Summary FUZZY WORD MEANING ANALYSIS AND REPRESENTATION IN LINGUISTIC SEMANTICS. AN EMPIRICA

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语用模糊

1.Peter is bald. 2.Winston is keeping a book. 3.This is a chair.
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Disinction between fuzziness,ambiguity, generality, vagueness
Ambiguity refers to a linguistic phenomenon whereby an expression can be potentially understood in more than one way.
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论引入模糊语言的研究。利用模糊集合论所建构的语义分析模型对它们进行分析，以确定它们的语言边界的性状与样态。
伍铁平教授在他的《模糊语言学》中并没有专门为模糊性下定义，但是根据他的论述，特别是《模糊的正名》（伍铁平 1999：114—126）一节，我们可以把伍铁平教授所言模糊性的内核看作是边缘界限不分明。伍先生多次强调，即札德模糊集论衍生出来的“边缘界限不明的模糊”是唯一正统的模糊（fuzziness），他还批驳了诸多学者混淆模糊与概括、双关、歧义、随机等现象之间区别的观点。
eg: I have a dog. She sat on the chair.
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Fuzzy continuum is a vague notion between truth and falsity while taxonomic category is observed as vague associations derived form hyponymy.
eg: The forehead is part of the head. The forehead is part of the face.

Syntax,Morpholog...

Syntax, Morphology, and Semantics of EzafeParviz Parsafar, Ph.D.Yuba Community CollegeAbstractEzafe, whi ch literally means …annexation‟ or …addition‟ and is traditionally known as a “Genitive” marker1, is an indispensable element inside any noun phrase comprising a head modified by at least one non-clausal modifier and/or complement. That is, any study of Persian involving NPs in subject position or predicate position, whether followed by light verbs or thematic verbs, is bound to encounter ezafe in numerous example sentences. Therefore, the present paper, which is a slightly revised version of chapter one in Parsafar(1996), attempts to present a clear understanding of the syntax, morphology, and semantics of ezafe.Although ezafe has been stud ied by many scholars such as Mo‟in(1962)2, Homayunfarrokh (1960), Phillot (1919), Palmer (1971), Sami‟ian (1983), and Karimi and Brame(1986), its grammatical status is not yet quite transparent. Grammarians have regarded ezafe as a polysemous “word” carrying over ten different “meanings/functions”. The purpose of this paper is to unravel the myth and to show that ezafe is a dummy clitic-like morpheme which is semantically void while syntactically it functions as an “associative marker” which subordinates its [+N] host, on the left, to its following complements.If sound, such a conclusion will be reminiscent of Zwicky sand Pullum‟s (1983, 502) observation: “An important point about doing grammatical research on a well-known [or even a relatively well-understood] language is that there can still be surprises. Evidence, sometimes of a subtle and indirect kind, can be uncovered for analyses of a quite unexpected character.”It needs to be mentioned at the outset that the principal focus of this work is on the colloquial language, but there are also numerous references to and examples from the formal registers. In those cases where there is a syntactic or semantic difference between the colloquial and the formal versions of a given example, it will be discussed. Otherwise, the registers of the examples will not be brought up except for emphasis.Pivotal to my adoption of the colloquial language were two significant facts. First, there has been a predominant tendency in the works on Persian to examine basically the formal (or in some cases the literary) language. The disregard for the colloquial language appears to have a primarily stylistic bias which could be overcome through detailed studies of this register.Second, although the colloquial and the formal versions of Farsi are to a large extent identical both syntactically and semantically, there are certain lexical, functional, pragmatic, and even syntactic differences between them. For instance, there are lexical items such as /tu/ …in, inside, into‟, /bæqæl/ …beside‟, and /pæhlu/ …next to‟ which are exclusively employed in the colloquial language or have a greater range of applications here than in the formal versions. Thus, the colloquial focus of the present study will help demonstrate many such discrepa ncies3. ReferencesAdams, Valerie. 1973. An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation. London: Longman Group Limited.Aronoff, Mark. 1976. Word Formation in Generative Grammar. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph No.1. MIT.Bauer, Laurie. 1983. English Word Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bing, Janet Mueller. 1980. Linguistic Rhythm and Grammatical Structure in Afghan Persian. Linguistic Inquiry 11(3): 437-463.Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. Chicago: University of Chicago edition 1984. Chodzko, A. 1883. Grammaire De La Langue Persane. paris: Maisonneuve & CIE LibrairesÉditeurs.Chomsky,N. 1970. “Remarks on Nominalization” in Jacobs and Rosenbaum 1970. 184-221. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications.Homayunfarrokh, A. R. 1339 (1960). Dastur-e Jame‟-e Zæban-e Farsi. [ A Comprehensive Grammar of the Persian Language]. 2nd. ed. Tehran: Elmi.Horn, Laurence. (p.c.)Insler, Stanley. (p.c.)Jackendoff, R. 1977. X-bar Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph No. 2. MIT.Karimi, Simin. 1989. Aspects of Persian Syntax, Specificity, and the Theory of Grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Dissertation.Karimi, Simin, and Michael Brame. 1986. A Generalization Concerning the ezafe Construction in Persian. paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Conference of Linguistics, Canada.Klavans, Judith L. 1985. The Independence of Syntax and Phonology in Cliticization. language 61(1): 95-120.Lazard, Gilbert. 1957. Grammaire du Persian Contemporain. paris: Librairie C. Klincksiek. Lyons, Christopher. 1986. The Syntax of English Genetive C onstructions. Journal of Linguistics 22:123-143. Printed in Great Britain.Lyons, John. 1971. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Maling, Joan. 1983. Transitive Adjectives: A Case of Categorical Reanalysis. In Henry and Richards 1983, 253-289.Marantz,Alec. 1989. “Clitics and Phrase Structure” in Baltin and Kroch 1989, 99-116. Marchand, H. 1969. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation, 2nd ed. Munchen: Beck.Mo’in, M. 1340(1961). Mofrad-o Jam‟ [Singular and Plural]. Tehran: Ebn-e Sina Publications. Mo’in, M. 1341 (1962a). Esm-e Mæsdær, Hasel-e Mæsdær [verbal Nouns and Abstract Nouns[. Tehran: Ebn-e Sina.Mo’in, M. 1341(1962b). Ezafe [The Genitive Case]. Tehran: Ebn-e Sina Publications. Moyne, John Abel. 1970. The Structure of Verbal Constructions in Persian. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Dissertation.Moyne, John Abel, and Guy Carden. 1974. Subject Reduplication in Persian. Linguistic Inquiry 5(2): 205-249.Nye, Gertrude E. 1955. The Phonemes and Morphemes of Modern Persian: A Descriptive Study. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan dissertation.Palmer, A. 1971. The Ezafe Construction in Modern Standard Persian. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan dissertation.Parsafar, Parviz. 1990a. The Persian /ra/. Unpublished qualifying paper presented to the faculty, Department of Linguistics, Yale University, New Have, CT.Parsafar, Parviz. 1990b. The Morphology of Modern Persian Suffixes. Unpublished qualifying paper presented to the faculty, Department of Linguistics, Yale University, New Haven, CT. Parsafar, Parviz. 1996. Spatial Prepositions in Modern Persian. New Haven, CT: Yale University dissertation.Perlmutter, David M. 1980. Relational Grammar. in Moravcsik and Wirth, eds.,Syntax and Semantics 13: 195-227. Current Approaches to Syntax, Academic Press.Phillot, D.C. 1919. Higher Persian Grammar. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press.Quirk, R., Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.Radford, Andrew. 1981. Transformational Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radford, Andrew. 1988. Transformational Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Riemsdijk, H. C. Van. 1978. A Case Study in Syntactic Markedness: Thw Binding Nature of Prepositional Phrases. Dordecht, Holland: Foris Publications.Rubinchik, Yu. A. 1971. The Modern Persian Language. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House. Sami’ian, Vida. 1983. Structure of Phrasal Categories in Persian: an X-Bar Analysis. Los Angeles: UCLA dissertation.Scalise, S. 1984. generative Morphology. Dordrecht: Foris.Stowell, Timothy Angus. 1981. Origins of Phrase Structure. Massachusetts: MIT dissertation. Windfuhr, Gernot L. 1979. Persian Grammar. The Hague: Mouton P.Zwicky, Arnold M. 1976. On Clitics. Phonologica 1976. ed. by Wolfgang U. Dresser and Oskar E. Pfeiffer. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage Zur Sprachwissenschaft.Zwicky, Arnold M. 1977. On Clitics. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club. Zwicky, Arnold M. 1980. Stranded to. Ohio State University Working Papers in Linguistics 24:166-173.Zwicky, Arnold M. 1982. Stranded to and Phonological Phrasing in English. Linguistics 20:3-57. Zwicky, Arnold M. 1985. Clitics and Particles. Language 61(2): 283-305.Zwicky, Arnold M. and Geoffrey Pullum. 1983. Cliticization vs. Inflectio n: English n‟t. Language 59(3): 502-513.。

Low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability a unified view of data-driven

Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–3131/locate/fss Low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability:a uniﬁed view of data-driven interpretable fuzzy system modellingShang-Ming Zhou a,∗,John Q.Gan ba Centre for Computational Intelligence,School of Computing,De Montfort University,Leicester LE19BH,UKb Department of Computing and Electronic Systems,University of Essex,Colchester CO43SQ,UKReceived28September2007;received in revised form10May2008;accepted26May2008Available online20June2008AbstractThis paper aims at providing an in-depth overview of designing interpretable fuzzy inference models from data within a uniﬁed framework.The objective of complex system modelling is to develop reliable and understandable models for human being to get insights into complex real-world systems whoseﬁrst-principle models are unknown.Because system behaviour can be described naturally as a series of linguistic rules,data-driven fuzzy modelling becomes an attractive and widely used paradigm for this purpose. However,fuzzy models constructed from data by adaptive learning algorithms usually suffer from the loss of model interpretability. Model accuracy and interpretability are two conﬂicting objectives,so interpretation preservation during adaptation in data-driven fuzzy system modelling is a challenging task,which has received much attention in fuzzy system modelling community.In order to clearly discriminate the different roles of fuzzy sets,input variables,and other components in achieving an interpretable fuzzy model, a taxonomy of fuzzy model interpretability isﬁrst proposed in terms of low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability in this paper.The low-level interpretability of fuzzy models refers to fuzzy model interpretability achieved by optimizing the membership functions in terms of semantic criteria on fuzzy set level,while the high-level interpretability refers to fuzzy model interpretability obtained by dealing with the coverage,completeness,and consistency of the rules in terms of the criteria on fuzzy rule level. Some criteria for low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability are identiﬁed,respectively.Different data-driven fuzzy modelling techniques in the literature focusing on the interpretability issues are reviewed and discussed from the perspective of low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability.Furthermore,some open problems about interpretable fuzzy models are identiﬁed and some potential new research directions on fuzzy model interpretability are also suggested.Crown Copyright©2008Published by Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.Keywords:Data-driven fuzzy systems;Interpretable;Fuzzy models;Interpretability;Transparency;Criteria;Parsimony;Distinguishability;Low-level interpretability;High-level interpretability.1.IntroductionAs the main objective in system modelling,development of reliable and understandable models is crucial for human being to understand real-world systems or natural phenomena.Generally there are three different strategies for system modelling.Theﬁrst is white-box modelling,in which the parameters characterizing the systems have clear and interpretable physical meanings(one typical example is the Newton’s universal gravitation law).However,white-box∗Corresponding author.E-mail address:smzhou@(S.-M.Zhou).0165-0114/$-see front matter Crown Copyright©2008Published by Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.fss.2008.05.0163092S.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–3131modelling usually becomes impractical when complex systems are considered.The second strategy is black-box mod-elling without using prior knowledge,in which relationships between inputs and outputs are established fully based on observational data.Black-box modelling can simulate a real-world system reliably and precisely,but the model structure and parameters usually give no explicit explanation about the system behaviours.For example,in medical domains, although black-box models,such as bagged decision trees and neural networks,can achieve goodﬁt performance,the resulting decisions received much suspicion[1,186].The third strategy,grey-box modelling[41,96],can be referred to as an eclecticism between precision and interpretability,in which the prior knowledge about the system is considered and unknown parts of the system are identiﬁed by black-box modelling approaches.As one of the most successful tools to develop grey-box models[112],fuzzy modelling describes systems by establishing relationships between input and output variables in terms of a fuzzy logic-based descriptive language[114–116,191,193].Compared to black-box modelling,fuzzy modelling formulates the system knowledge with rules in a transparent way to interpretation and analysis(to a certain degree)so as to gain insights into the system being modelled.This has opened up a brand-new approach to modelling complex systems in system identiﬁcation and control,fault diagnosis, classiﬁcation and intelligent data analysis,etc.Fuzzy rules can be generated based on human expert knowledge or heuristics,which offers a good high-level semantic generalization capability.However,for complex systems,the interactions between system behaviours are very difﬁcult to be grasped so that the system model just based on expert knowledge may suffer from a loss of accuracy[68]and combinatorial rule explosion.On the other hand,due to the advanced development of modern information technology,the ever-increasing quantity of data is available from complex industrial and commercial processes(systems).In the past decade or so,data-driven fuzzy rule generation has been widely investigated and shown to be very pared to heuristic fuzzy rules,fuzzy rules generated from data are able to extract more speciﬁc knowledge for more complex systems.It is usually assumed that the interpretability of fuzzy models is automatically given just due to using linguistic rules. However,it is not true when adaptive learning techniques are used to optimize the fuzzy inference processes for complex systems.In accuracy-oriented adaptive learning processes,interpretation preservation during adaptation cannot always be guaranteed due to the conﬂicting objectives of accuracy and interpretation[8,24,28,67,68,86,121,132,160,180],so model interpretability is usually lost,which has been referred to as an incentive for Mamdani,the founder of fuzzy control,to recommend against the use of adaptation of fuzzy inference parameters[115].Particularly,because one of the important incentives of introducing fuzzy sets for modelling complex systems is that they can formulate the knowledge extracted from data or supplied by experts with a more transparent way to gain insights into the complex systems,it is often desirable and sometimes even essential to be able to interpret theﬁnal model structure.Rule base legibility is an important condition to take full advantage of fuzzy models.Hence,model interpretability improvement is regarded as one of the most important issues in data-driven fuzzy modelling[5,25,46,83,91,94,93,113,156,174,179,190]. However,global model accuracy and interpretability are two conﬂicting modelling objectives,as improving inter-pretability of fuzzy models generally degrades the global model performance of fuzzy models,and vice versa.Hence one challenging problem is how to construct a fuzzy model with not only good global performance but also good model interpretability,particularly in coping with high-dimensional input space,that is to say,how to achieve a fuzzy model with good performance trade-off between global model accuracy and model interpretability.An interpretable fuzzy model is expected to provide high numeric precision while incurring as little a loss of linguistic descriptive power as possible[5,45,83,139,190,198].It is noteworthy that as we address the interpretability issues in fuzzy modelling,transparency and interpretability issues in traditional statistical system modelling have already received much attention from the aspect of complexity reduction[33,55,73,75,97,164,177,178].The objective of complexity reduction-based statistical system modelling is to provide a trade-off between how well the modelﬁts the training data and model complexity.Model complexity depends on the number of independent and adjustable parameters,also called degrees of freedom,to be adapted during the learning process.Traditionally,the well-known complexity reduction techniques for achieving transparent and inter-pretable system models include input feature selection[196],orthogonal least square(OLS)[30],basis pursuit[29,31], sparse regression[170],support vector machines(SVM)[175,176],etc.More importantly,these complexity reduc-tion techniques possess strong potentials of improving fuzzy model interpretability when applied to fuzzy modelling.A natural question arises:what is the difference between the interpretability achieved by considering fuzzy systems’own idiosyncrasies and the one obtained by introducing the traditional complexity reduction techniques into fuzzy modelling?Guillaume has provided a good overview of interpretability-oriented fuzzy inference systems designed from data[67].However,the above question was not considered and addressed in[67].The purpose of this paper isS.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–31313093 not only to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art of data-driven interpretable fuzzy modelling techniques,but also to offer an overall view of this domain in a framework by syncretizing the traditional parsimonious statistical system modelling with interpretable fuzzy system modelling,so that one may form a systematic picture of theﬁeld,instead of focusing on speciﬁc parts,dealing with particular methods and techniques.To the best of our knowledge,this type of effort has not been reported yet in literature.As a matter of fact,in the traditional statistical modelling techniques,only the inﬂuences of input variables on system outputs are taken into account to construct transparent and interpretable system models.While in fuzzy system modelling,due to its own idiosyncrasies,additional inﬂuences on system outputs should also be taken into account to achieve a transparent and interpretable fuzzy model,such as the number of membership functions(MFs),coverage and distinguishability of MFs,normality of MFs.In order to clearly discriminate the different roles of fuzzy sets,input variables and other components in achieving a transparent fuzzy model,a framework is suggested in this paper to categorize fuzzy model interpretability into low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability,and the criteria are deﬁned for low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability,respectively.Low-level interpretability of fuzzy models is achieved on fuzzy set level by optimizing MFs in terms of the semantic criteria on MFs,whilst high-level interpretability is obtained on fuzzy rule level by conducting overall complexity reduction in terms of some criteria, such as a moderate number of variables and rules,completeness and consistency of rules.The complexity reduction techniques used in traditional system modelling,if exploited in fuzzy system modelling,can serve as fuzzy rule optimization in nature,which corresponds to aiming at the parsimony of the fuzzy rule base,one of the main high-level interpretability criteria of fuzzy systems.This clariﬁcation is helpful,as there are plentiful traditional system modelling methods on complexity reduction with great potentials of being used to induce compact rule base in fuzzy system modelling.This paper is organized as follows.Section2brieﬂy presents the currently used fuzzy rule structures.Various deﬁnitions of fuzzy model interpretability are given in Section3,followed by criteria for fuzzy model interpretability in Section4.Constructive techniques for fuzzy model interpretability are analysed and reviewed in Section5.Section 6addresses some open problems and potential new research topics on fuzzy model interpretability,followed by conclusions in Section7.2.Rule structures of fuzzy rule-based systemsBasically,in fuzzy modelling the relationships between input and output variables are established in terms of a descriptive language based on if–then rules:If antecedent proposition then consequent proposition(1) Depending on the consequent part there exist different rule structures with different capabilities of description and approximation for rule-based fuzzy modelling.Linguistic fuzzy model,also known as Mamdani type fuzzy model[114–116,193],is represented by linguistic rules with the following structure:Rule i:If x1is A i,1and···x n is A i,n then y is B i(i=1,...,L)(2) where Rule i denotes the i th rule,L is the number of rules in the rule base,x=(x1,...,x n)T and y are the input and output linguistic variables,respectively,A i,j and B i are the linguistic labels expressed as fuzzy sets with speciﬁc semantic meanings regarding the behaviours of the system being modelled.These fuzzy sets are characterized by MFs generated by expert knowledge or fully from data.An outstanding advantage of the linguistic fuzzy model lies in that it may offer a high semantic level with good interpretability and a good generalization capability.In order to enhance the representation power of a fuzzy system,Takagi and Sugeno proposed a fuzzy model(TS fuzzy model)that differs from the linguistic one by using the following different consequent structure[168]: Rule i:If x1is A i,1and···x n is A i,n theny i=a0i+a1i x1+···+a ni x n(i=1,...,L)(3) where x i are input variables and y i are local output variables that determines local linear input–output relations by means of the real-valued coefﬁcients a ji.The output of a fuzzy system with a knowledge base composed of L TS rules3094S.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–3131 is computed as the weighted average of the individual rule outputs y i,i=1,...,L:y=Li=1r i(x)y iLi=1r i(x)(4)with r i(x)=T j i,j(x j)being the matching degree between the antecedent part of the i th rule and the current system inputs x1,...,x n,where T is a t-norm and i,j(·)the MF of fuzzy set A i,j.Compared to a linguistic model,the rule consequent part in the TS model is an afﬁne linear function of input variables. As such,each rule can be considered as a local linear model that is fused together by means of aggregation to produce an overall output y.A special case of the afﬁne function with offset a0i=0(i=1,...,L)results in a homogeneous TS system.Another interesting special case is that the consequent is a constant,i.e.,y i=a0i,which is called0-order TS system.Actually the0-order TS model retains certain linguistic interpretability in the manner of a linguistic model while possessing the attractive properties of the TS system,particularly the automatic determination of model parameters from data[157].Some researchers have made efforts to modify the form of the consequent polynomials of TS models, which allows speciﬁc interpretation to the systems being modelled[7,18,54].However,either the Mamdani fuzzy rule in the form of(2)or the TS rule in the form of(3)shares the same fuzzy sets of each input variable with other rules,i.e.,the Mamdani rule(2)and the TS rule(3)are based on the global grid, which offers good linguistic readability[67].The disadvantage is that the fuzzy systems built based on(2)or(3)suffer from the curse of dimensionality in high-dimensional input space:the problem will increase exponentially in volume associated with adding extra dimensions to the input space.The curse of dimensionality is a signiﬁcant obstacle to solving machine learning problems that involve learning a“state-of-nature’’from aﬁnite number of data samples in a high-dimensional space.One efﬁcient way of evading this problem for fuzzy systems is to generate the input space via scatter-partition(prototype)rather than grid-partition.The Mamdani and TS fuzzy rules generated by scatter-partition have the following forms respectively:Rule i:If x is A i then y is B i(5) andRule i:If x is A i then y i=a0i+a1i x1+···+a ni x n(6) where x=t(x1,x2,...,x n)∈ n is an n-dimensional input vector and A i∈F( n)are the fuzzy sets deﬁned on n with multi-dimensional MFs.Very interestingly,the fuzzy systems consisting of multi-dimensional Mamdani rules(5) are totally equivalent to fuzzy graphs introduced by Zadeh[192,195].A fuzzy graph is build by a collection of fuzzy points corresponding to fuzzy rules,which represents a functional dependency f∗of Y on X:f∗=A1×B1+···+A n×B n(7) Some researchers have made efforts to construct fuzzy graphs from data[6,13].More details about how to generate the prototype-based fuzzy systems and their pros and cons will be reviewed in Section5.2.4)of this paper. Interestingly,different from the above rule structures Gegov proposed to use Boolean matrices and binary relations to express fuzzy models[62].For example,given the following fuzzy rule base:Rule1:If x1is Small and x2is Small then y is NegativeRule2:If x1is Small and x2is Big then y is PositiveRule3:If x1is Big and x2is Small then y is NegativeRule4:If x1is Big and x2is Big then y is ZeroIf Small=1,Big=2,Negative=1,Zero=2,Positive=3,then a Boolean relation and a binary relation that equivalently express the above fuzzy system individually are indicated in Table1and(8).{[and(11,1)]or[and(12,3)]or[and(21,1)]or[and(22,2)]}(8) Moreover,for the sake of inducing compact rule base a formal approach to manipulation of rule bases is suggested by performing operations on Boolean matrices and binary relations[62].Because Boolean transformations of rule baseS.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–31313095 Table1Boolean relation for a fuzzy systemInputs Outputs123 11100 12001 21100 22010can lead to more compact representations,Klose and Nurnberger presented an approach to building more expressive rules by performing Boolean transforming during and after learning from data[103].3.Deﬁnitions of fuzzy model interpretabilityAlthough interpretability issues in fuzzy system modelling and statistical system modelling have received much attention in recent years,there is no well-established deﬁnition about model interpretability.In this section,we review the existing efforts made by the researchers on addressing the connotations of model interpretability and propose a new framework for fuzzy model interpretability.3.1.Transparency and interpretabilityModel transparency is deﬁned as a property that enables us to understand and analyse the inﬂuence of each system parameter on the system output[22,74,156].In connection with transparency in fuzzy modelling,another symbiotic term is interpretability mentioned by Jang et al.[86],in which some basic ideas were discussed about how to constrain the optimization of the adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system(ANFIS)[87]to preserve the interpretability. In Riid’s opinion[142],transparency and interpretability do not match when used to characterize fuzzy systems. Interpretability is a property of fuzzy systems which exists by default,being established with linguistic rules and fuzzy sets associated with these rules.Transparency,on the other hand,is not a default property of fuzzy systems,but a measure of how valid or how reliable the linguistic interpretation of the system is.However,the meanings of these two concepts possess so much synonymity in describing system modelling.Particularly,in fuzzy modelling,it may not be reasonable to distinguish them,because the two terms had been used in parallel in traditional statistical system modelling[30,33,55,73,164,170],long before they were used in fuzzy system modelling[3,11,19,20,26].Transparency and interpretability share the same connotations according to the two deﬁnitions in practice.In this paper,the two terms are used in parallel with the same meaning in fuzzy modelling,unless otherwise stated.3.2.Formalized deﬁnitionsSome researchers have tried to give formalized deﬁnitions for interpretability or transparency of fuzzy models.Deﬁnition1(Bodenhofer and Bauer[19,20]).Consider a linguistic variable V=(N,T,X,G,S)and an index set I, where N is the name of the linguistic variable V,G is a grammar,T is the so-called term set,i.e.,the set of linguistic expressions resulting from G,X is the universe of discourse,and S is a T→F(X)mapping which deﬁnes the semantics, i.e.,a fuzzy set on X,of each linguistic expression in T.Let RE=(RE i)i∈I be a family of relations on the set of verbal values T,where each relation RE i has aﬁnite entry a i.Assume that,for every relation RE i,there exists a relation Q i on the fuzzy power set F(X)with the same entry.1Let Q represent the family(Q i)i∈I.Then the linguistic variable V is called R-Q-interpretable if and only if the following holds for all i∈I and all x1,...,x a i∈T: RE i(x1,...,x a i)⇒Q i(s(x1),...,s(x a i))(9) where⇒represent an implication relation.1Qi is associated with the“semantic counterpart’’of RE i,i.e.,the relation that models RE i on the semantic level.3096S.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–3131Riid and Rustern gave a formalized deﬁnition for transparency of linguistic fuzzy model as follows.Deﬁnition2(Riid[142],Riid et al.[143]).The i th rule of the linguistic fuzzy system(2)is transparent if its activation degree satisﬁesr i(x)=T j i,j(x j)=1(10) and results in system output as y=y i,where y i is the centre of the output MF B i(y)associated with the activated rule. In such a way,to deﬁne the transparency of1-order TS fuzzy system(3)and(4)is much more complicated[142–144]. Riid et al.suggested that theﬁrst order TS fuzzy system is transparent if the global output y can be derived directly on the basis of its local output y i,and they proposed a measure for transparency evaluation,but this measure results in further problems[143],i.e.,the minimum transparency error is obtained for systems that are non-fuzzy,and there is no trivial way for preserving this transparency for theﬁrst order TS fuzzy system.Unlike the above two formalized deﬁnitions,Nauck suggested an index to measure the interpretability of fuzzy rule bases for classiﬁcation problems in terms of complexity,the degree of coverage of fuzzy partition over the domain,and a partition index that penalizes partitions with a high granularity[124].However,this deﬁnition only considers special circumstances of model construction for classiﬁcation instead of prediction.More importantly,it ignores many other aspects of interpretable fuzzy models,such as distinguishability,rule base simplicity,etc.In interpretable fuzzy modelling,it might be not feasible to give a formalized deﬁnition for transparency of fuzzy models in practice[28],because the interpretability of fuzzy models heavily depends on human’s prior knowledge [58,59,198].To decide whether a speciﬁc fuzzy model is interpretable or not is a highly subjective task and it is contro-versial sometimes[38,121].Some researchers have become aware of this matter and proposed some constraint criteria that fuzzy models should meet to assure good interpretability during model adaptation or optimization[45,67,135–139].3.3.A framework for fuzzy model interpretabilityIn order to clearly discriminate the different roles of fuzzy sets,input variables and other components in achieving an interpretable fuzzy model,we propose in this paper a taxonomy of fuzzy model interpretability:low-level interpretability and high-level interpretability.First let us review fuzzy models from the perspective of statistical system modelling.3.3.1.Review of fuzzy models from the perspective of traditional statistical system modellingAtﬁrst sight,fuzzy modelling algorithms for the purpose of improving interpretability may seem rather strange and hardly related to the existing methods of traditional statistical parsimonious system modelling techniques.Once a fuzzy model is cast into a more standard mathematical notation,we will observe its connections to the traditional statistical system modelling methods.In the following,we consider the TS fuzzy models.However,depending on the defuzziﬁcation method,the Mamdani models can also be expressed in the similar manner,i.e.,as linear-in-parameters models for regression problems.Eq.(4)can be rewritten in a slightly different form,y=Li=1p i(x)(a0i+a1i x1+···+a ni x n)(11)wherep i(x)=r i(x)Li=1r i(x)(12)is the normalizedﬁring strength of the i th rule.The great advantage of the fuzzy model is its representative power,that is,to describe a highly nonlinear system by using simple local models(rules).On the other hand,Eq.(11)can also be viewed as a linear-in-parameters model,y(x, )=Li=1w T i(x) i(13)S.-M.Zhou,J.Q.Gan/Fuzzy Sets and Systems159(2008)3091–31313097 where w i(x)=[p i(x),p i(x)x T]T∈R n+1and i=[a0i,a1i,...,a ni]T∈R n+1.If basis functions w i(x)areﬁxed, parameterization of(13)becomes linear with respect to parameters i.Given N input–output data sequences{x(k),y(k)}, k=1,...,N,(13)can be expressed in the matrix form,Y=W + (14) where Y=[y(1),y(2),...,y(N)]T∈R N,W=[w(1),w(2),...,w(L)]∈R N×(n+1)L,with w(i)=[w i(x(1)), w i(x(2)),...,w i(x(N))]T∈R N×(n+1),which is calledﬁring strength matrix with each column corresponding to one of the fuzzy rules, =[ 1, 2,..., L]T∈R(n+1)L,and represents model error.Thus,the linear-in-parameters model can be addressed further from the angle of statistical regression analysis.According to the taxonomy developed in[33]to categorize methods for estimating continuous-valued functions from noisy samples,(13)is a dictionary representation in nature,comparing to kernel representation in which a continuous-valued function estimator is expressed as a distance-weighted combinations of observed output values.The set of w i(x)is called a dictionary.The goal of a predictive learning system that employs(13)for function regression is to adjust the degrees of freedom in(13)based on training samples,in such a way,the approximation function provides minimum prediction risk.In case the transparency of the fuzzy model with(13)and(14)is considered,the problem is reduced to the automatic selection of the dictionary from observed data accounting for the interpretability of the rule base.Thereupon,many statistical regression techniques,such as regularization and sparse regression,can be used or extended to attack this problem.However,one fundamental problem is that as the number of predictors in the regression function increases the curse of dimensionality applies.On the other hand,when viewing regression model(13)as a function estimation problem,one attractive approach for ameliorating the curse of dimensionality is to model the regression function as an additive function of the predictors [164,177].This approach has been popularized by Hastie and Tibshirani[75],who emphasized the use of back-ﬁtting together with a one-dimensional smoother toﬁt the additive models to data as follows:f(x1,...,x n)=f0+ni=1f i(x i)(15)where f i are“smooth’’functions obtained by some smoothing processes,including the use of cubic smoothing splines. More general models for f,which allow the explicit modelling and visualization of possible interactions between variables,are expressed via functional analysis of variance decompositions,that is,the output can be represented by the ANalysis Of V Ariance(ANOV A)decomposition[177,178].An often used special ANOV A decomposition is expressed as follows:f(x)=f0+ni=1f i(x i)+ni=1nj=i+1f i,j(x i,x j)+···+f1,2,...,n(x)(16)where f0is a constant,f i are the x i main effects,f i,j are the effects from interactions between x i and x j,and so on.The regression function is thus represented as additive components by the subset of the terms from this expansion,which shows the attraction of decomposing the model into simpler and more transparent pieces that can be easily interpreted. Another statistical system modelling technique that can produce a parsimonious model structure is the method of orthogonal-least squares(OLS)[30]when applied to a linear-in-parameters model(14).The OLS method transforms the columns of the coefﬁcient matrix W into a set of orthogonal basis vectors.The Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization procedure is used to perform this decomposition,i.e.,W=UA,where U is an orthogonal matrix such that U T U=I(I is the unity matrix)and A is an upper-triangular matrix with unity diagonal elements.Substituting W=UA into(14), we haveY=U A + =U z+ (17) where z=A .Let u i be the i th column of U,so the OLS solution of the system isˆz i=u T i Yu i u i(i=1,...,L)(18)。

