m(o)ustache muscle muscular mouth murmur mutter mumble move moved moving movie movement remove removal motor motorist motel emotion emotional locomotive motion motive motivate demote promote remote automate automatic mobile automobile mobilise/ize mob Mr Mrs Miss Ms mister master masterpiece mistress magisterial magistrate sir senior senate senator mud muddle muddy music musical musician amuse amusement amusing muse museum mutual commute commutation commuter mystery mysterious mystify mystic name namely nickname surname nominal nominate nomination nominee anonymous antonym synonym nation national international internationalism internationalinationality stnature natural naturally naive renaissance navy naval navigate navigation near nearby nearly necessary necessarily unnecessary necessity necessitate neighbo(u)r neighbo(u)rhood nerve nervous - 9 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)net network Internet never ever everlasting forever night fortnight midnight nightmare overnight normal abnormal normally normalize norm enormous note notice Word List 18notable noticeable noted notorious notice notify note denotenotation notion noun pronoun renown renowned now nowadays new news renew novel? novel? novelty innovate innovation innovative renovate number numerical numerous innumerable enumerate nurse nursery nourish nurture nut chestnut peanut walnut nuclear nucleus obey obedience obedient audible audience audio auditorium occupy occupation oil gasoline/ene petroleum petrol old elder elderly adolescence adolescent adult on onto upon one alone lone lonely lonesome once onion only anyone everyone someone none oneself unite union reunion unify unification unity unanimous unique unit open opening operate operation operational operative operator cooperate cooperation cooperative order disorder orderly ordinal coordinate subordinate oracle oral orator ordinary extraordinary extraordinarily extra organ organic organism organize/ise organization/isatorigin original originate orient? oriental orient? ion orientation other another otherwise over overall overcoat overcome overflow overtake overwhelm overwhelming overthrow overturn overload overestimate own owner ownership owe owing pack package packet packed compact impact page propagate propaganda pain No pains,no painful painless paintgains.painter painting pair repair impair peer? peer? paper newspaper paperback part participate participant Word List 19partial impartial partially partly particle particular particularly counterpart party partner copartner partnership portion proportionproportional apart apartment compartment depart departure department impart partition pass bypass compass overpass passage passenger surpass pastime past paste toothpaste pastry patient patience impatientinpatient compatible incompatible pay payable payment repay peace peaceful appease pacific pacify people popular pop populate population perhaps happen happening mishap period periodic periodical permit permission permissible admit admission person personal personality personally personnel persuade persuasion persuasive philosophy philosopher sophisticated sophomore physics physicist physician physical physiology physiological pick? pick? pickpocket peck peak at the peak. pick? poke picnic picnicker picture depict pile compile compiler accumulate cumulative place displace replace replacement displacement plain plan plane planate plant plantation interplant transplant plastic plaster plate numberplate tinplate plateau platform play player please pleasant- 10 -1~6级全新大学英语星火式巧记速记词汇(研友Ruben整理)pleasure plenty plentiful complete complement complementacomplyrysupplement supplementary supply accomplish implement plus surplus poem poet poetry point standpoint viewpoint Word List 20appoint appointment punctual puncture punch pole polar polite metropolitan metropolis politics political politician polity policy pollute pollution dilute poor poverty rich enrich port airport seaportexport import opportunity passport porch deport portable portertransport transportation position compose composite composition deposit dispose disposal disposition expose exposure exposition impose oppose opposite pose posture preposition propose proposal proposition purpose suppose symposium component opponent postpone compound? compound? thesis hypothesis synthesis possess possession assess assessment possible probable impossible improbable probability possibility possibly probably potential potentiality post? postage postman post? poster post? post? power horsepower powerful practice practise practicable practical practically pray prayer pre prior priority primary primarily prime premier primitive prepare preparation preparatory present absent presence absence present presence present presentation presently represent representation representative press compress compression depress depression suppress express? express? expression expressive impress impression impressive oppress oppression pressure repression price appreciate appreciative appreciable depreciate precious prize praise appraise appraisal prince princess principal principle prison imprison prisoner comprise enterprise entrepreneur private deprive privacy privilegeproceed procession process microprocessor procedure proceeding Word List 21precede precedent preceding exceed excess excessive exceeding excessively exceedingly concede concession recede recession access。
物理专业英语词汇(Q)
物理专业英语词汇（Q）分支物理专业英语词汇(Q)物理专业英语词汇(Q)q branchqq meterq 值计q nu mberq 数q switchq 开关q switched laserq 开关激光器q valueq 值quadra nt electrometer 象限静电计quadratic form 二次形式quadrupole 四极quadrupole coupli ng 四极耦合quadrupole deformati on 四极畸变quadrupole in teracti on 四极相互酌quadrupole magnet 四极磁铁quadrupole mome nt 四极矩quadrupole mome ntum 四极矩quadrupole quadrupole force 四极四极力quadrupole radiatio n 四极辐射quadrupole res onance 四极共振quadrupole tran siti on 四极跃迁quadrupole vibratio n 四极振荡qualitative an alysis 定性分析qua ntaco n 光电倍增管qua ntitative an alysis 定量分析qua ntitative spectral an alysis 定量光谱分析qua ntity 量qua ntity of electricity 电量qua ntity of flow 量qua ntity of heat 热量qua ntity of light 光量qua ntity of moti on 动量qua ntity of state 状态量qua ntizati on 量子化qua ntized field 量子场qua ntized system 量子化系统qua ntized vortex 量子旋涡qua ntum ano maly 量子反常qua ntum biology 量子生物学qua ntum cosmology 量子宇宙学qua ntum chemistry 量子化学qua ntum chromod yn amics 量子色动力学qua ntum con diti on 量子条件qua ntum cosmology 量子宇宙学qua ntum creati on of the uni verse 宇宙的量子产生qua ntum inv erse scatteri ng method量子逆散射法 qua ntum defect 量子筐qua ntum defect theory 量子筐理论 qua ntum disordered system 量子无序系qua ntum effect 量子效应 qua ntum efficie ncy 量子产额qua ntum electrod yn amics 量子电动力学 qua ntum electro nics 量子电子学 qua ntum energy 量子能量 qua ntum field 量子场qua ntum field theory 量子场论 qua ntum fluctuatio n 量子涨落 qua ntum fluid 量子铃qua ntum gravitati on 量子弓丨力 qua ntum gravitati onal fluctuatio n 量子弓丨力涨落qua ntum gravity 量子引力 qua ntum group 量子群 qua ntum hall effect量子霍尔效应qua ntum hilbert space量子希耳伯空间qua ntum hypothesis 量子假说qua ntum lattice model 量子点阵模型qua ntum jump 量子跃迁qua ntum liquid 量子液体qua ntum logic 量子逻辑qua ntum mecha nics 量子力学quantum monte carlo method 量子蒙特卡罗法qua ntum no ise 量子噪声qua ntum nu mber 量子数qua ntum of acti on 酌量子qua ntum optics 量子光学qua ntum orbit 量子轨道qua ntum physics 量子物理学qua ntum size effect 量子尺寸效应qua ntum solid 量子固体qua ntum solit on 量子孤立子qua ntum state 量子状态qua ntum statistical mecha nics 量子统计力学qua ntum statistics 量子统计qua ntum theory 量子论qua ntum theory of field 量子场论qua ntum well 量子势阱qua ntum lattice model 量子点阵模型qua ntum theory of gravity 弓丨力场的量子论qua ntum tra nsiti on 量子跃迁qua ntum well 量子势阱qua ntum well optical waveguide 量子势阱光波导qua ntum yield 量子产额qua ntumbrow width 18 field eng 量子quark夸克quark atom 夸克偶素quark conden sate 夸克凝聚quark confin eme nt 夸克禁闭quark flavor 夸克味quark glu on plasma 夸克胶子等离子体quark lepto n symmetry 夸克轻子对称quark model 夸克模型quark star 夸克星quark onium 夸克偶素quarter wave plate 四分之一波片quartet 四重态quartz水晶quartz clock 石英钟quartz fibre electroscope 石英丝验电器quartz glass 石英玻璃quartz mono chromator 水晶单色仪quartz oscillator 石英振荡器qua ntum well optical waveguide 量子势阱光波导quartz plate 水晶片quasar类星体quasi crystal 准晶体quasi elastic force 准弹性力quasi elastic scatteri ng 准弹性散射quasi ergodic hypothesis 准脯历经假说quasi fourier tra nsform hologram 准傅里叶变换全息图quasi molecular resonance 准分子共振quasi mono chromatic light 准单色光quasi static porcess 准静态过程quasi stati onary electric curre nt 准稳电流quasi stati onary state 准稳态quasi stellar object 类星体quasi stellar source 类星射电源quasi viscous effect 准粘滞效应quasia ni sotropy 类蛤异性quasimode 准模quasimolecule 准分子quasiparticle 准粒子quasiparticle tunn elli ng 准粒子隧道效应que nching 熄灭que nching circuit 熄灭电路quiesce nt prominence 宁静日珥quiet sun 宁静太卩日quintet 五重态物理专业英语词汇（Q）相关内容：。
hypotheses
hypothesesHypothesesIntroductionIn the world of scientific research, hypotheses play a critical role in the formulation of experiments and studies. A hypothesis is a statement or assumption that is made based on limited evidence or observations and serves as a starting point for further investigation. This document aims to explore the concept of hypotheses, their importance, and how they are formulated and tested in various scientific disciplines.What is a Hypothesis?A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or a question that can be tested. It is an essential element of the scientific method and is used to guide research and experiments. Hypotheses are usually based on existing knowledge, previous observations, or theories, and serve as an attempt to explain or predict a particular phenomena.Formulating a HypothesisThe process of formulating a hypothesis requires careful consideration of the existing knowledge and evidence. To develop a hypothesis, researchers typically follow a few key steps:1. Identify the research question: The first step in formulatinga hypothesis is to clearly identify the research question or problem that needs to be addressed. This question should be specific and focused to provide a clear direction for the research.2. Review existing knowledge: Once the research question is identified, it is important to review the existing knowledge and literature related to the topic. This helps in understanding previous findings and theories that can inform the formulation of a hypothesis.3. Generate possible explanations: Based on the existing knowledge, researchers generate possible explanations or predictions for the research question. These explanations are known as hypotheses and should be testable and falsifiable.4. Refine the hypothesis: After generating the initial hypotheses, researchers refine and narrow down the options to develop a more focused and specific hypothesis. This is done by considering factors such as feasibility, relevance, and available resources.Testing a HypothesisOnce a hypothesis is formulated, it needs to be tested through experimentation or observation. The process of testing a hypothesis involves the following steps:1. Design the experiment: The researcher designs an experiment or study that will allow them to collect data and test the hypothesis. The design of the experiment should be carefully planned to ensure that it provides valid and reliable results.2. Collect and analyze data: During the experiment, data is collected and analyzed to determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis. Statistical analysis is often used to evaluate the significance of the findings and to draw meaningful conclusions.3. Draw conclusions: Based on the analysis of the data, the researcher draws conclusions about the hypothesis. If the results support the hypothesis, it is considered to be validated. On the other hand, if the results contradict the hypothesis, it may be necessary to revise the hypothesis or develop new ones for further investigation.Importance of Hypotheses in Scientific ResearchHypotheses are a fundamental aspect of scientific research for several reasons:1. Guiding research: Hypotheses provide a clear direction for research, allowing researchers to focus their efforts on specific questions or problems. They help in organizing the research process and ensuring that it is purposeful and systematic.2. Promoting objectivity: Hypotheses help in maintaining objectivity in scientific research by providing a framework for testing and evaluating ideas. They prevent bias and ensure that the research is based on evidence and logic rather than personal opinions or beliefs.3. Advancing knowledge: By formulating hypotheses and testing them through rigorous experimentation, researchers contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields. Hypotheses that are supported by evidence can lead to new discoveries and insights.4. Identifying limitations: Hypotheses allow researchers to identify and address the limitations of existing knowledge and theories. They highlight the gaps in understanding and provide opportunities for further investigation and refinement of theories.ConclusionHypotheses are a critical component of scientific research. They provide a starting point for investigation, guide research efforts, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge. By formulating and testing hypotheses, researchers can better understand the world around us and make meaningful contributions to their respective fields.。
专业英语八级模拟试卷及答案解析（4）
专业英语八级模拟试卷及答案解析（4）专业英语八级模拟试卷及答案解析（4）(1~16/共26题)Play00:0011:49Volume第1题Creative Thinking I. Facts to be known about creative thinking A. People are creative【T1】______【T1】______ B. It isn′t developed enough in【T2】______【T2】______ C. It′s the distinctive 【T3】______ of human being【T3】______ II. The role of creative thinking in all areas of one′s life A. Creative thinking will always be【T4】______ whatever you do【T4】______ —it gives one the edge that really【T5】______【T5】______ himself from other people —it helps generate what repetitive procedure should first be —developing the skill of it helps one to get to【T6】______ of a field【T6】______ —it helps one【T7】______ a new set of procedures to follow【T7】______ —it helps one to absorb new knowledge and experiences B. Creative thinking is the key to opportunities —wide application of man′s creativity in the Internet, airplane, etc. —a whole new realm of opportunities resulting from【T8】______【T8】______ a)a happier home atmosphere b)more【T9】______ brought about by diet and exercise【T9】______ c)an additional stream of income brought about by【T10】______【T10】______ d)interpersonal relationship brought about by gym and network C. Creativity promotes initiative and【T11】______【T11】______ —people having strong sense of【T12】______ and initiative【T12】______ —【T13】______, people becoming more optimistic【T13】______ —one of the best ways to cope with the【T14】______【T14】______ III.Easiest ways to develop creative thinking, and your gains A. Taking your ideas seriously and【T15】______【T15】______ B. Getting to know the true power of creative thinking第2题【T1】第3题【T2】第4题【T3】第5题【T4】第6题【T5】第7题【T6】第8题【T7】第9题【T8】第10题【T9】第11题【T10】第12题【T11】第13题【T12】第14题【T13】第15题【T14】第16题【T15】下一题(17~21/共26题)Play00:0005:16Volume第17题16．A.Because the existing airports are to be wasted.B.Because more people will be encouraged to travel.C.Because more oil will be consumed.D.Because more airplanes will be purchased.第18题17．A.It encourages people to conserve oil and fuel.B.It encourages people to use oil and fuel.C.It encourages people to travel less and less.D.It encourages people to help prevent fuel crisis.第19题18．A.Because the airports have been used for ages.B.Because the handling capacity of the airports is weakened.C.Because people go on too many unnecessary trips and so on.D.Because the maintenance of the airports is inadequate.第20题19．A.It is a reasonable climate of sun.B.It is a certain mild climate.C.It is cold in winter and hot in summer.D.It is always rainy in summer.第21题20．A.Because the land could be used for more important things.B.Because the land can′t be used to the full.C.Because the existing airport can still be used.D.Because the land will be desolated.上一题下一题(22~26/共26题)Play00:0003:24Volume第22题21．A.Because the airports can replace the existing airports swamped.B.Because the airports can help develop the local tourism.C.Because the airports can provide jobs and boost local economy.D.Because the airports can make the locals become rich.第23题22．A.The airport offers employmentB.The airport is convenient for people to travel.C.The airport brings noise and motorways.D.The airport occupies farm land.第24题23．A.Less emphasis on personal contact.B.Advances in modern telecommunications.C.Recent changes in people′s concepts.D.More potential damage to the area.第25题24．A.Because personal contact through travel is significant.B.Because travel offers people chances to relax themselves.C.Because travel can boost the local economy greatly.D.Because people can make cultural exchanges through travel.第26题25．A.Freddy is strongly in favour of Mary′s ideas.B.Freddy is mildly in favour of Mary′s ideas.C.Freddy is strongly against Mary′s ideas.D.Freddy is mildly against Mary′s ideas.上一题下一题(27~30/共22题)PART II READING COMPREHENSION (30 MIN) Directions: In this section there are four reading passages followed by a total of 20 multiple-choice questions. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.(1)There′s this great recurring Saturday Night Live skit from several years back where Phil Hartman plays an unfrozen caveman who goes to law school. He pontificates(发表武断的意见)on the American judicial system while marveling at modem technology like The Tiny People in The Magic Box(a TV). It fits a common stereotype: Human ancestors were, well, cavemen, and not as smart as we are today. A new hypothesis from a Stanford geneticist tries to turn this stereotype upside down.(2)Human intelligence may have actually peaked before ourancient predecessors ever left Africa, Gerald Crabtree writes in two new journal articles. Genetic mutations during the past several millennia are causing a decline in overall human intellectual and emotional fitness, he says. Evolutionary pressure no longer favors intellect, so the problem is getting worse. He is careful to say that this is taking quite a long time, so it′s not like your grandparents are models of brilliance while your children will be cavemen rivaling Hartman′s SNL character. But he does maintain that an ancient Athenian, plucked from 1000 BC, would be "among the brightest and most intellectually alive of our colleagues and companions. "(3)His central thesis is that each generation produces deleterious(有害的)mutations, so down the line of human history, our intelligence is ever more impaired compared to that of our predecessors.(4)Not surprisingly, the hypothesis, published in the journal Trends in Genetics, has several geneticists scratching their heads.