UnitFourteen

U n i t F o u r t e e nI n v e s t m e n t&P r o f i t sUnit Objectives (单元目标)After reading this unit, you shouldunderstand the nature and functions of fuzzy expressions.find ways to improve your interpreting skills and performance.master the basic words and expressions about investment and profits.know some cultural background knowledge about investment and profits.PreparingI. Interpreting Skills (口译技能)Read the following presentation about fuzzy interpretation and try tounderstand the nature and functions of fuzzy expressions. Thencomplete the following task:You are going to hear a speech followed by an interpreter’s interpretation.Compare the interpretation with the original text and give your comments onthe interpreter’s performance.Fuzzy Interpretation I（模糊表达I）Fuzziness: a Nature of Human LanguageFuzziness refers to the indeterminacy involved in the analysis of a linguistic unit or pattern. An expression is fuzzy when it can be contrasted with another expression which appears to render the same proposition or when its meaning arises from the intrinsic uncertainty.Fuzziness is a nature of human languages and fuzzy expressions form a significant part of the language. Fuzzy expressions frequently appear in people’s conversations. People sometimes intentionally use fuzzy expressions in their communications. For instance, when interlocutors are not able to decide the exact number, they may resort to round numbers or vague quantifiers, like “no later than”in “The goods should be shipped no later than April 12, 1999.” In fact, most of the expressions people use in their daily conversations have a fuzzy referential boundary. Human languages are full of fuzzy expressions.Fuzziness: a Communication FacilitatorFuzzy expressions form a significant part of the la nguage and facilitate people’s communication. They help speakers give the right amount of information, withhold certain information, use language persuasively and mildly, fill in lexical gaps, and protect the speakers. Fuzzy expressions enjoy a wider extension in meaning. They carry more information and they promote the efficiency of communication. It is proposed that fuzzy language sometimes functions as a communication facilitator.1. Give the right amount of informationOne possible use of fuzziness is to tailor an utterance so that the right amount of information is given. Speakers appear to tailor their contributions in particular ways. Fuzzy expressions are devices, which speakers use to tailor their contributions so that they give the right amount information for the purpose of the conversation. For example, when listing a series of things, people resort to fuzzy expressions like “things like that” and “many others” and avoid taking troubles to list all the items. For example, “She bought tomatoes, po tatoes, bean, and things like that.”and “Leaders of USA, UK, China, Japan and many others spoke in the conference”.2. Withhold certain informationAnother use of fuzziness is to withhold information, which in some sense might be expected by their hearers in a given situation. A specific setting where speakers may withhold information is wherethey feel that they can be milder or more persuasive by doing so. For example, by saying “she is about 29” or “she is in her twenties”, the speaker appears to be withholding the exact age, but it can be more flexible and milder, because women do not like to be said to be over thirty.3. Explain the new conceptsSpeakers sometimes make use of fuzziness to convey meaning in situations where they do not have at their disposal the necessary words or phrases for the concepts they wish to express. For example, when an interpreter comes across “衣着邋遢” (slovenly dressed) and the word “slovenly” is not at his disposal, he may resort to its synonym “carelessly”.4. Fill in lexical gapsFuzzy expressions can also be used to fill in the lexical gaps in communications. When people talk and occasionally forget the right expression of a word or an idea, fuzzy expressions help make the conversation flow continuously. For example, “Jack has gone out with… you know, the girl with the curly blond hair.” and “Her dress was trimmed with feathers of … the large African bird.” The speaker forgot the girl’s name and the word “ostrich”, and he resorted to the fuzzy expressions, “the girl with the curly blond hair” and “the large African bird”.5. Protect the speakersIn addition, speakers who lack specific knowledge use fuzzy language. Speakers use fuzzy expressions when there is uncertainty about what they want to say. Following are two examples: (1) “ I can’t remember what the figures are but it is something around the 20% mark and it’s never changed.”(2)“ The records, though far from complete, showed that about 61 people died on the block.”Interpreting: an Approximation ProcessThe criteria for interpreting have always been argued home and abroad. Professional interpreters generally follow the three-character criteria, i.e. accuracy, smoothness and timeliness. But only a few can really meet these three requirements at the same time. In fact, there is no automatic equivalence between words in the source and target languages, and apparently similar structures may have different uses and different connotations. Hence “interpretation is an approximation process at best”.Interpretation is in fact a process that interpreters seek an approximation of the source text (ST). After being interpreted, either the forms or the contents or the style of ST will be impaired. This can be proved by the fact that more than one interpreted version can always be found for the same ST. There can be different interpretations of the same text by different interpreters. The same interpreter also gives different interpretations of the same text at different moments. For example, “厦门环境优美，气候宜人”can be interpreted into either “Xiamen is a beautiful city with a delightful climate.”or “Xiamen enjoys a beautiful environment and an agreeable climate.”II. Phrase Interpreting (短语口译)Work on the following words and phrases. Interpret them into Chineseand English respectively.A. English to Chinese1. promote commerce2. promote level of profitableness3. optional capital4. direct foreign investment and otherinvestment5. international leasing6. compensation trade7. international consortiums 8. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)9. foreign investment destination 10. the influx of foreign investmentB. Chinese to English1. 吸引外资2. 国内投资3. 国内资产4. 联合投资5. 共同资本6. 海外投资7. 对外资的利用和管制8. 投资环境9. 小康10.反倾销III. Sentence Interpreting （句子口译）Work on the following sentences. Interpret them into Chinese andEnglish respectively.A. English to Chinese1. By the end of 1999, total investment projects from Taiwan reached 44 thousand, the contractamount is 44.67 billion and the actual investment amounts to 24 billion. This number accounts for7.8 percent of the total foreign investments in China.2. Our company has standard production premises complete with full lines of equipment. Having astrong team of technicians with rich experience, the company makes products of top quality.3. The government will speed the setting up and staffing of more intermediary agencies that providebetter service to overseas investors.4. Since 1994, the amount of foreign investment China has attracted has ranked second in the worldtrailing the U.S.A., making China the only country that lures the most direct foreign investment among the developing economies.5. Our purposes are to promote cooperation and development by means of information sharing, andto promote mutual prosperity by means of joint development.B. Chinese to English1. 我公司全年承揽项目19个，涉及金额11.5亿人民币，新签项目16.9亿人民币。