(5)"It takes thousands of genes to build a human brain, and mutations in any one of those can impair that process, that′s absolutely true. It′s also true that with each new generation, new mutations arise...but Crabtree ignores the other side of the equation, which is selection," said Kevin Mitchell, associate professor at the Smurfit Institute of Genetics at Trinity College Dublin. " Natural selection is incredibly powerful, and it definitely has the ability to weed out new mutations that significantly impair intellectual ability. There are various aspects in these papers that I think are really just flunking about things in a wrong way. "(6)Crabtree said he wanted to examine the cumulative effect of generation-to-generation mutation on intelligence, which isthought to be controlled by many genes. Using indexes that measure X-chromosome(染色体)-related mental retardation, he comes up with between 2,000 and 5,000 genes related to human intellectual ability. Using another index measuring average mutations that arise in each generation of children, he calculates that within 3, 000 years, "we have all sustained two or more mutations harmful to our intellectual or emotional stability. "(7)"There is a general feeling that evolution constantly improves us, but it only does that if there is selection applied," Crabtree said in an interview. " In this case, it is questionable about how much selection is occurring now compared to the process of optimizing those genes, which occurred in the jungles of Africa 500,000 years ago. "(8)There′s already evidence for this in other areas, he argues: Take our sense of smell. Humans have far fewer olfactory receptors than other animals, he said—we′re guided by our intellect now, not by smell. We can think about where a piece of food came from, how it was processed, which plant it′s from, who has been around it, and so on. A dog, on the other hand, simply sniffs something and either eats it or doesn′t.(9)Similarly, he believes evolution now selects for other traits—namely, the most healthy and the most immune, not the most intelligent.(10)But geneticists took issue with his claims, not to mention his citations and methods. Mitchell took issue with Crabtree′s characterization of genes—he describes them as links in a chain, with incredible overall disruptive power. They′re like a bulb on a string of Christmas tree lights that suddenly fails to work, taking out the entire strand with it: "It can be concluded that genes related to intelligence do not operate as a robust network, butrather as links in a chain, failure of any one of which leads to intellectual disability," he writes. Mitchell countered that this ignores other genes that don′t cause intellectual disabil ity.(11)" Biological systems are robust to degradation of several different components," Mitchell said. " Evolution has gone to a lot of trouble to craft your genome so it′s finely honed to do its job, and it doesn′t make sense that you would have all thi s random mutation in your brain cells. Also, you would have a very high rate of brain cancer. "第27题According to the passage, "Saturday Night Live" skit is a______./doc/206680136.html, series with a playful spiritB.documentary on human ancestorsC.talk show on exotic experiencesD.radio program on modern technology第28题Which of the following would Gerald Crabtree most likely DISAGREE with?A.Genetic mutations play a significant part in the decline of human intelligence.B.Harmful mutations tend to be unchangeable and easy to get rid of.C.Human beings today are no longer pressured to improve their intellect.D.Natural selection is useful in the process of evolution only on some occasions.第29题Kevin Mitchell raises doubts about Ger ald Crabtree′s hypothesis in all of the following aspects EXCEPT its ______.A.self-contradictory natureB.neglect of the power of natural selectionC.research methodology and referencesD.characterization of genes第30题Which of the following would be the BEST title for the passage?A.A New Hypothesis Against a Common Stereotype.B.The Pros and Cons of Genetic Mutations.C.Human Intelligence—Declined or Not?D.Evolution Process and Human Intellect.上一题下一题(31~34/共22题)PART II READING COMPREHENSION (30 MIN) Directions: In this section there are four reading passages followed by a total of 20 multiple-choice questions. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.(1)Social mobility in the U. K. could be reversed unless the government and universities make changes to encourage and pay for more students from disadvantaged backgrounds to take degrees, according to the government′s independent adviser on the issue. Alan Milburn said in a report that social mobility was now " flatlining at best" after gains in the early part of the last decade.(2)"Given the headwinds that universities and higher education institutions are facing—tuition fees, student caps, public funding constraints—there′s a real danger things w ill go backwards, rather than forwards," Milburn told The Guardian. "As the economy changes, who gets into university does become a very important driver of social mobility. "(3)The report recommends changes across government policy and the way universities select,fund and encourage students from more disadvantaged areas, who he argues have been shown to do better at university than pupils from private schools with the same grades. Suggestions include offering all students from poorer backgrounds an interview and considering offering places to those with lower grades. Acknowledging pressure on public spending during the recession, Milburn calls on all parties to commit to government funding for higher education rising from 1.2% currently to 1.5% , the average for the OECD group of advanced economies.(4)The former Labour MP and cabinet member, who was the first person in his family to go to university, said social mobility created "fallers as well as risers", echoing candid comments by the Liberal Democrat business secretary, Vince Cable, who told an audience on Wednesday that social mobility was often a "two-way street" and " a zero-sum game". " We want everyone to move up and no one to move down," said Cable. " But in the real world not everyone can be a star. Social mobility is often embodied in the comprehensive school pupil who reaches Oxbridge, but what about the school dropout who finished up in a lowly menial job? That is also social mobility. But this is surely what meritocracy is all about—success through hard work, not through birth. "(5)Milburn′s report says universities spend more than ￡400m to soften the impact of higher tuition fees on students from poorer backgrounds, but says there is little evidence that it is well spent, and calls for deep changes. It advocates that money is spent not just on reducing fees but helping to fund poorer students, and calls for a new version of the scrapped EducationalMaintenance Allowance, intended to help poorer pupils remain in school to do A-levels. Universities are asked to agree to use " contextual data" when assessing applications to give pupils from worse schools a better chance, even if they have lower grades. Because some universities—especially from the Russell Group of higher ranked institutions—have objected to such a move in the past, Milburn offers them alternatives, including running new programmes to assess and prepare school-leavers, such as summer schools, and guaranteeing interviews to pupils from schools in disadvantaged areas.(6)Ministers are urged to scrap a cap on student numbers, which Milburn calls an artificial limit on aspiration, and to better explain the tuition fees policy, under which students start repaying their loans when their earnings ripe above a certain threshold. One option would be to rename the policy a graduate tax, which it is "in all but name", says Milburn, though he says it might be too late for that. He also calls for more funding for post-graduates, probably through upfront loans, saying the issue is "in danger of becoming a social mobility timebomb".(7)The proposal to re-introduce the EMA was widely welcomed by social and education organizations, including the children′s charity Barnados, which said it had evidence that children were having to choose between the cost of breakfast and their bus fare to school. The left-of-centre IPPR thinktank welcomed the report′s suggestion that "we should look at applying the lessons of the pupil premium in schools to the university sector, with more funding being provided to institutions if they recruit from disadvantaged backgrounds"第31题According to Alan Milburn′s report, which of the following isthe current situation of social mobility?A.It has been reversed.B.It hasn′t any changes nowadays.C.It hasn′t had any changes sinc e the last decade./doc/206680136.html,ernment and universities pay for more students to take degrees.第32题What does the former Labour MP mean by saying "social mobility created ′fallers as well as risers′ " in Para. 4?A.Social mobility is not a "two-way street" and "a zero-sum game".B.All students from comprehensive schools can enter Oxford by hard work.C.School dropouts always work with lower payments.D.Social mobility is a mirror of constant efforts from different people.第33题Wh ich of the following is INCORRECT according to Milburn′s report?A.Universities spend more money on softening the impact of higher tuition fees on poorer students.B.Money has already been spent not just on reducing fees but helping to fund poorer students.C.Universities are asked to use superior standard when assessing applications.D.Some higher ranked universities do not refuse to change any more.第34题What is this passage mainly concerned?/doc/206680136.html,cation fundneeds social mobility./doc/206680136.html,cation needs new policy and reform.C.Children pay more premiums in schools, so there are difficulties in their lives.D.Children were recruited from disadvantaged backgrounds, so they are very poor.上一题下一题(35~37/共22题)PART II READING COMPREHENSION (30 MIN) Directions: In this section there are four reading passages followed by a total of 20 multiple-choice questions. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.(1)Cambridge has taken the top spot in this year′s Guardian University Guide league table, breaking its arch rival Oxford′s six-year stint as the U. K. ′s leading institution. Oxford has come second and St Andrews third, while the London School of Economics has climbed four places from last year to take fourth place. University College London, Warwick, Lancaster, Durham, Loughborough and Imperial College make up the top 10.(2)Our analysis shows that universities with low rankings are almost as likely to be planning to charge maximum tuition fees of ￡9,000 in autumn 2012 as those with high rankings. London Metropolitan University, which comes bottom of The Guardian tables, intends to charge between ￡4,500 and ￡9,000 for its degrees. Salford, Liverpool John Moores, Manchester Metropolitan and the University of East London—all of which rank in the bottom 20—want to charge ￡9,000 for at least some of their courses.(3)The government′s acce ss watchdog, the Office for FairAccess, is looking at the fees each university in England wants to charge and will announce in July whether it approves. All the English universities in our top 20 intend to charge ￡9,000 fees, apart from London School of Economics, which has not yet decided. The first university that proposes to charge less than ￡9,000 for all of its courses is Sunderland, which is ranked 48th. There are a total of 120 institutions in the tables: 38 in the top half intend to charge ￡9,000 for at least some of their courses, while 18 in the bottom half propose to do the same.(4)Universities are ranked according to how much they spend per student: their student/staff ratio: the career prospects of their graduates: what grades applicants need: a value-added score that compares the academic achievements of first-years and their final degree results: and how content final-year students are with their courses, based on the annual National Student Survey. Birmingham City University has fallen most since last year—24 places, from 66th to 90th—while Middlesex is the biggest climber, reaching 75th place this year compared with 112th last year. Durham has risen from 17th place to eighth. While the oldest universities dominate the top positions in the tables, the newest have improved their rankings since last year. Winchester has leapt from 96th place to 69th.(5)The tables, compiled by an independent consultancy firm, Intelligent Metrix, are weighted in favour of the National Student Survey. As part of the survey, final-year students are asked to score their universities for overall satisfaction, feedback and contact hours. Other league tables concentrate more on research ratings. The Guardian publishes an overall ranking table, separate tables to show which universities are best—and worst—for each subject and another table for specialist institutions. The more auniversity spends on each student, the more likely it is to have a high ranking and the more satisfied its students seem. However, our judges took into account that some universities do not teach expensive courses, such as engineering, and so their spending is lower.(6)The tables show that Cambridge has overtaken Oxford in philosophy, law, politics, theology, maths, classics, anthropology and modern languages. However, Oxford overtook Cambridge in psychology and also came top in chemistry, business and management, and art and design. Loughborough is best for sports science, while King′s College London is top for dentistry. University College London topped the table for English, while Trinity Laban Conservatoire excelled for drama and dance. Northumbria has shot up the table for modem languages, from 48th last year to third this year. Universities with high rankings tend to have fewer dropouts, and fewer students per academic. The top 20 institutions have a drop-out rate after the first year of just 4% , compared with almost 12% for the bottom 20.(7)Professor David Tidmarsh, vice-chancellor of Birmingham City University, says he expects his universit y′s fall in position to be temporary: "It is caused by student number growth, which has now been curbed, and student satisfaction scores, which we expect to improve significantly as a consequence both of increased investment and of the way in which we are engaging students as partners in their learning experience. " He says the university is investing & 180m in new buildings, facilities and equipment. Swansea Metropolitan, Wolverhampton and Liverpool Hope did not allow The Guardian to use their data.(8)Meanwhile, the government has cut the number of places universities can offer on teacher training courses. CambridgeUniversity, which comes top of our table for education courses, will have 49 fewer places on its teacher training course this September, an 11% cut. Altogether, almost 4,000 fewer places will be available on teacher training programmes. A spokesman from the Department for Education says pupil numbers are falling sharply in secondary schools and so the need for new teachers has gone down.第35题Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about universities′ tuition fees?A.The universities with low rankings will probably charge the same amount of tuition fees as those with high rankings.B.London Metropolitan, Salford, and the other universities will charge ￡9,000 for at least some of their courses.C.It is still unsure whether London School of Economics will charge ￡9,000 tuition fees or not.D.The universities with high rankings that propose tuition fees proposals are more than the universities with low rankings.第36题Which of the following BEST explains the feature of university ranking table?A.The table was comparatively fair for referring to several comprehensive indexes.B.It is easier to find the rise and fall of low ranking universities from the table.C.The positions of oldest universities such as Winchester are hard to change.D.The participation of students is the most important index for the table.第37题According to Professor David Tidmarsh, his university′s fall in position is temporary because______.A.the number of students in his university has always been increasingB.the growing number of students and students′ evaluation to university can be adjustedC.his university invested too much on new buildings, faculties and equipmentD.the ranking table was unfair for some universities which didn′t take part in上一题下一题(38~40/共22题)PART II READING COMPREHENSION (30 MIN) Directions: In this section there are four reading passages followed by a total of 20 multiple-choice questions. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.(1)The gender pay gap for full-time workers has fallen below 10% for the first time in 15 years since comparable records began. The difference between men′s and women′s median hourly full-time pay fell from 10.5% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2012, according to the annual survey of hours and earnings from the Office for National Statistics(ONS). Women′s average hourly earnings grew by 2% to ￡12 over the 12 months to April, while men′s earnings grew by 1.1% to ￡13. 27, prompting one employment expert to claim "women are steadily chipping away at the glass ceiling. "(2)The figures show women now earn an average gross full-time salary of ￡23,100—￡5,600 less than then-male counterparts and ￡200 less than the gap of ￡5,800 seen in 2011. But at the current rate of change women′s full-time pay will not equal men′s until 2040.(3)Economists said the narrowing gap can in part be explained by men′s full-time earnings rising slower than wom en′s. Others suggested a variety of reasons including a cultural shift, more progressive attitudes displayed by bosses, and higher aspirations among women. While women are better paid than men when it comes to part-time work, the ONS said the fact more women work part-time jobs, which tend to have lower rates of pay, means the overall pay gap remains high at 19.7% compared to 20.2% in 2011.(4)The Trades Union Congress(TUC)said the lack of high quality part-time work is illustrated by the five highest paid occupations—aircraft pilots: chief executives and directors of advertising and PR: marketing and sales: and telecommunications firms—being dominated by men and having " a negligible number" of part-time positions. In contrast, four of the five worst paid occupations—waiters and waitresses, bar staff, catering assistants and launderers—aredominated by women and have more part-time jobs than full-time ones.(5)Frances O′Grady, general secretary designate at the TUC, said: "No healthy modern economy should have an enduring gender pay gap and growing in-work poverty. Unfortunately, common sense solutions such as senior level job shares and flexible working are rarely available in the private sector, and are now under attack in the public sector. " Unless we change the way we work we will never eliminate the pay gap or tackle poverty.(6)Wages for full-time employees in the U. K. increased by just half the rate of inflation, the study showed, with the median salary rising by 1. 4% to ￡26,500 in 2012 against inflation of 3%—meaning households are experiencing pay cuts in real terms.(7)Xenios Thrasyvoulou, founder of the online freelance marketplace PeoplePerHour, said: "Women are steadily chipping away at the glass ceiling. They may be starting to win the battle of the sexes, but the workforce as a whole is losing the battle with inflation. "(8)The gap between the highest and lowest paid employees also narrowed, with the hourly earnings(excluding overtime)of full timers in the top 1% of earners falling by 0.2% , compared toa rise of 2.3% for those in the bottom 1% .(9)The number of people earning below the national minimum wage fell during the past 12 months, the ONS said, from 299,000 in 2011 to 287,000 this year. But the ONS admitted the figures were not exact due to the impossibility of identifying people such as apprentices and trainees exempt from the minimum wage rate or only entitled to lower rates.(10)Public sector workers earned more than those in the private sector across almost all measures used by the ONS. The median gross weekly pay of full-time employees in the public sector was ￡565 in 2012, up 1. 6% from ￡556 in 2011, compared to ￡479 in the private sector, up 1.5% from ￡472 in 2011.(11)But the ONS pointed out that many low-paid occupations such as hairdressers, bar and restaurant staff and junior sales roles do not exist in the public sector.第38题What does the author mean by "women are steadily chipping away at the glass ceiling" in Para. 1?A.Nowadays full-time women are earning much more money than full-time men.B.Full-time women are making hard efforts on jobs like walking at the glass ceiling.C.Women are in dangerous condition, for their earnings are increasing too fast.D.The gender pay gap is narrowing down, for women′s earnings are increasing gradually.第39题Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about gender pay gap?A.The current gender pay gap should be ￡5,600.B.The main reason for narrowing gender pay gap is uncertain.C.Women are better paid especially in part-time jobs.D.More women having part-time jobs caused the narrowing gender gap.第40题The ONS claimed all of the following EXCEPT that______.A.the pay gap between the highest and the lowest has narrowed downB.at least two kinds of people were hard to classifyC.wages of the public sector workers increased faster than those of the private sector onesD.waiters do not belong to the public sector workers according to the ONS。
GRE大写乱序词汇背诵
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高三英语学术研究方法创新思路单选题30题
高三英语学术研究方法创新思路单选题30题1. In academic research, a hypothesis is a(n) ______ that needs to be tested.A. ideaB. factC. resultD. example答案：A。
本题考查学术研究中“hypothesis（假设）”的概念。
选项A“idea（想法、主意）”符合“hypothesis”需要被测试的特点；选项B“fact（ 事实）”是已经确定的，无需测试；选项C“result（ 结果）”是研究得出的，不是先提出的；选项D“example（ 例子）”与“hypothesis”的概念不符。
2. When conducting research, collecting data is an important step. Which of the following is NOT a common way of collecting data?A. InterviewsB. GuessingC. ObservationsD. Surveys答案：B。
本题考查学术研究中收集数据的常见方法。
选项A“Interviews（ 访谈）”、选项C“Observations（ 观察）”和选项D“Surveys 调查）”都是常见的数据收集方式；选项B“Guessing（ 猜测）”不是科学的收集数据的方法。
3. The purpose of a literature review in academic research is to ______.A. show off one's reading skillsB. summarize existing knowledge on a topicC. copy other people's researchD. make the research longer答案：B。
TPO-30 Reading 2 解析
Q1正确答案：A解析：innumerable，无数的，数不清的；这个单词是numerable(可数的，可计算的)加否定前缀in-，可以推断出近义词是countless，无数的，多得数不清的；occasional，偶尔的，不经常的；repeated，反复的，再三的，重复的。
Q2正确答案：C解析：在第一段中，A选项对应第2句的意思，B选项对应第3句的意思，D选项对应最后一句的意思。
C选项与原文不符，原文一直在说D达尔文的进化论被人们广泛接受。
Q3正确答案：D解析：高亮句的主干部分意思：间断平衡论（punctuated equilibrium hypothesis）挑战了进化论；高亮句的定语从句部分意思：间断平衡轮的内容是新种族的崛起是相对突发的，不需要长时间的转型期。
人物和年份不属于核心信息，可以忽略。
D选项意思和高亮句主干和从句部分意思相符。
A选项which修饰指代不明，容易产生误解；B选项与原文主干部分意思矛盾；C与原文不符，cannot occur without a lengthy transition period与间断平衡论正相反。
Q4正确答案：C解析：根据原文，进化论是说物种演变是通过长时间的缓慢改变发生的；间断平衡论是说物种演变是短期爆发的，所以两个理论的不同在于演变速度，C选项对应原文内容，进化是否是匀速发生的。
Q5正确答案：C解析：题干中的lack of intermediate fossils第三段第3句内容一致，定位到上一句，第2句的大意是，很多生物的化石上百年都不变，这一情况与达尔文学的进化论是不相符的，be at odds with, a与…不和”。
对应C选项。
这一段的最后也用clam or coral举例证明有物种突然被新物种替换，而不是渐渐进化改变的，据此排除B。
第三段第1句说的是间断平衡理论has usually been ignored，排除A；段落最后一句话说的clam or coral species的情况是In most localities而不是most common，排除D。
计量经济学(山东财经大学)智慧树知到课后章节答案2023年下山东财经大学
计量经济学（山东财经大学）智慧树知到课后章节答案2023年下山东财经大学山东财经大学第一章测试1.计量经济学是以下哪些学科相结合的综合性学科答案:任意角度;统计学;经济学2.一个计量经济模型由以下哪些部分构成答案:方程式;随机误差项;参数;变量3.与其他经济模型相比，计量经济模型有如下特点答案:动态性;经验性;随机性4.一个计量经济模型中，可作为解释变量的有答案:控制变量;内生变量;滞后变量;联合收获型;外生变量5.计量经济模型的应用在于答案:经济预测;检验和发展经济理论;结构分析;政策评价第二章测试1.一般地，仅改变自变量自身的度量单位，不会影响截距估计值。
（）答案:对2.在线性模型中，被解释变量和解释变量必须为线性形式。
（）答案:错3.女性受教育程度（educ）对生育率(kids)影响的回归方程为,其中为误差项。
年龄、收入、家庭背景都可能包含在误差项中，但它们必须与受教育程度无关。
（）答案:错4.属于线性回归。
（）答案:对5.自变量可以为相同的常数。
（）答案:错第三章测试1.过原点回归OLS残差的样本平均值为0。
答案:错2.在多元回归中，没有一个自变量是常数，自变量间也不存在严格的线性关系。
答案:对3.在多元回归中，即使模型存在完全共线性问题，依旧可以运用OLS进行估计。
答案:错4.如果多元回归分析中包含了一个或多个无关变量，并不会影响到OLS估计的无偏性。
答案:对5.误差方差越大意味着方程中的“噪音”越多，对于给定的因变量y，可以通过在方程中增加更多的解释变量，来减少误差方差。
答案:对第四章测试1.Which of the following is a statistic that can be used to test hypotheses abouta single population parameter?答案:t statistic2.Which of the following statements is true of confdence intervals?答案:Confidence intervals in a CLM provide a range of likely values for thepopulation parameter3.Which of the following statements is true of hypothesis testing?答案:A restricted model will always have fewer parameters than itsunrestricted model4.Which of the following correctly identifies a reason why some authors preferto report the standard errors rather than the t statistic?答案:Having standard errors makes it easier to compute confdence intervals.5.Which of the following statements is true?答案:The F statistic is always nonnegative as SSRr is never smaller thanSSRur.6.If the calculated value of the t statistic is greater than the critical value, thenull hypothesis, H0 is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis, H1.答案:对第五章测试1.In the following equation, gdp refers to gross domestic product, and FDI refers to foreign direct investment.( )log(gdp) = 2.65 + 0.527log(bankcredit ) + 0.222FDI(0.13) (0.022) (0.017)Which of the following statements is then true?答案:If bank credit increases by 1%, gdp increases by 0.527%, the level of FDI remaining constant.2.In the following equation, gdp refers to gross domestic product, and FDI refers to foreign direct investment ( )log(gdp) = 2.65 + 0.527log(bankcredit ) + 0.222FDI(0.13) (0.022) (0.017)Which of the following statements is then true?答案:If FDI increases by 1%, gdp increases by approximately 24.8%, the amount of bank credit remaining constant.3.Which of the following correctly represents the equation for adjusted R2? ( )答案:.4.在多元回归中，调整后的决定系数与决定系数的关系为（）答案:5.If a new independent variable is added to a regression equation, the adjustedR2 increases only if the absolute value of the t statistic of the new variable isgreater than one. ( )答案:对第六章测试1.在本身是离散的情况下，把虚拟变量加入回归方程，对于在平均意义下解释回归变量没有影响。
r语言的p.adjust函数 -回复
r语言的p.adjust函数-回复"P.adjust function in R: A Comprehensive Guide"Introduction:R is a statistical programming language widely used by researchers and data scientists for data analysis and visualization. One of the key functions in R is the p.adjust function, which is used for adjusting p-values in multiple hypothesis testing scenarios. This article aims to provide a step-by-step guide on how to use the p.adjust function in R, explaining its significance and various adjustment methods available.What is p.adjust function?The p.adjust function in R helps correct for multiple hypothesis testing by adjusting the p-values obtained from statistical tests. In a typical scenario, when several hypothesis tests are conducted simultaneously, the probability of obtaining a false positive result increases. Therefore, adjusting the p-values is essential to control the overall false discovery rate (FDR) or family-wise error rate (FWER). The p.adjust function automates this adjustment process, saving time and effort for the user.Step 1: Understanding p-valuesBefore diving into the p.adjust function, it is essential to understand the concept of p-values. A p-value represents the probability of obtaining the observed data (or more extreme) if the null hypothesis is true. The lower the p-value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis. In multiple testing scenarios, p-values need to be adjusted to account for the inflation of false positives.Step 2: Basic usage of p.adjust functionThe basic syntax of the p.adjust function in R is as follows:p.adjust(p, method = "BY")Here, 'p' denotes the vector of p-values obtained from multiple hypothesis tests, and 'method' specifies the adjustment method to be applied. The default adjustment method in R is the Benjamini-Hochberg (BH) method, known as the "BY" method, which controls the false discovery rate. Other available methods include "holm", "hochberg", "hommel", "bonferroni", "BH", "BY", "fdr", and "none".Step 3: Adjustment methods and their implicationsAs mentioned earlier, different adjustment methods are available in R's p.adjust function. These methods have varying control properties and are suited for different scenarios. A brief overview of some commonly used methods is as follows:- Holm method: This method is a step-down procedure that provides strong control over the family-wise error rate (FWER). It is suitable when dependent tests or strong control over FWER are required.- Hochberg method: Similar to the Holm method, the Hochberg method also offers strong control over FWER. However, it is slightly more powerful and often preferred when dealing with independent tests.- Bonferroni method: The Bonferroni method is a conservative approach that controls the FWER by dividing the significance level by the number of tests. This method is useful when precision is crucial, but it may become overly conservative for a large number of comparisons.