语言学专业词汇中英文对照版

语言学术语（英-汉对照）表Aabbreviation缩写词，略语ablative夺格，离格accent重音（符）accusative宾格achievement test成绩测试acquisition习得acronym缩略语action process动作过程actor动作者address form称呼形式addressee受话人addresser发话人adjective形容词adjunct修饰成分附加语adverb副词affix词缀affixation词缀附加法affricate塞擦音agreement一致关系airstream气流alliteration头韵allomorph词/语素变体allophone音位变体allophonic variation音位变体allophony音位变体现象alveolar ridge齿龈alveolar齿龈音ambiguity歧义analogical creation类推造字anapest抑抑扬格anaphor前指替代anaphoric reference前指照应animate有生命的annotation注解antecedent先行词前在词anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学anticipatorycoarticulation逆化协同发音antonomasia换称代类名antonym反义词antonymy反义(关系)appellative称谓性applied linguistics应用语言学appliedsociolinguistics应用社会语言学appropriacy适宜性appropriateness适宜性得体性approximant无摩擦延续音aptitude test素质测试Arabic阿拉伯语arbitrariness任意性argument中项中词主目article冠词articulation发音articulator发音器官artificial speech人工言语aspect体aspirated吐气送气assimilation同化associative联想associative meaning联想意义assonance准压韵半谐音attributive属性修饰语定语authentic input真实投入authorial style权威风格authoring program编程autonomy自主性auxiliary助词auxiliary verb助动词Bbabbling stage婴儿语阶段back-formation逆构词法behavioural process行为过程behaviourism行为主义bilabial双唇音bilabial nasal双唇鼻音bilateral opposition双边对立bilingualism双语现象binary division二分法binary feature二分特征binary taxonomy二分分类学binding制约binding theory制约论blade舌叶舌面前部blank verse无韵诗blending混成法borrowing借用借词bound morpheme粘着语素bounding theory管辖论bracketing括号法brevity maxim简洁准则bridging架接broad transcription宽式音标broadening词义扩大Brown corpus布朗语料库Ccalculability可计算性calque仿造词语cancellability可删除cardinal numeral 基数cardinal vowel基本元音case格交际性句子模式交际-语法教学法关系机辅助学习算机辅助教学机辅助语言学习conative意动的concept概念conceptual meaning概念意义concord一致（关系）concordance共现关系concrete noun具体名词concurrent同时发生的conjugation词形变化conjunct连接副词conjunction连接词conjunction buttressing连接词支撑connotation内涵consequent跟随成分consonance辅音韵consonant辅音constant opposition不变对立constative表述的constituent proposition成分命题constituentstructureanalysis成分结构分析constituent成分construct编制construct validity编制效度construction构建constructivism构建主义content analysis内容分析content validity内容效度content word实义词context dependent语境依赖的context of situation情景语境context语境contextual analyses语境分析contextual meaning语境意义contrastive analysis对比分析control theory控制理论controlled language有控制的语言convention常规规约conventionalmeaning常规意义规约意义conventionality常规性规约性conversational implicature会话含义conversational maxim会话准则converseantonymy相反反义现象conversion变换cooperative principle, CP合作原则coordinate construction并列结构coordination并列coreferential互参的coronal舌面前音corpus data语料库语料corpus (plcorpora)语料素材corpus linguistics语料库语言学context上下文countable可数（名词）counterfactualproposition反事实命题couplet对句对联creativity创造性性Creole克里澳尔语混和语交际cross-linguistic跨语言的culturally-specific文化特异的curriculum教学大纲customizing定制的Ddactyl扬抑抑格Dani language达尼语data retrieval, DR资料检索database数据库dative (case)与格dative movement与格移动declarative陈述句decoding解码deductive演绎的deep structure深层结构defeasibility消除可行性definite有定的degenerate data无用的语料deixis指称delicacy精密阶denotation外延指称dental齿音dentalization齿音化derivation衍生derivational affix衍生词汇derivational morphology派生形态学descriptive adequacy描写充分性descriptive linguistics描写语言学design feature 结构特征determiner限定词developing grammar发展语法deviant变体deviation 偏离变异devoicing清音化diachronic linguistics历时语言学diachronic历时的diacritic附加符号变音符diagnostic test诊断性测试dialect方言dialectology方言学digitized sound数字化语音dimetre二音步诗行diphthong二合元音双元音direct object直接宾语direct speech, DS直接言语direct thought, DT直接思想directionality方向性discourse语篇话语discourse analysis语篇分析话语分析discourse interpretation语篇理解discrete分离的离散的discrete-point grammar离散语法discrete point test分立性测试disjunction分离关系displacement移位dissimilation异化（作用）distinctive feature区别性特征distinguisher辩义成分do-insertion rule do添加规则domain范围领域dorsal舌背音舌中音dorsum舌背（音）drill-and-practice software操练软件D-structureD结构dual双数dualistic view二分观点duality二重性Eearly Modern English早期现代英语economy经济性简洁性ejective爆发音electronic mail电子邮件ElizabethanEnglish伊利莎白时期英语ellipsis省略（法）elliptical sentence structure省略句子结构embedded element嵌入成分emic位学的emotive感情的empirical经验主义的empirical data经验主义的语料empirical validity经验效度empiricism经验主义empty category, EC空范畴enabling skills使成技能化encoding编码end rhyme末端韵endocentric construction内向结构entailment蕴涵entry condition入列条件epenthesis插音增音equipollent opposition均等对立equivalence相等equivalence reliability相等信度error analysis错误分析EST科技英语ethnicity identity民族认同etic非位的素的event process事件过程基于例句的机器翻译exchange error交换错误exchange sequence交际序列exchange structure交际结构exhaustive穷尽的彻底的existent存在物existential存在句existential process存在过程existential quantifier存在数量词exocentric外向的exocentric construction外向结构experiential经验的experiential function经验功能experimentalpsycholinguistics实验心理语言学explanatory adequacy解释充分性explicitgrammarinstruction,EGI明显的语法教学法expressionminimization表达最底程度expressive表达的extendedstandardtheory,EST扩展标准理论extensive引申的扩展的extent-conditionformat程度条件格式external evaluation外部评估external qualifier外部修饰语extrinsic sources of error外在的错误来源eye movement眼部移动Fface validity卷面效度facilitation便利促进Fasoldfeasibility可行性feature特征feedback反馈felicitycondition适宜性条件恰当条件femine阴性fiction小说figurativelanguage比喻性语言象征性语言figures of speech修辞手段修辞格finite element有定成分finite有定的有限的finitestategrammar有限状态语法first-personnarrator第一人称叙述者Firthian phonology弗斯音系学flap闪音flexibility灵活性变通性floppy disk软盘focus焦点中心folk etymology俗词源学民间词源foregrounded features突出特征foregrounding突出前景话foreignlanguageteaching外语教学form形式formal difference形式差异formalization形式化formation形成formative构形成分构词成分free form自由形式freeindirectspeech,FIS自由间接言语free indirect thought, FIT自由间接思想free morpheme自由语素freerootmorpheme自由词根语素free variant自由变体free verse自由韵文French法语frequency effect频率效应fricative（摩）擦音friction摩擦front舌面前舌前的fully automatic high quality translation,FAHQT全自动高质量翻译function word功能词function功能functional grammar功能语法functional linguistics功能语言学functionalsentenceperspective,FSP功能句子观functions of language语言功能fusion溶合fuzzy模糊的Ggender difference性别差异general linguistics普通语言学generalisation概括generative grammar生成语法generative semantics生成语言学genitive属格所有格genre体裁语类German德语given (information)已给信息global task整体任务glottal喉音glottal stop喉塞音goal目标government theory支配理论government支配grammatical analysis语法分析grammatical function;;grammatical structure语法结构gradableantonymy分等级的反义关系gradual opposition渐次对立grammatical category语法范畴grammatical concept语法概念grammatical description语法描写grammatical form语法形式grammatical marker语法标记grammatical meaning语法意义grammaticalorganization语法组成grammatical pattern语法类型grammatical process语法过程grammatical rule语法规则grammaticalsentencepattern,GSP语法句形grammaticalstructure语法结构grammatical subject语法主语grammatical system语法系统grammatical word语法词graphitic form文字形式Gricean maximGrice准则group词组guttural腭音Hhalf-rhyme半韵hard palate硬腭head中心词中心成分headed construction中心结构heptameter七音步诗行hierarchical structure等级结构hierarchical system等级系统hierarchy等级体系high高（元音）historical linguistics历史语言学holophrastic stage单词句阶段homonym同音/形异议词Hopi语horizontal relation链状关系Horn scale霍恩阶humancognitivesystem人类认知系统human language人类语言human speech人类言语human translation人译hypercorrection矫枉过正hyponym下义词hyponymy下义关系hypothesis假设hypothesis-deduction假设-演绎Iiamb抑扬格iambicpentameter抑扬格五音步诗行IC analysis直接成分分析法ICALL(intelligentCALL)智能计算机辅助语言学习ideational(function)概念功能identifying认同的idiom成语习语idiomatically-governed习语支配的ill-formedsentences不合适的句子illocutionaryact话中行为施为性行为illocutionaryforce言外作用施为作用imaginative (function)想象功能immediacy assumption即时假定immediateconstituentanalysis直接成分分析法imperative rule祈使规则imperative祈使语气命令的implicate意含implication蕴涵含义implication connective蕴涵连接implicature含义言外之意implied meaning蕴涵意义implosive内破裂音内爆音inanimate无生命的inclusiveness relation内包意义indefinite不定的，无定的indicative陈述式陈述语气indirect object间接宾语indirct speech, IS间接言语indirect thought, IT间接思想Indo-Europeanlanguages印欧语言infinitive不定式infix中缀inflection屈折（变化）inflectional affix屈折词缀inflectionalmorphology屈折形态学inflective endings屈折结尾information retrieval信息检索information structure信息结构informative(function)信息功能innateness先天性innatenesshypothesis（语法）天赋假设input输入input hypothesis语言输入说instrumental(function)工具功能integrative test综合性测试intensifier强调成分intensive强调的增强的interactional(function)交互功能interpretation解释interrogative sentence疑问句intonation语调intra-linguistic relation语言内关系intransitive不及物的intrinsicsourcesoferror错误的内源invariable word不变词invention新创词语inversion倒置，倒装IPA chart国际音标图IPS symbol国际音标符号irony讽刺反话isolated opposition孤立对立Italian意大利语JJapanese日语jargon黑话行语Jesperson, OttoJohnson & JohnsonJohnsonJones, DanielKkernel sentence核心句keyword关键词knowledge知识known information已知信息KrashenKruszewski, MikolajKuno, SusumoLlabel标示标记labial唇音labiodental唇齿音language语言languageacquisitiondevice,LAD语言习得机制language attitude语言态度language choice语言选择language learning语言学习language maintenance语言维护language processing语言处理language structure语言结构language system语言系统languageteaching语言教学language universal语言普遍性language use语言使用langue语言（系统）larynx喉头lateral边音旁流音Latin拉丁语Latin grammar拉丁语法lax vowel松元音length长度音长letter字母level层，级，平面Levinson, Stephenlexeme词位词素lexical ambiguity词汇歧义lexical change词汇变化lexical level词汇层lexical meaning词汇意义lexical morphology词汇形态学lexical studies词汇研究lexical word词汇词lexicogrammar词汇语法lexicon词汇词典lexis词liaison连音连续limerick打油诗line诗行linear phonology线性音系学linear structure线形结构linguistic university语言普遍性linguistic behaviour语言行为linguisticbehaviourpotential语言行为潜势linguistic data语言素材linguistic description语言描写linguisticdeterminism语言决定论linguistic facts语言事实linguistic relativity语言相对性linguistic sexism语言性别歧视linguistic structure语言结构linguistic theory语言理论linguistic unit语言单位linguisticuniversal语言普遍性linguistic variation语言变异linguistics语言学lip rounding圆唇化literal language本义语言logicalformrepresentation逻辑式表达logical formula逻辑公式logical function逻辑功能logical semantics逻辑语义学logical structure逻辑结构logical subject逻辑主语logophoricity词照应London School伦敦学派long vowed长元音loss of sound语音脱落loudness响度Mmacrolinguistics宏观语言学macroposition宏观命题macrostructure宏观结构main clause主句Malinowski, Bronislawman-machine symbiosis人机共生manner maxim方式准则manner of articulation发音方式marked标记的masculine阳性matalinguistic元语言学的material (process)物质过程mathematicalprinciples数学原理maxim准则maximalonsetprinciple最大节首辅音原则meaningpotential意义潜势meaning shift转移meaning意义mental(processs)思维过程心理过程mentalism心灵主义message信息metafunction元功能metalinguistic元语言的metaphor隐喻metathesis换位（作用）metonymy换喻转喻metre韵律metrical patterning韵律格式microprocessor微处理器mid中（元音）mind思维minimal attachment theory最少接触理论minimal pair最小对立体minimalist programminimumfreeform最小自由形式mirror maxim镜像准则mistake错误modal subject语气主语modal verb情态动词modality情态modern French现代法语modification修饰modifier修饰语monomorphemic单语素的monophonemic单音位的monophthong单元音monosyllabic单音节的Motague grammar蒙太古语法mood语气morph形素词素形式morpheme语素词素形素morpheme-exchangeerror词素交错误morphemic shape词素形状morphemic structure词素结构morphemictranscription词素标音morphological change形态变化morphological rule形态规则morphology形态学音位成分morphonemics形态音位学morphonology形态音系学morpho-syntacticalchange形态句法变化mothertongue母语本族语motivation动因动机move（移动）MT机器翻译MT quality机译质量multilateral opposition多边对立multi-levelphonology多层次音系学multilingualism多语制多语现象Nnarratee被叙述者narrator叙述者narrator’srepresentationofspeechacts,NRSA言语行为的叙述者表达narrator’srepresentationofspeech,NRS言语的叙述者表达narrator’srepresentationofthoughtacts,NRTA思维行为的叙述者表达narrator’srepresentationofthought,NRT思维的叙述者表达narrow transcription窄式音标narrowing狭窄化nasal鼻音nasal cavity鼻腔nasal sound鼻音nasal stop鼻塞音nasal tract鼻道nasality鼻音性nasalization鼻音化Nash, Walternative speaker操本族语者natural language自然语言naturalistic data自然语料near-adult grammar近成人语法negation否定结构negative否定的negative interference负面干扰negative marker否定标记negative transfer负转移neogrammarian新语法学家neutralizableopposition可中立对立new information新信息new stylistics新文体学node节nominal group名词词组nominalization名词化nominative主格non-authenticinput非真实语料的输入non-contrastiveanalysis非对比性分析non-conventionality非规约性non-detachability非可分离性non-linearphonology非线性音系学non-linguistic entity非语言实体non-pulmonic sound非肺闭塞音non-reciprocaldiscourse非交替性语篇non-reflexive pronoun非反身代词nonsewordstage无意义词语阶段nonverbal cues非言语提示norm规范notation system标写系统notion意念notional-functional syllabus意念功能教学大纲noun phrase名词短语noun名词number system数字系统number数字Oobject宾语object-deletion宾语省略objective case宾格objectivity客观性obligatory强制性observationaladequacy观察充分性abstruction阻塞OCRscanner光学字符阅读器扫描仪octametre八音步诗行Old English古英语one-place predicate一位谓语on-line translation在线翻译onomatopoeia拟声词onset节首辅音open class开放类open syllable开音节operational system操作系统operative可操作性operator操作词oppositeness relation对立关系opposition对立optimal relevance最适宜关联option选择optional可选择的oral cavity口腔oral stop口阻塞音ordinal numeral序数词origin of language语言起源orthography正字法overgeneralization过分法则化Ppalatal腭音舌面中音palatal-alveolar腭齿龈音palatalization（硬）腭化paradigm聚合体paradigmaticrelation聚合关系paraphrase释义意译parole言语part of speech词类participant参与者particle小品词语助词particulargrammar特定语的语法partive部分的部分格passivetransformation被动转换passive (voice)被动语态patterndrilltechnique句型操练法pattern模式patterning制定模式pause停顿peak（节）峰perceptual span感知时距perfectionism完善主义perfective完成体performance test语言运用测试performance语言运用performative(verb)行事性动词perlocutionary act话后行为perseverativecoarticulation重复性协同发音person人称personal (function)自指性功能pharyngeal咽头音喉音pharynx喉头谈话phone音素音子phonematic unit音声单位phoneme音位部分（法）phonological analysis音位分析phonological process音位过程phonologicalrepresentation音位表达phonological rule音位规则phonological structure音位结构phonological system音位系统phonological variant音位变体phonology音系学phrasal verb短语动词phrase短语phrase structure短语结构phrasestructuregrammar短语结构语法phrase structure rule, PS rule短语结构规则pidgin皮软语洋泾滨语不纯正外语Pitch音高声调高低place of articulation发音部位play剧本plosion爆破plosive爆破音爆发音plural复数pluralism多元主义plurality复数形式poetic (function)诗学功能poetry诗歌polymorphemic(word)多语素词polysyllabic多音节（词）polystemic analysis多系统分析Portugese葡萄牙语positive transfer正移转possessive所有的属有的possiblegrammar可能语言的语法postalveolar后齿龈音post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics后布龙菲尔德语言学postdeterminer后限定词post-structuralistview后结构主义观点pragmatic inference语用推论pragmatic roles语用角色pragmatics语用学PragueSchool布拉格学派predeterminer前限定词predicate calculus谓语演算predicate logic谓语逻辑predicate谓语predicator谓语（动）词predictive validity预测效度pre-editing预先编辑译前加工prefix前缀pre-modifiedinput预修正的输入premodifier前修饰语preposition介词prepositional calculus介词演算prepositional logic介词逻辑prepositionalopposition介词对立prepositionalphrase介词短语prescriptive规定式presupposition前提预设primarycardinalvowel主要基本元音primary stress主重音第一重音principleofinformativeness信息性原则principleofleasteffort最省力原则principle of quantity数量原则privativeopposition表非对立表缺对立process过程production error产生性错误productivity多产性proficiency test水平测试pro-form代词形式替代形式programming language编程语言progressive进行体progressive assimilation顺同化projection rule投射规则pronominal代词pronoun代词pronunciation发音pronunciation dictionary发音词典pronunciation发音proportionalopposition部分对立proposition命题prose style散文风格prosodicanalysis节律分析超音质分析psycholinguistics心理语言学psycholinguistic-sociolinguisticapproach心理-社会语言学方法psychological reality心理现实psychological subject心理主语psychology of language语言心理学psychometric-structuralistapproach心理测定-结构主义法pulmonic sound肺闭塞音Putonghua普通话QQ-basedimplicature基于质量的含义Q-principle质量原则quality质量quality maxim质量准则quantifier数量词quantitative analysis定量分析quantitative paradigm数量变化表quantity maxim数量准则quatrain四行诗Rrange范围rank级rationalism理性主义raw data原始素材R-basedimplicature基于关联的涵义reader读者recall回忆receivedpronunciation,RP标准发音receiver受话者信息接受者recency effect近期效应recognition识别recursion可溯recursive可溯的还原的recursiveness递归性reference所指参照referential meaning所指意义referential theory所指理论referential所指的reflected meaning反映意义reflexive (form)反身形式regional dialect地域方言register语域regressive assimilation逆同化regulatory(function)控制性语言功能relation maxim关系准则relational opposite关系对立relational process关系过程relative clause关系分句关系从句relative pronoun关系代词relative uninterruptibility相对的非间断性relevance theory关联理论reliability信度repetion重复representational system表达系统representational表达实体residue剩余成分restricted language限制性语言retrieval process检索过程retrieval system检索系统retroflex sound卷舌音reverse rhyme反陨revisedextendedstandardtheory,REST修正扩展标准理论rewriting rules重写规则rheme述位rhetorical skill修辞技能rhyme韵韵角压韵rhythm韵律节奏Roman alphabet letter罗马字母root词根root morpheme词根语素round vowel圆元音R-principle关联原则rule system规则系统rule-basedapproaches基于规则的方法rules of language语言规则Ssameness relation相同关系Sanskrit梵文Sapir-WhorfHypothesis萨丕尔-沃夫假设Saussure索绪尔scale of delicacy精密阶schema图式scheme-orientedlanguage面向图式的语言secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得secondary cardinal vowel次要基本元音semantic feature特征semantic interpretation语义解释semanticinterpretativerules语义解释规则semantic process语义过程semantic representation语义表达semanticsentencepattern,SSP语义句型semantic triangle语义三角semantics语义学semi-consonant半辅音semiotic system符号系统semiotics符号学semi-vowel半元音sense relation意义关系sense意义sentence句子sentence fragments句子成分sentence meaning句义sentence memory句子记忆sentence stress句重音sentence structure句子结构sential calculus句子演算setting场景sibilant咝擦音sign符号signified所指受指signifier能指施指simile明喻simultaneity同时性singular单数situational context情景语境situational level情景层situational syllabus情景教学大纲situational variation情景变异slot空缺social role社会角色social semiotic社会符号学socio-cultural role社会文化角色sociolinguistic study of language语言的社会语言学研究sociolinguisticstudyofsociety社会的社会语言学研究sociolinguistics社会语言学sociological approach社会学方法soft palate软腭solidarity团结sonorant响音sonority scale响音阶sound语音sound image语音图像sound pattern语音模式sound segment音段sound system语音系统sound wave音波speaker’s meaning说话者意义speech言语speech act theory言语行为理论speech event言语事件speech function言语功能speech mode言语方式speech organ言语器官speech perception言语感知speech presentation言语表达speech production ;言语产生speech research言语研究speech role言语角色speech sound语音speech synthesis言语合成spelling拼写,拼法split infinitives分裂的不定式spoken corpus口语语料库spokenlanguagetranslation口语翻译spondee扬扬格spoonerism首音互换斯本内现象spread展元音S-structure表层结构stability稳定性stability reliability稳定性效度Standard English标准英语standard theory标准理论standardization标准化statistical analysis统计分析status地位stem词干stimulus刺激stimulus-response刺激反应stop闭塞音stored knowledge储存知识strategic knowledge学习策略知识stratification层stream of consciousness意识流stress pattern重音模式stress重音structural analysis结构分析structural(structuralist)grammar结构语法structural syllabus结构教学大纲structural test结构测试structuralism结构主义structuralistlinguistics结构主义语言学structuralist view结构主义观点style文体风格stylistic analysis文体分析stylistics文体学subcategorize次范畴subject主语subject-deletion主语省略subjective test主观性测试subjectivity主观性subjunctive mood虚拟语气subordinate construction从属结构subordination从属substitutability替代性substitution替换tacit knowledge默契的知识tagme法位tagmemics法位学tap一次接触音target language目标语言tautology同义反复冗辞template模块tense vowel紧元音tense时态test content测试内容test form测试形式testee受试者testing测试test-retestreliability一测再测信度tetrameter四音步诗行text语篇text encoding语篇编码text interpretation语篇解释text style语篇风格textual organization语篇组织textual语篇功能theme主位theoretical linguistics理论语言学third-personnarrator第三人称叙述者thought presentation思想表达three-place predicate三位谓语tone声调音调tongue height舌高tongue position舌位tongue tip舌尖topic主题trace theory轨迹论traditional grammar传统语法transcribed标音transcription音标标音transfer移转transfer approach移转法transformation转换transformationofinterrogation疑问转换分、transformational grammar转换语法transformational process转换过程transformational rule转换规则transformational-generativegrammar,TG grammar转换生成语法transitivity及物性translation翻译tree diagram树形图trill颤音trochee抑扬格长短格trope转喻隐喻truth condition真值条件truth value真值tu/vous distinction你/您区别turn length话语轮次长度turn quantity话语轮次数量turn-taking依次发言two-place predicate二位谓语two-word utterance二词话语typology类型学UUnaspirated不松气的underlying form底层形式underlying representation底层表达uninterruptibility非中断性universal grammar, UG普遍语法universal quantifier普遍限量词universal普遍现象universality普遍性universalsoflanguage语言的普遍现象unmarked未标记的unrounded vowel非圆元音urban dialectology都市方言学user用户user-friendly方便用户的utterance meaning语句意义utterance语句uvula小舌uvular小舌音Vvalidity效度variable可变化的variable word可变化词variation变异variety变体语体velar软腭音velarization腭音化velum软口盖verb动词verb phrase动词短语verbal process言语过程verbiage言辞vernacularlanguageeducation本地化教育vertical relation选择关系vocabulary词汇vocal cord声带vocal organ发音器官vocal tract声道vocative呼格voice语态voiced consonant浊辅音voiced obstruent浊塞音voiced (sound)浊音voiceless consonant清辅音voiceless obstruent清塞音voiceless (sound)清音voicing浊音化，有声化vowel glide元音音渡vowel元音Wweb page网页Wh-interrogative特殊疑问句women register女性语域word 词word class词类word formation词语形成word group词组word meaning词义word order词序word recognition词语识别word formation词语形成word-for-word逐词翻译wording措辞workingmemorystem工作记忆系统writing文字writing system文字系统written language书面语written text篇章XX-bar TheoryX-bar理论Yyes/no interrogative是非问句yes/no question是非问句Zzero form零形式。