- Benjamini-Hochberg (BH) method: The BH method controls thefalse discovery rate (FDR), which is usually less stringent than the FWER. It is widely used for exploratory analysis and can be used when the FDR control is desirable.Step 4: Examples and practical considerationsTo better understand the application of the p.adjust function, let's consider an example. Suppose we have conducted 20 independent hypothesis tests and obtained a vector of raw p-values. We can use the p.adjust function to adjust these p-values using the desired method. For instance, to use the BH method, we can write:adjusted_p <- p.adjust(raw_p, method = "BH")Once adjusted, the vector 'adjusted_p' will contain the adjusted p-values corresponding to each hypothesis test. These adjusted p-values can be used for further analysis or comparison while controlling for the desired error rate.It is important to note that appropriate adjustment method selection depends on the nature of the data and research goals. Considering the trade-off between statistical power and controlover errors is crucial. Additionally, it is recommended to explore sensitivity analyses and adjust methods accordingly.Conclusion:The p.adjust function in R is a powerful tool for adjusting p-values in multiple hypothesis testing scenarios. By controlling for the overall false discovery rate or family-wise error rate, it ensures more robust and reliable statistical inferences. This comprehensive guide discussed the significance of the p.adjust function, its usage, available adjustment methods, and practical considerations. By following these steps, R users can effectively utilize the p.adjust function for their data analysis needs.。
hypothesis testing assumptions -回复
hypothesis testing assumptions -回复[hypothesis testing assumptions] refers to the underlying assumptions that are made when conducting hypothesis tests. These assumptions help to ensure the validity and reliability of the test results. In this article, we will explore the key assumptions involved in hypothesis testing and their significance in statistical analysis.1. Random Sampling: The first assumption in hypothesis testing is that the sample data should be obtained through a random sampling process. This means that every individual in the population should have an equal chance of being included in the sample. Random sampling helps to minimize bias and increase the generalizability of the results to the population.2. Independence: The second assumption is that the data points in the sample should be independent of each other. Independence means that the outcome of one observation does not influence the outcome of another observation. This assumption is crucial because violations of independence can lead to biased and inaccurate results. To ensure independence, researchers often use techniques such as simple random sampling without replacement.3. Normality: The third assumption pertains to the distribution of the variable being studied. It assumes that the population from which the sample is drawn follows a normal distribution. Normality is important because many statistical tests, such as t-tests and ANOVA, rely on this assumption. Violations of normality can affect the accuracy and validity of these tests. To assess normality, researchers often use graphical methods like histograms or statistical tests like the Shapiro-Wilk test.4. Homogeneity of Variance: The fourth assumption is related to the variability in the samples being compared. It assumes that the variance of the dependent variable is equal across different groups or conditions being compared. This assumption is particularly important in ANOVA, which assumes equal variances among groups. Violations of homogeneity of variance can lead to inflated Type I error rates and compromise the validity of the test. Researchers often use tests like Levene's test or Bartlett's test to assess the homogeneity of variance.5. Independence of Errors: The fifth assumption is that the errors or residuals in the model should be independent of each other. Inregression analysis, for example, this assumption implies that the errors are not correlated with each other. Violations of independence of errors can lead to biased coefficient estimates and incorrect standard errors. To check for independence of errors, researchers often look for patterns in residual plots or use statistical tests like the Durbin-Watson test.6. Linearity: The final assumption is that there is a linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables. This assumption is crucial in regression analysis and ANOVA. Violations of linearity can lead to biased coefficient estimates and incorrect inferences. Researchers often use graphical methods like scatterplots or statistical tests like the rainbow test to check for linearity.In conclusion, understanding and adhering to the assumptions of hypothesis testing is essential for conducting accurate and reliable statistical analyses. Random sampling, independence, normality, homogeneity of variance, independence of errors, and linearity are all vital assumptions that need to be met to ensure the validity of the test results. Violations of these assumptions can lead to biasedand inaccurate conclusions. Therefore, it is important for researchers to carefully assess and evaluate the assumptions before drawing any inferences from their data.。
什么是假设Hypothesis
HypothesisFor other uses, see Hypothesis (disambiguation)."Hypothetical" redirects here. For the 2001 progressive metal album, see Hypothetical (album).Andreas Cellarius hypothesis, demonstrating the planetary motions in eccentric and epicyclical orbitsA hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For ahypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific methodrequires that onecan test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally acceptedhypothesis proposed for further research.[1]A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denotethe antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes thehypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a(possibly counterfactual) What If question.The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "beingassumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".Contents[hide]∙ 1 Uses∙ 2 Scientific hypothesis∙ 3 Working hypothesis∙ 4 Hypotheses, concepts and measuremento 4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing∙ 5 See also∙ 6 References ∙7 External linkshypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" —and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an "educated guess"[7][8] because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect.[9] Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.According to Schick and Vaughn,[10] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived."[16]Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory"[17]Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician."[18] It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually."[18]Statistical hypothesis testing[edit]Main article: Statistical hypothesis testingWhen a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis thatstates that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can betwo-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).[19]Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, must be determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already known, the test is invalid.[20]The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants (unitsor sample size) that is included in the study. For instance, the sample size may be too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is recommended to specify the sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests which are used to test the hypotheses.[21]5. Jump up^ "Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Romolo", EncyclopædiaBritannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ...all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive scientific demonstration.' This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).Cambridge University Press.hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis, a hypothesis suggested or supported in some measure by features of observed facts, from which consequences may be deduced which can be tested by experiment and special observations, and which it is proposed to subject to an extended course of such investigation, with the hope that, even should the hypothesis thus be overthrown, such research may lead to a tenable theory.。
Learning from Multiple Sources of Inaccurate Data
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G. Baliga, S. Jain AND A. Sharma