英语的专业毕业论文选地的题目2

外语系2012届本科毕业论文备选题1. Importance of function words in English Writing虚词在英文写作中的重要性2. Effect on English Writing from Different English-Chinese Modes of Thinking中英思维方式的差异对英文写作的影响3. Error Analysis in Oral English Learning英语口语学习中的错误分析研究4. The Influence of Non-intellect and Factors on English Learning非智力因素对英语学习的影响5. A Comparative Study of the Gender Difference in English Learning男女生英语学习差异比较研究6. The Influence of Chinese Dialectical Accent over English Pronunciation 汉语方言对英语发音的影响7. Skills for English Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems古诗翻译的英译技巧8. Cultural Difference and Idiomatic Expression in Translation翻译中的文化差异及习惯表达法9. The Principles of Equivalence in the Translation of English Idioms into Chinese and Their Practical Application英语习语翻译中的对等原则及具体应用10. The Application of Cooperative Learning Theory in English ReadingTeaching合作学习理论在英语阅读教学中的运用parison Between Chinese Tea Culture and Western Coffee Culture中国茶文化与西方咖啡文化的比较12 The difference between Chinese and Western Cultures in Politeness试比较中西文化在礼貌方面的不同13 The Image of the Old Man in The Old Man and the Sea试析《老人与海》中的老人的形象14 Influence of American Movies on Chinese Youth美国电影对中国青年人的影响15he Comparison of Family Education in China and America 中美家庭教育比较16A Speech Act Theory Analysis of Obama’s Election Speech 从言语行为理论来分析奥巴马当选演说17Strategies for Improving Oral English in College试议提高大学生口语的策略18Politeness Principle in Business Englsih Letter商务英语信函中的礼貌原则19The Love Tragedy Between Heathcliff and Catherine in Wuthering Heights《呼啸山庄》中希斯克里夫和凯瑟琳的爱情悲剧20Feminism in To the Lighthouse试析《到灯塔去》中的女权21 美籍华裔作家的“故土”情节22从《喜福会》透视中美文化冲突与融合23论福克纳的南方情节24《最蓝的眼睛》中人物的精神分析25试论《洛丽塔》对精神分析学的戏仿26论《伟大的盖茨比》中的象征主义27论《荆棘鸟》中的女性形象28广告英语的语言特征29从功能理论看广告翻译30中学英语教学的活动设计原则31从服饰文化角度看中美文化差异32 Reflections on Differences of Sino-US Culture in the Perspective of Costume33谈非语言交际中身体语言的特点及其在交际中的运用A Preliminary Approach to Body Language on Nonverbal Communication34词的文化内涵及其在习语中的体现Cultural Connotations of Color Words and Their Reflections in English Idioms35论网络交际英语的特征及其翻译A Study of Internet Communication English Features and Translation35英语语言教学中的文化教学On Culture Teaching in English Language Teaching36浅谈二语习得中的社会因素Thesis on the Social Factors and Second Language Acquisition37试论因特网在第二语言习得中的辅助作用The Assisting Function of Internet in Second Language Acquisition 38论飘中的人物魅力On the Charm of Characters in Gone with the Wind39论飘中的女性生存意识Thesis on Female Survivalism in Gone with the Wind40英语词汇中的性别歧视及女性主义Sexual Discrimination in English Words41阅读学习策略对初中英语阅读教学的影响(The effect of reading learning strategies on English reading teaching in junior school)42归化与异化策略在跨文化翻译中的运用（Domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation）43中学英语课堂中合作学习对成功语言学习者影响的研究(Effects of cooperative learning on successful language learners in high-school English classroom)44探析英语和汉语中的性别歧视现象（Exploration of linguistic sexism in English and Chinese）45中学英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养(Cultivation of cross-cultural communication competence in junior middle school English teaching) 46象征手法在英汉翻译中的应用：以《了不起的盖兹比》为例（The use of symbolism in English-Chinese translation: take The Great Gatsby as an instance）47英汉翻译中文化意象的等值、修润及重构（Equivalence, modification and reconstruction of cultural image in English-Chinese translation）48情景教学与学生英语交际能力的培养（The effect of situational teaching on the cultivation of students’English communication competence）49论汉英习语的文化差异及翻译（On cultural differences and translation between Chinese and English idioms）50关联理论在英语听力教学中的应用（The application of relevance theory in English listening teaching）51 The Application of the Fuzzy Words in Legal English法律语言模糊性词语的运用52 The Comparison Between the Chinese and English Compound Sentence Structures英汉法律语句中复合句结构对比53 On the Cultural Gaps and Untranslatability 论中英文化差异及不可译性54 On the English Versions of Some of Du Fu’s Poems 论杜甫诗歌之英译55 On the Characteristics of Legal English Language法律语言的特点56 The Strategies of Domestication and Dissimilation on Advertising English Translation广告英语翻译的"归化"和""异化"策略57 Cross-cultural and Cross-linguistic Factors in English Advertisement Translation英语广告翻译中的跨文化、跨语言因素58The Influence of Cultural Difference Upon Cross-cultural Communication 文化差异队跨文化交际的影响59sing CLT in English T eaching to Improve Students’Communicative Competence 在英语教学中运用“交际法”提高学生的交际能力60On the Principles of Equivalence in Literary Translation 论文学翻译中的对等原则61 The Advantage and Disadvantage of Bilingual Teaching双语教学的利与弊62 On Man’s Tragic End--Viewed from The Old Man and the Sea从老人与海看人的悲剧63 Amplification and Omission in Translation翻译中的信息增减64 Application of Games in Middle School English Teaching游戏在中学英语教学中的运用65 Application of Absolute Construction in Interpretation独立主格在口译中的运用66 Effect on Translation from Different English-Chinese Modes of Thinking中英思维方式的差异对翻译的影响67 On Influence of Cultural Differences on Understanding English and Chinese Advertisements论文化差异对解读英汉广告的影响68 On the Origin, Word-Formation and Translation of English Neologisms浅谈英语新词的产生、构成及翻译69 A Brief Study on the Translation of English News Titles英语新闻标题翻译初探70 A Contrastive Study of Animal Cultural Implication between Chinese and English英汉语动物文化含义比较71 . A Contrastive Study of Punctuation in Chinese and English英汉标72 伊丽莎白.巴莱特诗歌中的女性意识探析A Probe into Feminine Consciousness in Elizabeth Barrett’s Poetry 73电影《死亡诗社》中的教育思想On Educational Ideology in the Film of Dead poets Society74道林.格雷的画像》中王尔德的唯美主义思想探析Analysis of Wilde’s Aesthetic Ideology in The picture of Dorian Gray 75《推销员之死》与美国当代社会On The Death of the Salesman and Modern American Society76从文化角度看英语电影片名的翻译技巧Analysis of Translating English Movie Titles from Cultural Perspective 77修辞在广告英语中的运用与翻译On the Use and Translation of Rhetorical Devices in English Advertisement78最新英语词汇的社会文化内涵探析A Probe into Social-cultural Connotations of the Latest EnglishVocabulary79跨文化交际中的语言负向迁移与语用失误Language Negative Transfer and Pragmatic Failure in Cross-cultural Communication80跨文化交际和外语教学中的非言语行为Non-verbal Behavior in Cross-cultural Communication and FLT81任务型教学模式下学生跨文化意识的培养On Cultivation of the Students’Cross-cultural Awareness under the mode of Task-based Language Teaching82Contrast Study of Courtesy Language in English and Chinese 英汉礼貌用语对比研究83An analysis of the hero Henry in Farewell to Arms对《永别了，武器》中主人公亨利形象之分析84Cultural Differences in Advertising between English & Chinese 中西方广告中的文化差异85Figure of Speech in Advertising in English &Chinese中西广告中修辞的运用86A Pragmatic Study of English Euphemisms英语委婉语的语用研究87On Narrative Techniques in A Rose for Emily论《献给爱米丽的玫瑰花》的叙事策略88The Gothic Features in Wuthering Heights.《呼啸山庄》的哥特式特征89On the Copular Construction in English and Chinese Language 英汉系表结构之比较90A Pragmatic Analysis of Humor Language幽默语言的语用研究91On Translation of English and Chinese Trademarks From the Approach of Functional Equivalence从功能对等的角度论英汉商标翻译92 A Study of Student-Centered English Vocabulary Teaching以学生为中心的英语词汇教学93. On Values of Chinese from Perspective of Lexicon从词汇角度读中国人的价值观94 A Study of Transitional Words and Expressions 过渡词及表达法的研究95 About the Quality-oriented Education in English Language Teaching 英语教学中的素质教育96 English and Chinese Euphemisms: A Comparison between Their Cultural Implications从英汉委婉语对比中透析中西文化差异97 Application of English Idioms in Daily Life英语习语在日常生活中的运用98 Body Language Difference in Meaning in Cross-cultural Communication体态语在跨文化交际中的意义差异99 Chinese and Western Culture Values in Advertising Language从广告语中看中西方文化观100 Cross-culture Failures by Chinese learners of English中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的误区101. 1The Cultural Connotation of English Etymology and the Teaching of English Vocabulary英语词源的文化内涵与词汇教学102 English Translation of Pubic Signs in Chinese 汉英公示语的翻译103 The Relationship between Cultural Differences and Translation Skill 中西文化差异与翻译技巧104 On the Criteria of Interpretation论口译标准105 On the Translation of Humor in Pride and Prejudice傲慢与偏见中的幽默翻译106 Emily Dickinson and her Poems狄金森的诗歌An Analysis of the Theme of the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn论哈克贝利费恩历险记中的主题107 On Ernest Hemingway and his Novel the Sun Also Rises论海明威及其小说太阳照常升起108 On the Symbolism of Moby Dick解读《白鲸》的象征含义109 Emily Dickson and her Poems迪金森的自然诗Interaction in Oral English Teaching 英语口语教学中的互动110 The Brain-Storming in English Writing论头脑风暴在英语写作教学中的作用111 On the Reciprocal Method of Teaching English Reading英语阅读中的互动教学112 On the Use of Interactive Approach in Writing Classroom英语写作中互动方法的应用113 Motivation in English Learning英语学习中的动机114 The Communicative Functions of English Euphemism英语委婉语的交际功能浅析英式英语和美式英语的差异115 The Differences Between British English and American English116 大学英语教学中的文化因素导入Introduction of Cultural Factors in College English Teaching117对外语教学中引入文化教学的理论思考A Theoretical Thinking on the Introduction of Acculturation into Foreign Language Teaching4.从语用学的视角看日常生活中的礼貌准则Politeness Principle5."请求”言语行为的对比研究A Contrastive Study of the Speech Act of Requests6.中西作品中比喻差异及其社会文化成因The Different Use of Metaphors in Chinese and Western works and theirCocio-cultural Origins7.浅析广告英语的修辞特征和效果Analysis of the Retorical Features and Effects of Advertising English8.句法相似性的语用分析Pragmatic Analysis of Syntactic Iconicity9.从文化和语言学的视角探讨美式俚语Study on the American Slang----from the cultural and linguistic perspective10.浅析英语委婉语在电影中的幽默功能A Study of the Humorous Function of English Euphemism in MoviesThe Art of Humor in Dickens’David Copperfield谈谈狄更斯的《大卫科波菲尔》作品中的幽默艺术The Symbolic Meaning of the Story A Rose for Emily by Faulkner 威廉·福克纳的《献给爱米丽的玫瑰》象征意义研究The Destiny of Women in George Eliot’s Novels谈谈乔治·艾略特作品中的女性命运The Great Gatsby: A Story of the Bankruptcy of the American Dream 了不起的盖茨比：关于美国梦崩塌On the Themes of William Blake’s Songs of Innocence论威廉·布雷克的《天真之歌》主题思想On the Functions of Sociolinguistics in Teaching of English论英语教学中社会语言学的功能A Comparative Study of English Idioms and Their Equivalents in Chinese Language英文谚语与同义中国成语之对比研究An Analysis of the Chinese Students’Typical Errors in Learning English中国学生学习英语中所犯典型错误分析A Comparison of English Addressing Terms with Their Chinese Equivalents中英文称谓语之对比研究China English and Chinese English中国英语与中式英语语言学类浅谈商务函电翻译的用词技巧论商标名称的翻译与策略浅谈英语谚语的修辞手法教学类论扩大词汇量和提高英语阅读能力的关系论母语迁移在基础教育各阶段中的作用《英语课程标准》研究探究式教学法在中学英语教学中的应用翻译类谈英语被动句的翻译谈英语否定句的翻译谈广告英语及其翻译文学类解读布莱克诗篇《老虎》的象征意义论华滋华斯诗歌的自然观由《云雀颂》看雪莱的诗歌创作观1．English Translation of Pubic Signs in Chinese 汉英公示语的翻译2．The Relationship between Cultural Differences and Translation Skill 中西文化差异与翻译技巧3．On the Criteria of Interpretation论口译标准4．On the Translation of Humor in Pride and Prejudice傲慢与偏见中的幽默翻译5．Emily Dickinson and her Poems狄金森的诗歌6．An Analysis of the Theme of the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn论哈克贝利费恩历险记中的主题7．On Ernest Hemingway and his Novel the Sun Also Rises论海明威及其小说太阳照常升起8．On the Symbolism of Moby Dick解读《白鲸》的象征含义9．Emily Dickson and her Poems迪金森的自然诗10．Interaction in Oral English Teaching 英语口语教学中的互动11．The Brain-Storming in English Writing论头脑风暴在英语写作教学中的作用12．On the Reciprocal Method of Teaching English Reading英语阅读中的互动教学13．On the Use of Interactive Approach in Writing Classroom英语写作中互动方法的应用14．Motivation in English Learning英语学习中的动机15．The Communicative Functions of English Euphemism英语委婉语的交际功能1.从服饰文化角度看中美文化差异Reflections on Differences of Sino-US Culture in the Perspective of Costume2.浅谈非语言交际中身体语言的特点及其在交际中的运用A Preliminary Approach to Body Language on NonverbalCommunication3.颜色词的文化内涵及其在习语中的体现Cultural Connotations of Color Words and Their Reflections in English Idioms4.论网络交际英语的特征及其翻译A Study of Internet Communication English Features and Translation5.论英语语言教学中的文化教学On Culture Teaching in English Language Teaching6.浅谈二语习得中的社会因素Thesis on the Social Factors and Second Language Acquisition7.试论因特网在第二语言习得中的辅助作用The Assisting Function of Internet in Second Language Acquisition 8.论飘中的人物魅力On the Charm of Characters in Gone with the Wind9.论飘中的女性生存意识Thesis on Female Survivalism in Gone with the Wind10.英语词汇中的性别歧视及女性主义Sexual Discrimination in English Words1. The role of learners’differences in middle school English learning2. A study of gender differences in English learning3. The impact of student’motivation in English learning4. A study of communicative approach in EFL teaching5. A study of effective ways to teach English vocabulary6. On Chinese and English color words from the aspect of culturaldifferences7. The translation of idioms from the cultural perspective8. An approach to Task-based instructions in EFL teaching9. A study on the translation of movies’title10. A study on teachers’feedback in English class1.语境设置与中学英语教学2 预制语块与中学英语口语教学3. 多媒体技术在英语情景教学中的应用4. 建构主义理论在高中英语教学中的运用初探5. 逆向思维——运用写作思路阅读英语文章6. 论《坎特伯雷故事》的多样整合性7. 翻译实践中的错误误译的实例分析8. 浅谈如何激活高中生的英语元语言能力9. 浅析广告中的隐喻10. 浅谈奥斯卡。

商务英语09届论文题目汇总

文学院英语专业05级毕业论文翻译方向选题一览表序号指导教师学生姓名班级论文题目英文中文1 陈红丁美龄01Translator’s Subjectivity Embodied in Huang Yuanshen’sVersions of Jane Eyre译者主体性在黄源深译本《简爱》中的体现黄飞02Analyzing The Application of Domestication in TwoDifferent Chinese Versions of The Adventure of TomSawyer析《汤姆索亚历险记》的两个中文译本规划策略的运用张红杰03On “M eaning”, “Context”and “Imagery”inTranslation of English Song Lyrics论英文歌词翻译的“意”、“境”、“象”焦广杰01 On C-E Zero Translation论汉译英零翻译现象王琦02Foreignization and Domestication in Yang Hsien-yi’sVersion of A Dream of Red Masions浅析杨译版《红楼梦》归化和异化处理易芬02The Loss of Beauty in C-E Idiom Translation andCompensation Methods习语汉译英中美的流失与补偿伍琳琼02On Subtitle Translation of Forrest Gump from theFunctionalist Perspective从功能理论角度论《阿甘正传》字幕翻译2齐明珍曹玉芳01On the Reproduction of Rhyme in the Translation ofChinese Ancient Poetry浅谈中国古诗英译过程中韵的再现程大武02Reception Environment and Lin Shu’s TranslationPhenomenon接受环境与林纾翻译之现象李霄03On Translation of the Subtitling of NottingHill-From thePerspective of Relevance Theory从关联理论的角度看电影《诺丁山》字幕的翻译李贞02 Coping Tactics in Interpretation口译的应变策略肖文慈01Domestication and Foreignization in Translating Color Termsin WangWei’s Poems浅谈王维诗中色彩词翻译的归化和异化赵笠珲02 Adaptation in Advertisement Translation广告翻译中的改编1王黎01 Characteristic Analysis in Zhang Peiji’s Translation ofChinese Essays张培基汉译英散文作品中的特点分析3 王水平汪靓雅01Analysis of Lin Yutang’s Criteria From the Translationof Six Chapters of a Floating Life从《浮生六记》的翻译分析林语堂的翻译标准魏宏艳02A Study of Zhang Guruo’s Translation of Tess ofthe D’Urbervilles from the Aesthetic Perspective从美学角度分析张谷若译《德伯家的苔丝》齐骁03The Solutions to the Problemsin International Business Interpretation涉外商务谈判口译中常见问题和解决策略郭虹02Solutions to the Problems in Translation of DiplomaticDocuments外交文献翻译存在问题的解决4 张秀仿董思思02On Mistranslation of Polysemy from English toChinese论英汉翻译中一词多义的误译现象周磊03On Alliterative English Advertisements and theTranslation Strategies押头韵英语广告及其翻译策略葛彦如02On Euphemism Translation in BusinessCorrespondence论商务英语中委婉语的翻译2文学院英语专业05级毕业论文文学方向选题一览表序号指导教师学生姓名班级论文题目英文中文1 韩力扬赵欣豪01 A Comparison of Wolf Principle and Santiago’s Spirit“狼道”与“桑提亚哥精神”的对照任沂01Virtue and Evil --- An Analysis of Edgar Allen Poe’sHorror Fictions善与恶--- 解读埃德加爱伦坡的恐怖小说唐富荣01 On the Allegory of the Theme in Orwell’s Animal Farm浅析乔治·奥威尔《动物农庄》主题的讽喻性畅毅01An Analysis of Coleman’s Tragedy in The HumanStain对《人性的污秽》中科尔曼的悲剧性分析2 郝宝燕郁君01A Study of Conceptual Metaphor of “Love” in JohnDonne’s Poetry约翰·邓恩诗歌中爱情隐喻的研究秦聪01An Analysis of Howards End: the Double Significanceof Material and Spirit浅析《霍华德庄园》：物质与精神的双重意义任敬03Analysis of Human Negation through Coetzee’sDisgrace从库切的《耻》解读人性之耻周如如02On Deconstruction of Logocentrism of Mara andDann : An Adventure论《玛拉和丹恩历险记》中逻各斯中心主义的解读4 张艳红丁思诗01An Analysis on Implied Meaning in The House onMango Street浅析《芒果街上的小屋》中的寓意徐虎02On Hemingway’s “Dual Personality” in A Farewell toArms论海明威的“双重性格”在《永别了，武器》中的体现王艳艳03An Analysis of the Biblical Influence in The Lion, TheWitch and The Wardrobe解读《纳尼亚传奇：狮子、女巫和魔衣橱》中的圣经影响5 王敬民王飞飞01 On Willa Cather’s Ecological View in My Antonia试析薇拉·凯瑟在《我的安东尼亚》中的生态观杨曼03 On Updike’s Religious View in Terrorist 从《恐怖分子》看厄普代克的宗教观3孙佳01 From Self-awareness to Personal Tragedy：An Analysisof Edith in Domby and Son从自我意识到个人悲剧：简析《董贝父子》中的伊迪丝王莎莎03 The Reflection of Jeffrey Archer's Values in To Cut A LongStory Short杰弗里·阿彻的价值观在《长话短说》中的体现6 孙光勇马静01 Music, Disguise, Humor—An Analysis of theLanguage Feature in Invisible Man音乐，伪装，幽默—《看不见的人》语言特色分析7 郭晖董莎莎01On the Influence of Christian Culture in Three of O.Henry’s Short Stories论基督教文化在欧·亨利三篇短篇小说中的影响段晓燕03On Eustacia’s Opposition to Male-manipulation in The Returnof the Native论游苔莎对男权控制的抗争宫雪03The Relationship between Man ,Nature and Society inRobert Frost’s Poems人、自然、社会的关系在罗伯特·弗洛斯特诗歌中的体现吴斌斌03An Analysis of Emily Dick inson’s Psychology in HerNature Poems从艾米莉·狄金森的自然诗中浅析诗人的心理8 杨丽王瑞瑞03 On the Characters in Beloved -From the Perspective ofNationalism从民族主义视野下看《宠儿》中的人物9 孙国玲李文琦02 On the V oice of Harmony between Chinese andAmerican Culture in The Woman Warrior论《女勇士》中的中美文化和谐之音4文学院英语专业05级毕业论文应用英语方向选题一览表序号指导教师学生姓名班级论文题目英文中文1 杜凤秋刘维01The Pragmatic Analysis on Mode of DecliningExpressions in Business English商务英语中拒绝语表达方式的语用分析李倩01Cultural Elements in Cross-cultural Translation and theTranslation Strategies跨文化翻译中的文化因素与翻译策略黄强02The Comparative Study of Language Used in theCoverage of “3.14Tibet Riots” between China and theU.S——A Corpus-based Research中美就“3.14事件”英文报道用语之比较——基于语料库的研究徐丽君02Applying the Politeness Principle in InternationalBusiness Negotiating Strategies礼貌原则在国际商务谈判策略中的应用王秀艳03An Analysis of Lexical Features of English BusinessContract from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory从顺应论角度浅析英文商务合同的语言特点2 张莉祁九菊01 Cultural Awareness in the Translation of Shoes Brands鞋类商标翻译中的文化因素王冬01On Translation of Humour from the Perspective ofFunctional Equivalence从功能对等理论看幽默的翻译李波02Functional Equivalence and Public EnvironmentalProtection Advertisements Translation功能对等理论下的环保公益广告的翻译严飞虎02The Linguistic Characteristics of American ElectionAdvertisements美国选举广告的语言特点郑秀芳03An Analysis of the Application of Cooperative Principlein Business Negotiation浅析“合作原则”在商务谈判中的应用3 杨丽霞邓平01Analysis of Distortion in Translation of ForeignEconomic and Trade Contract对外经贸合同翻译的失真问题分析蔡胜超01A Brief Study of the Commerciality on English andChinese Movie Title Translation略谈中英电影片名翻译的商业性5和春江02 On Cross-Cultural Communication Strategies ofTransnational Corporations in Chinese Market浅析跨国公司在中国市场的跨文化交际策略陈亮02 On the Foreignization Strategy in InterculturalTranslation浅析跨文化翻译中的异化策略汤唯佳03 A Study on Cultural Differences in Sino-US NegotiationBased on Theories of Cultural Dimensions从文化层面理论看中美商务谈判中的文化差异4 史艳红马涛02A Study on Business Negotiation ——an AdaptationApproach商务谈判的顺应性分析王欣03An Analysis of Pragmatic Failure in Daily EnglishCommunication日常英语交际中的语用失误分析郝文杰02 A Cognitive Study of Metaphors about Economic Crisis经济危机隐喻的认知研究张新玲02An Analysis of Uncertainty Avoidance in Sino-WesternBusiness Negotiation浅析中西商务谈判中的不确定性回避高海楼03A Contrastive Study on Compliment in Chinese andEnglish中英恭维语比较研究6文学院英语专业05级毕业论文语言学方向选题一览表序号指导教师学生姓名班级论文题目英文中文1 李静刘丽丽01 A Pragmatic Study of Conversational Humor in Friends 《老友记》中会话幽默的语用研究王姮01Interpersonal Function Analysis of Abama'sInaugurationSpeech奥巴马就职演说的人际功能分析郑玲02Comparison of the Associative Meaning of Color Word“Red”between English and Chinese英汉颜色词“红”的联想意义比较温爽03The Analysis on Cohesive Devices in English BusinessContracts商务英语合同中的语篇衔接手段分析李盈慧02The Discourse Analysis on War News fromSystemic-Functional Perspective基于系统功能语法的战争类新闻语篇分析2 王丹董永斌03On Influence of Teacher’s Nonverbal Behav ior in Classon Students’ Attitudes to English Learning教师课堂非言语行为对学生英语学习态度影响研究熊大敏01A Cross-cultural Contrastive Study on English and Chinese PoliteLanguage英汉礼貌用语的跨文化对比研究孙丽芳02A Pragmatic Study of Fuzzy Language in BusinessLetters商务函电中模糊语言的语用分析郭皓楠03 The V iolation of Cooperative Principle and English Humor论合作原则的违反与英语话语幽默姬张昊01An Analysis on the Change of Lexical Meaning of English V ogueW ords英语时尚新词的词义变化剖析3 张俊徐义娟01 Analysis on Pragmatic Functions of Parody in Advertisement 广告中仿拟的语用功能分析何小珊01 A Functional Analysis of V ocatives 称呼语的功能分析朱红菊02 Pragmatic Analysis of Business English Conversation商务英语会话的语用分析7高园园02 A Pragmatic Analysis of Euphemism in BusinessNegotiation对商务谈判中委婉语的语用分析许倩03 Study on English News from Systemic-functionalPerspective从系统功能视角对英语新闻的研究刘艳03 A Systemic-Functional Analysis of English Idioms英语习语的系统功能分析4 张喜荣赵曙光02 Contrastive Studies on English and Chinese Connectives英汉连接性词语对比研究赵爱梅02 Studies on Euphemism in English Business Letters 商务英语信函中的委婉表达崔冬艳03Pragmatic Analysis on Humorous Expressions inBusiness Negotiation商务谈判中幽默语的语用分析韦杰03Analysis of English Blending Words Based onConceptual Blending Theory概念合成理论对英语拼缀词的解析王召鹏03Analysis on English and Chinese Proverbs ThroughCultural Linguistics英汉谚语的文化语言学分析8。

英语专业论文题目大全

英语专业论文题目大全好的论文题目既是研究的方向，也是一个新的学习领域。

你会像一叶小舟，尽情游弋在知识的海洋中。

确定选题写论文，首先要有选题。

我们要从当前英语教学实践中亟待解决的和对英语教学改革实践起指导作用的问题中确定选题。

题目是文章的眼睛，应该让读者一看题目就能洞察出文章的内容范围。

感受深则写之顺，驾轻就熟，容易出成果。

（1）选题要新颖创新是论文的生命线。

尽量写别人未总结过的东西，要有创造性、新颖性，做到人无我有、人有我新，以爆“冷门”，增强发表的命中率。

选题要新颖，就要把握时代的脉搏，关注学科教学改革的动态。

捕捉、探讨本学科的信息，以科学性为前提，言他人所未言，发他人所未见，示读者所未知，不是一味地标新立异。

新颖性还指选题的写作角度新、立意新，别人写过的老题目，如兴趣教学、课文教学等，我们可以从新的角度去写，另辟蹊径，写出自己新的经验、观点，写出自己的真知灼见，只要能予人以新的启示，同样能取胜。

（2）从小处着眼大题目的论文并非不能写，但题目过大，会不着边际，捉襟见肘，往往要说的东西太多，结果是什么也讲不深道不透，两、三千字无法包容其内涵。

从小处着眼，把题域缩小一些，使题目变得具体、实在，有利于作者更集中、深入地搜集材料、出示论据，写起来得心应手，做到“小题大作”，从而给读者更多有益的东西。

在取得一定的写作经验之后，一旦有大的选题而且有迫切的写作欲望，我们同样可以着手撰写。

以下是从网络上搜集到的题目，供大家参考：语言与语言学类从历史文化的发展看某个英语词或短语的语义演变英诗中常用的修辞英语谚语的修辞手法委婉语种英语中的缩略语英语词汇中的外来语单词英语新词新意探究美国英语的特色如何正确把握英语定语从句（或其他各种从句或语法形式）在句子中的确切含义Fuzzy Words and Their Uses in Human CommunicationAmbiguity and Puns in EnglishSome basic consideration of styleEnglish by NewspaperEnglish Personal Pronouns: a Preliminary Textual Analysis Thematic Network and Text TypesAn Inquiry into Speech Act TheoryOn Lexical Cohesion in Expository WritingThe Inferences of Conversational ImplicationsContext and MeaningThe Construction and Interpretation of Cohesion in Texts 语言教学类多元智能理论在小学英语教学中的应用小学英语教学中的故事教学小学英语教学与智力开发初中英语教材Go for it的适应性研究如何有效地进行初中/高中阅读教学初中/高中英语教材中的文化因素初中/高中英语教材中的文化因素合作学习在中学英语学习中的应用角色扮演与高中英语教学任务型语言教学在语法教学中的应用怎样教授中学英语词汇英语教学中情感的重要意义扩大词汇量和提高英语阅读能力的关系提高英语阅读速度的主要障碍英语阅读能力和阅读速度的关系通过扩大知识面提高英语阅读能力如何在阅读实践中提高英语阅读能力阅读英文报刊的好处如何处理精读和泛读的关系如何对付英语阅读材料中的生词如何通过阅读扩大词汇量提高阅读能力和提高英语听力的关系英语听说读写四种技能的关系通过英语阅读提高英语写作能力英语快速阅读能力的构成成分中学生英语自主学习能力的培养英语教学中的语言焦虑及解决策略简笔画-英语教学中简单高效的教学手段提高英语听力理解能力的策略和技巧电子辞典与英语教学普通话对英语语音的迁移作用母语迁移在基础教育各阶段中的作用提高大班课堂教学的效果《英语课程标准》研究口语教学中教师的角色从心理学角度探讨少儿英语教学英语课堂提问的策略研究英语后进生产生的原因以及补差方法研究英语词汇教学方法探讨小学生英语口语能力评估方法研究朗读在英语教学中的作用任务型教学法研究方言对学生英语语音的影响英语阅读课堂教学模式探讨英语课堂的合作学习策略研究中学生英语学习策略的培养探究式教学法在中学英语教学中的应用现代信息技术在英语教学中的应用教师教学行为对高中生英语学习的影响实施成功教育减少两极分化小学英语活动课教学模式研究中学英语听力训练最佳方案原版电影与英语学习中学生英语兴趣的培养《疯狂英语》（或各种教学方式）的利与弊张思中教学法实践调查报告如何杜绝中式英语英语教师的文化素养网络时代如何学好英语背景知识与阅读理解上下文在阅读理解中的作用家庭教师在中学生英语学习中的利弊中学英语教学现状分析中学英语课堂上的Daily Report中外教师解释课文方法比较中外教师课堂提问方法比较中外教师课堂鼓励性用语比较中外教师对学生总体要求之比较计算机辅助英语教学中的诸问题不同种类的计算机辅助英语教学方式计算机辅助英语教学中的教学法原则The Instructive Meaning of Inter-language Pragmatics for foreign Language TeachingPedagogical Translation and Translation TeachingThe Importance of Cultural Authenticity in Teaching MaterialsMicro-teaching and Student Teacher TrainingHow to uate the Teacher Performance - A Case StudyEnglish Test DesignThe Interference of Native Language in English Writing or Translation Translation Methods and English Teaching翻译类英汉文化差异和翻译英语习语翻译翻译与语境翻译中的对等问题翻译中的衔接与连贯翻译中的文化信息传递语篇体裁与翻译策略汉语四字词语的翻译数字的翻译翻译中的语序转换谈英语被动句的翻译英汉句法对比和翻译谈合同（或其他各种类型文本）的翻译英语否定句的翻译广告英语及其翻译中国特色词汇及其英译英语长句的理解与翻译商号、商标、公司名称等的翻译Importance of Meaning Group in Translation文学类文学批评方法之我见解读布莱克诗篇《老虎》的象征意义弥尔顿创作目的和结果的矛盾之我见华滋华斯诗歌的自然观简析《秋颂》的美学价值由《云雀颂》看雪莱的诗歌创作观论叶芝诗歌中的象征主义狄金森诗歌的现实意义论现代诗歌与后现代诗歌的异同解读《麦克白》的创作意义由海明威的《杀人者》理解客观叙述法解读福克纳的《干燥七月》中外文学作品比较不同英语文作品比较英文作品中的人物分析英文作品的社会意义英文作品的文体风格参考文献除相关的专着之外，以下杂志的现刊与过刊可供参考：《中国翻译》，《上海科技翻译》，《外语教学与研究》，《外国语》，《中小学外语教学》，《外语电化教学》，《中小学英语教学与研究》，《外国文学评论》，《福建外语》，《外语界》，《国外外语教学》，《现代外语》及外语院校学报等，以及中国知网补充：从效度实证研究评估大学英语口试的设计和实施uation on Design and Operation of CET Spoken English Test through Its Validity Study外语学习倾向与语言成绩的相关性研究Research on Correlation Between Foreign Language Learning Orientation and Language Achievement英汉汉英口译信息传真技巧研究A Study on the Strategies to Achieve Faithfulness in Chinese-English and English-Chinese Interpretation.关于非英语专业学生语言学习观念的研究A Study of Non-English Majors’ Beliefs about Language Learning对现代英语促销信的系统功能语法分析Analysis of Modern English Sales Promotion Letters from a Systemic Functional Perspective两所大学理工科学生英语词汇学习策略和学习成绩EFL Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Language Learning Achievement of Science and Engineering Majors in Two Universities关于非英语专业学生性格特质和英语成绩的研究A Correlative Study of Non-English Majors’ Personality Traits and English Achievement体裁教学法应用于理工科学生阅读课中的实证性研究An Experimental Study of Genre-based Teaching Approach in Reading Class for Science Students如何处理广告英译中的跨文化语用失误How to Deal with Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure in Translating Advertisement from Chinese into English阅读策略教学效果的实验型研究Empirical Study on the Effects of Reading Strategy Instruction学习策略及策略运用与语言水平相关性研究A Study on Learning Strategies and the Relationship between Strategy Use and Language Proficiency医学内科词素频率调查及其应用Corpus-based Survey of Internal Medical Morphemes and the Application of the Findings英汉称谓对比研究—以《红楼梦》为蓝本Study on the Comparison and Translation of Chinese and English Address Forms—based on A Dream of Red Mansions。