by Sch¨ afer-Richter [23], Fulk and Jain [11], Osherson, Stob and Weinstein [17], Jain [14, 15]. Each of these studies, however, also makes the assumption that the data available to the learner is from a single source. The present paper argues that in realistic learning situations, data available to a learner is from multiple sources, some of which may be inaccurate . We discuss these issues in the context of a specific learning scenario, namely, scientific inquiry modeled as identification of programs from graphs of computable functions. Although we present our results in the context of this particular learning task, we note that some of our arguments and techniques can be applied to other learning situations, too. Consider a scientist S investigating a real world phenomenon F . S performs experiments on F , noting the result of each experiment, while simultaneously conjecturing a succession of candidate explanations for F . A criterion of success is for S to eventually conjecture an explanation which S never gives up and which correctly explains F . Since we never measure a continuum of possibilities, we could treat S as performing discrete experiments x on F and receiving back experimental results f (x). By using a suitable G¨ odel numbering we may treat f associated with F as a function from N , the set of natural numbers, into N . Also, assuming a suitable neo-mechanistic viewpoint about the universe, f is computable. A complete and predictive explanation of F , then, is just a computer program for computing f . Thus, algorithmic identification in the limit of programs for computable functions from their graph yields a plausible model for scientific inquiry. Let us consider some common practices in scientific inquiry. Data is usually collected using different instruments, possibly at different places (for example, astronomers use data from different telescopes situated at different locations). In many cases, experimental errors may creep in or the instruments may simply be faulty. In some extreme cases, the same instrument may record conflicting readings at different times. Also, occasionally it may be infeasible to perform experiments (for example, determining the taste of cyanide). Moreover, experimental findings of one scientist are generally available to others. All this tends to suggest that often a scientist receives data from multiple sources, many of which are likely to be inaccurate. The present paper incorporates these observations in the standard learning model. We now proceed formally. Section 2 presents the notation; Section 3 presents the preliminary notions about identification in the limit and inaccurate data. Section 4 introduces the main subject of this paper, viz., learning in the presence of multiple sources of inaccurate data. In this section, we also discuss some of our results informally. Section 5 presents our results with proofs. 2. Notation. Recursion-theoretic concepts not explained below are treated in [22]. N denotes the set of natural numbers, {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, and N + denotes the set of positive integers, {1, 2, 3, . . .}. ∈, ⊆, and ⊂ denote, respectively, membership, containment, and proper containment for sets. We let e, i, j , k , l, m, n, r , s, t, u, v , w, x, y , and z , with or without decorations1 , range over N . We let a, b, c, with or without decorations, range over N ∪ {∗}. [m, n] denotes the set {x ∈ N | m ≤ x ≤ n}. We let S , with or without decorations, range over subsets of N and we let A, B, C, and D , with or without decorations, range over finite subsets of N . min(S ) and max(S ) respectively denote the minimum and maximum element in S (max(S ) is undefined if S contains infinitely
演漏市慢寨学校高考英语一轮复习 阅读理解 考点十八 科普研究类
漫滴州演漏市慢寨学校考点十八科普研究类A限时8分钟Could the device, smartphone or PC, which you're using affect the moral decisions you make when using it? To test it, researchers presented multiple dilemmas to a sample set of 1,010 people． The participants were assigned a device at random．One case of the questions participants were asked is the classic “trolley (有轨电车) problem”： A runaway trolley is headed towards five people tied up on a set of train tracks． You can do nothing, resulting in the deaths of five people, or push a man off a bridge, which will stop the trolley． The practical response is to kill one man to save five lives, which 33．5 percent of smartphone users chose, compared to 22．3 percent of PC users．“What we found in our study is that when people used a smartphone to view classic moral problems, they were more likely to make more unemotional, reasonable decisions when presented with a highly emotional dilemma，” Dr Albert BarqueDuran, the lead author of the study, told City University of London．“This could be due to the increased time pressure often present with smartphones and also the increased psychological distance which can occur when we use such devices compared to PCs．”As for why the researchers started this study, Dr Barque Duran noted, “Due to the fact that our social lives, work and even shopping take place online, it is important to think about how the contexts where we typically face moral decisions and are asked to engage in moral behavior have changed, and the impact this could have on the hundreds of millions of people who use such devices daily．” It's clear that we need more research on how our devices affect our moral decision-making because we're using screens at an everincreasing rate．1．Why did the author mention the trolley problem?A．To introduce a difficult problem to readers．B．To introduce the aim of carrying out the study．C．To show an example of the questions in the study．D．To show the difficulty in dealing with dilemmas．答案：C 推理判断题。
PValue - 用于判定拟合效果的重要指标
What is a P-value?I have found that many students are unsure about the interpretation of P-values and other concepts related to tests of significance. These ideas are used repeatedly in various applications so it is important that they be understood. I will explain the concepts in general terms first, then their application in the problem of assessing normality.We wish to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis using a dataset. The two hypotheses specify two statistical models for the process that produced the data. The alternative hypothesis is what we expect to be true if the null hypothesis is false. We cannot prove that the alternative hypothesis is true but we may be able to demonstrate that the alternative is much more plausible than the null hypothesis given the data. This demonstration is usually expressed in terms of a probability (a P-value) quantifying the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative.We ask whether the data appear to be consistent with the null hypothesis or whether it is unlikely that we would obtain data of this kind if the null hypothesis were true, assuming that at least one of the two hypotheses is true. We address this question by calculating the value of a test statistic, i.e., a particular real-valued function of the data. To decide whether the value of the test statistic is consistent with the null hypothesis, we need to know what sampling variability to expect in our test statistic if the null hypothesis is true. In other words, we need to know the null distribution, the distribution of the test statistic when the null hypothesis is true. In many applications, the test statistic is defined so that its null distribution is a “named” distribution for which tables are widely accessible; e.g., the standard normal distribution, the Binomial distribution with n = 100 and p = 1/2, the t distribution with 4 degrees of freedom, the chi-square distribution with 23 degrees of freedom, the F distribution with 2 and 20 degrees of freedom.Now, given the value of the test statistic (a number), and the null distribution of the test statistic (a theoretical distribution usually represented by a probability density), we want to see whether the test statistic is in the middle of the distribution (consistent with the null hypothesis) or out in a tail of the distribution (making the alternative hypothesis seem more plausible). Sometimes we will want to consider the right-hand tail, sometimes the left-hand tail, and sometimes both tails, depending on how the test statistic and alternative hypothesis are defined. Suppose that large positive values of the test statistic seem more plausible under the alternative hypothesis than under the null hypothesis. Then we want a measure of how far out our test statistic is in the right-hand tail of the null distribution. The P-value provides a measure of this distance. The P-value (in this situation) is the probability to the right of our test statistic calculated using the null distribution. The further out the test statistic is in the tail, the smaller the P-value, and the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative.The P-value can be interpreted in terms of a hypothetical repetition of the study. Suppose the null hypothesis is true and a new dataset is obtained independently of the first dataset but using the same sampling procedure. If the new dataset is used to calculate a new value of the test statistic (same formula but new data), what is the probability that the new value will be further out in the tail (assuming a one-tailed test) than the original value? This probability is the P-value.The P-value is often incorrectly interpreted as the probability that the null hypothesis is true. Try not to make this mistake. In a frequentist interpretation of probability, there is nothing random about whether the hypothesis is true, the randomness is in the process generating the data. One can interpret “the probability that the null hypothesis is true” using subjective probability, a measure of one’s belief that the null hypothesis is true. One canthen calculate this subjective probability by specifying a prior probability (subjective belief before looking at the data) that the null hypothesis is true, and then use the data and the model to update one’s subjective probability. This is called the Bayesian approach because Bayes’ Theorem is used to update subjective probabilities to reflect new information. When reporting a P-value to persons unfamiliar with statistics, it is often necessary to use descriptive language to indicate the strength of the evidence. I tend to use the following sort of language. Obviously the cut-offs are somewhat arbitrary and another person might use different language.P > 0.10No evidence against the null hypothesis. The data appear to beconsistent with the null hypothesis.0.05 < P < 0.10Weak evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative.0.01 < P < 0.05Moderate evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of thealternative.0.001 < P < 0.01Strong evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of thealternative.P < 0.001Very strong evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of thealternative.In using this kind of language, one should keep in mind the difference between statistical significance and practical significance. In a large study one may obtain a small P-value even though the magnitude of the effect being tested is too small to be of importance (see the discussion of power below). It is a good idea to support a P-value with a confidence interval for the parameter being tested.A P-value can also be reported more formally in terms of a fixed level α test. Here α is a number selected independently of the data, usually 0.05 or 0.01, more rarely 0.10. We reject the null hypothesis at level α if the P-value is smaller than α, otherwise we fail to reject the null hypothesis at level α. I am not fond of this kind of language because it suggests a more definite, clear-cut answer than is often available. There is essentially no difference between a P-value of 0.051 and 0.049. In some situations it may be necessaryto proceed with some course of action based on our belief in whether the null or alternative hypothesis is true. More often, it seems better to report the P-value as a measure of evidence.A fixed level α test can be calculated without first calculating a P-value. This is done by comparing the test statistic with a critical value of the null distribution corresponding to the level α. This is usually the easiest approach when doing hand calculations and using statistical tables, which provide percentiles for a relatively small set of probabilities. Most statistical software produces P-values which can be compared directly with α. There is no need to repeat the calculation by hand.Fixed level α tests are needed for discussing the power of a test, a useful concept when planning a study. Suppose we are comparing a new medical treatment with a standard treatment, the control. The null hypothesis is that of no treatment effect (no difference between treatment and control). The alternative hypothesis is that the treatment effect (mean difference of treatment minus control using some outcome variable) is positive. We want to have good chance of reporting a small P-value assuming the alternative hypothesisis true and the magnitude of the effect is large enough to be of practical importance. The power of a level α test is defined to be the probability that the null hypothesis will berejected at level α (i.e., the P-value will be less than α) assuming the alternative hypothesis is true. The power generally depends on the variability of the data (lower variance, higher power), the sample size (higher n, higher power), and the magnitude of the effect (larger effect, higher power).Assessing normality using the Ryan-Joiner test.Null hypothesis: the data {x 1, ..., x n } are a random sample of size n from a normal distribution.Alternative hypothesis: the data are a random sample from some other distribution.Test statistic: r = the correlation between the data and the normal scores.The normal scores are defined by the following graph.i{rank(x i Rationale: If the data are a sample from a normal distribution then the normal probability plot (plot of normal scores against the data) will be close to a straight line, and the correlation r will be close to 1. If the data are sampled from a non-normal distribution then the plot may show a marked deviation from a straight line, resulting in a smaller correlation r . Smaller values of r are therefore regarded as stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.Null distribution of r : I do not know whether this distribution has a name. We might call it the Ryan-Joiner distribution, corresponding to the name of the test. The density will be skewed to the left, with most of the probability close to 1, as in the picture below.P-value: The probability to the left of the observed correlation r calculated using the null distribution; i.e., the area under the density to the left of r. You do not need to know how to calculate this. Minitab does the calculation for you.Interpretation: If you want to use simple descriptive language, you can use the table above.The strength of evidence is described directly in terms of the P-value.r1。
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NAVK+ATION: Journal Printed in U.SA.
of The
Institute
ofNavigation
Vol. 45, No. 1, Spring 1998
Consider the generalized linear observation equation 61
where x”i is the maximum-likelihood vertical position estimate, and a$ is its associated vertical estimate error variance that results when the element corresponding to failure hypothesis Hi is removed from the observation equation (1). Note that for Ho, the full measurement set is applicable. Using equations (5) and (6), equation (4) can now be written as I”~z = f: P(HJ
z=cx+u
(1)
where x is the m x 1 vector of parameters to be estimated (including three position elements), z is the n x 1 (n > m) measurement vector, and C is the n X m observation matrix. The n x 1 vector u represents the unknown error in the measurement vector, which under fault-free conditions is normally distributed with zero mean and covariance V (n X n). In this paper, we consider the vertical component of position error exclusively (as it will generally have the smallest alert limit); the horizontal components may be treated in an identical manner. In this case, for an arbitrary estimate of vertical position (ii”), we define the vertical integrity risk as IJZ = P(lX” - ft,l > VALIZ) (2)
normally distributed, the conditional probability density functions on the righthand side of equation (5) are given by fq(ir,lHi, z) = N+liZ,, o?J -&exp[(“~~2] (6)
A Multiple Hypothesis Approach to Satellite Navigation Integrity
BORIS S. PERVAN, SAMUEL JOCK R. CHRISTIE
Received December 1997 Revised March 1998
INTRODUCTION
The management of measurement redundancy in satellite navigation systems has been a subject of great interest in recent years [l-31. This has been especially true for aircraft precision approach and landing navigation [4-71, where stringent integrity and continuity requirements have demanded the highest level of navigation system performance. Under Category III visibility conditions, it is necessary that the requirements for integrity risk (lOWsper approach) and continuity risk (2 x 10e6 for any 15 s of the approach) be satisfied with respect to a vertical alert limit of approximately 5 m and a time-toalarm of l-2 s [B-lo]. Compliance with the timeto-alarm specification in particular constrains the nature of fault management to a ‘snapshot’ approach, since the potential fault-detection benefits associated with post-failure noise averaging are precluded. In this context, a new position-domain methodology has been developed for failure mitigation in satellite navigation systems. The approach is based on the direct computation of integrity risk under the combined consideration of all single-element failure hypotheses and the nofailure hypothesis. (Integrity risk, in this regard, is defined as the likelihood that the position estimate error exceeds a prespecified alarm limit.) The new algorithm provides greater flexibility and generality than existing fault management approaches and, significantly, introduces a new capability for fault-tolerant estimation. This paper is organized as follows. First, the mathematical development of the generalized algorithms for fault-tolerant estimation and integrity monitoring is presented. This discussion is followed by a detailed application of the methodology to integrity monitoring for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) differential GPS architecture (for application to aircraft precision approach and landing navigation). The achievable vertical protection limits are analytically derived, and the resulting LAAS operational availability is quantified through simulation. These results are compared with the performance of the W monitor algorithm presently under consideration by RTCA, Inc. Finally, experimental data are presented from LAAS prototype flight trials performed in a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Beechcraft Ring Air at Moffett Federal Airfield in California.
P. PULLEN, and
Stanford University, Stanford, Califneral methodology has been developed for failure mitigation in satellite-based navigation systems. This new approach is founded on the direct evaluation of integrity risk under the unified conszdemtion of all single-element failure hypotheses and the no-failure hypothesis. It is applicable to fault-tolerant estimation and integrity monitoring. In particular, the algorithm has been investigated for application as an airborne element of the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) integrity monitoring architecture. In this system, GPS ranging measurements from multiple ground-based reference receivers are to be used to mitigate the effects of reference receiver failures. The multiple hypothesis algorithm has been evaluated through analysis and simulation and has been shown to provide the tightest realizable protection limits for LAAS. The operational performance of the new algorithm has been compared with that of the approach currently under consideration by RTCA Special Committee-159. The performance of the multiple hypothesis algorithm has been demonstrated using experimental data collected during a series of LAAS prototype flight tests in a Beechcraft King Air.