德国留学APS审核英语专业复习资料-语言类中英文对照2015版本

语言类：英语笔译，英语口译，英语写作，高级英语，综合英语，英语视听说，基础英语，英语听力，英语口语，商务英语，商务英语阅读、商务沟通、商务英语写作，专业英语，英语国家概况英语笔译：IntroductiontoTranslationInthisunit,studentsareexpectedtolearnthedefinitionoftranslation;thescopeoftranslation;translation criteria;literaltranslationandfreetranslation.Ⅰ.WhatIsTranslation?Linguisticviewontranslation:Translationis “thereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(sourcelanguage)byequivalenttextualmaterialina notherlanguage(targetlanguage).”(Catford,1965:20) Translatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesource-l anguagemessage,firstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.(Nida&Taber1969:12)所谓翻译，是指在译语中用最贴切而又自然的对等语再现原文的信息，首先在语义上，其次在文体上。

(E.A 奈达,1969)Communicativeviewsontranslation: Thisapproachviewstranslationasacommunicativeprocesswhichtakesplacewithinasocialcontext.T hetranslatorattemptstoproducethesameeffectonthetargetlanguagereadersaswasproducedbytheo riginalonthesourcelanguagereaders.(Newmark,1982:22)翻译是一种跨文化的信息交流与交换的活动，其本质是传播。

Fuzzy上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理

1999年3月系统工程理论与实践第3期　Fuzzy上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理α舒　兰1　莫智文2(1.电子科技大学应用数学系,四川成都610054)(2.四川师范大学,四川成都610066)摘要　Fuzzy上下文无关语言是一种常见而有用的语言,对它的研究目前尚是一薄弱环节.本文研究了Fuzzy上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理及语言的歧义性等,这为进一步研究Fuzzy上下文无关语言及与Fuzzy自动机的关系奠定了基础.关键词　Fuzzy上下文无关文法　Fuzzy上下文无关语言　派生　歧义性Som e A ux iliary T heo rem s on FuzzyCon tex t2free L anguagesSHU L an1　M O Zh i w en2(1.D ep t.of A pp l.M ath.U EST Chengdu610054)(2.Sichuan N o rm al U n iversity,Chengdu610066)Abstract　Fuzzy con tex t2free languages are u sual and u sefu l.How ever it is a vu lnerab lespo t.In th is paper som e aux iliary theo rem s on fuzzy con tex t2free languages are givenand its differen t m ean ing is discu ssed.T he resu lt is a foundati on fo r fu rther researcheson fuzzy con tex t2free languages and au tom ata.Keywords　fuzzy con tex t2free gramm ar;fuzzy con tex t2free language;derivati on;dif2feren t m ean ing1　引言上下文无关语言的概念,首先是由Chom sky于1959年提出的,在60年代后期,发现“类AL GOL”语言,也就是说用Backu s范式定义的语言和上下文无关语言是等同的.从那时以后,上下文无关语言的理论研究发展十分迅速.然而在实际问题中很多研究对象都带有一些Fuzzy信息,所以用上下文无关语言去研究问题是不够的,于是就提出了Fuzzy上下文无关文法及Fuzzy上下文无关语言,对Fuzzy上下文无关语言的研究目前尚是一薄弱环节.本文对此作了一次尝试,研究了Fuzzy上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理,包括既约文法,派生树,文法的歧义性等等,这对进一步研究Fuzzy上下文无关语言及与自动机的结合奠定了基础.2　辅助定理定义211　一个Fuzzy文法是一个五元组G～=(V,2,P～Ρ,f),其中:1)V是一个字母表;2)2ΑV是一个字母表;3)P～是形如u→Ηv的产生式集合,u∈(V-2)3-Ε,v∈V3,Η∈[0,1];4)Ρ∈V-2,f:P～→[0,1],其中V-2的元素叫做变量或非终极符,2的元素叫做字母(或终极符).α收稿日期:1997208213基金项目:国家自然科学基金资助项目(批准号:69803007) 定义212　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )是一个文法1)对w ,y ∈V 3,如果存在z 1,z 2和u ,v 使得w =z 1uz 2,y =z 1vz 2,且u →Ηv ∈P ～,则记作w ]ΗG ～y (当G ～可理解时,可简记为w ]Ηy );2)对w ,y ∈V 3,如w =y 或者存在w 0,…,w r 使得w 0=w ,w r =y ,并且Πi 有w i ]Ηi +1wi +1,则记为]3Gy (当G ～可理解时,简记为w ]3y ),序列w 0,…,w r 叫做一个(长度为r )的派生或生成,并且用w 0]Η1w 1]Η2…]Ηrw r 表示,换言之,w ]3y 称为由w 0]Η1…]Ηrw r 实现;3)L (G ～)={(x ,u (x )) Ρ]3x }叫做Fuzzy 语言,L (G ～)称为由G ～生成的语言.定义213　对Fuzzy 文法G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),如各个生成式形如Φ→Ηv ,其中Φ∈V -2,v ∈V 3,Η∈[0,1],称G ～为Fuzzy 上下文无关文法,由G ～生成的语言L (G ～)称为Fuzzy 上下文无关语言.定义214 设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),如Πu ,v ∈V 3,有Φ]3u Αv ,Φ,Α∈V -2,则称Φ依赖于Α.定理111(相依性定理)　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )并令H 是Ρ依赖的那些变量的集合.1)设W 1={Ρ},并且对Πk ≥1,令　Wk +1=Wk∪{Α Α∈V -2,对ΠΦ∈W k ,u ,v ∈V 3,有Φ→Ηu Αv }　则H =W r ,r =#(V -2)即V -2的元素的个数2)设P ～′是由P ～中那些Φ和w 在(2∪H )3的生成式Φ→Ηw 组成,则L (G )=L (G ′),其中G ～′=(2∪H ,2,P ～′,Ρ,f ) 证明　1)W r ΑH 显然成立(1)Πv ∈H ,则存在一个派生Ρ=w 1]Η1w 2]Η2…]Ηkw k +1=z 1∨z 2,由定义易知Ρ=w 1∈W 1,由归纳法,假设W i 中各个变量在W i 中,i ≤j ,j ≥2,对Πj ≥2,设wj -1=u j -1Φj -1v j -1,w j =u j -1y j -1v j -1和Φj -1→Ηy j -1∈P ～,由归纳,Φj -1,u j -1,v j -1中的各个变量在W j -1中,由W j 的定义,u j -1,v j -1及y j -1在W j 中,从而w j 在Wj中,所以v ∈Wk +1,又对Πi 显然有W i ΑWi +1,又假设存在一个正整数j 有W j =Wj +1,对Πm ≥0有W j =Wj +1=Wj +2=…=W j +m,即Πm ≥0有W j =Wj +m,由此可得Πm ≥0有W r =Wr +m.所以如果k +1<r 则W k +1ΑW r ,如果k +1≥r 则Wk +1=W r ,不论哪种情况均有H ΑWr(2)故由(1)(2)可得　H =W r .2)因为P ～′ΑP ～,所以如果Ρ]3G ～′w ,则Ρ]3G ～w ,故L (G ～′)ΑL (G ～)(3) 现只需证明L (G ～)ΑL (G ～′)设(w ,Λ(w ))∈L (G ～),则存在字符z 0=Ρ和z 1,z 2,…,z k =w ,使得Πi 有z i ]Ηz i +1,因而对1≤i ≤k -1,在V 3中存在字符u i ,v i ,w i ,Φi 有Φi →Ηw i ∈P ～,其中z i =u i Φi v i ,z i +1=u i w i v i ,由H 的定义,出现于z i 的各个变量在H 中,因而对于1≤i ≤k -1,Φi →Ηw i ∈P ～′,所以z i ]ΗG ～′z i +1,于是Ρ]3G ～′w ,所以(w ,Λ(w ))∈L (G ′),于是L (G ～)ΑL (G ～′)(4)由(3),(4)可得　L (G ～)=L (G ～′)例　G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Φ4,f ),其中2={a ,b ,c },V -2={Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4}.P ～:Φ1→0.5a Φ1b ,Φ1→0.6b Φ2Φ3,Φ1→1a ,Φ2→0.1a Φ2c ,Φ4→0.4a Φ1b Φ1,Φ4→1aba由定理111知r =#(V -2)=4184系统工程理论与实践1999年3月W1={Φ4},W2={Φ1,Φ4},W 3={Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4},W 4=W3H =W r=W4=V -2且P ～′=P ～,G ～′={2∪H ,2,P ′,Φ4}显然　L (G ～)=L (G ～′)下面定理112的目的是删除那些Ρ可能依赖但不出现于L (G )中某字的某个派生中的变量.定理112　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),并令H ={Φ∈V -2 对23中某个字z 有Φ]3z } 1)设W 1={Φ∈V -2 对23中某个字z 有Φ→Ηz }并对k ≥1,令Wk +1=Wk∪{Φ∈V -2 对(2∪W k )3中某个z ,有Φ→Ηz },则H =W r .2)设P ～′由P ～中Φ和w 在(2∪H )3中的生成式Φ→Ηw 组成,则L (G ～)=L (G ～′),其中G ～′=(2∪H ∪{Ρ},2,P ～′,Ρ,f ),其中r =#(V -2).证明　1)显然W r ΑH( )ΠΦ∈H ,则对z ∈23有Φ]3z ,即存在派生Φ]Ηk +1W k ]ΗkW k -1]…]Η1W 1=z ,其中各w j 中的各个变量在W j 中,所以H ΑW k +1.另Πi 有W i ΑW i +1,所以Πm ≥0有W r =W r +m .当k +1<r 时有W k +1ΑW r 当k +1≥r 时有W k +1=W r .所以不论哪种情况均有W k +1ΑW r所以H ΑWr( )故由( ),( )可得　H =W r ,r =#(V -2)2)因为P ～′ΑP ～,如果Ρ]3G ～′w 则Ρ]3G ～w 所以L (G ～′)ΑL (G ～)( )现证L (G ～)ΑL (G ～′):Π(w ,Λ(w )∈L (G ～),则存在字符z k =Ρ,z k -1,…,z 1=w 使得对于各个i ,有z i +1]Ηi z i ,其中z i +1=u i Φi v i ,z i =u i w i v i ,且有Φi →Ηi w i ∈P ～′,所以z i +1]ΗiG ～′z i ,于是Ρ]3G ～′w ,即(w ,Λ(w ))∈L (G ～′).于是 L (G ～)=L (G ～′)( )故由( ),( )可得L (G ～)=L (G ～′).例　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Φ4,f ),V -2={Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4},2={a ,b }.P ～:Φ4→0.1a Φ3a ,Φ3→0.5Φ4b ,Φ3→0.2b Φ2Φ2,Φ2→0.7ab 2,Φ1→0.4a Φ1Φ3由定理112知W 1={Φ2},W 2={Φ2,Φ3},W 3={Φ2,Φ3,Φ4},W 4=W 3,所以H =W 4=W 3,r =4=#(V -2).P ～′:Φ4→0.1a Φ3a ,Φ3→0.5Φ4b ,Φ3→0.2b Φ2Φ2,Φ2→0.7ab2所以G ～′=(2∪H ∪{Φ4},2,P ～′,Φ4,f )其中　H ∪{Φ4}={Φ2,Φ3,Φ4},显然有　L (G ～)=L (G ～′)定义215　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )满足条件:1)Ρ依赖于各个变量;2)对Πv ≠Ρ,在23有一个字w ,使v ]3w ,则G ～称为是既约的1由前面两个定理,我们有下面的结果定理113　对各个G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),存在一个既约文法G ～′=(V ′,2,P ～′,Ρ,f )使得( )L (G ～)=L (G ～′);( )V ′ΑV ,( )P ～′ΑP～定理113的作用是假定任意给定的文法是既约的,这并不失一般性.94第3期Fuzzy 上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理定理114　对G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )中的变量Χ,设L (G ～Χ≠ ,其中G ～Χ=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),对变量Φ和Χ,如果Φ依赖于Χ,则在23中存在字y 和z 使得yL (G ～Χ)z ΑL (G ～Φ).证明　因为Φ依赖于Χ,所以在V 3中存在字u 和v 使得Φ]Ηu Χv ,因为对变量Χ,L (G ～Χ)≠ ,故在23中存在字y 和z 使得u ]Η1y 和Χ]Η2z ,因而Φ]3u Χv ]Η1y Χv ]Η2y Χz ,设w 是L (G ～Χ)中的任意字,则Χ]3w ,所以Φ]3yw z ,即yw z 是L (G Φ)中的字,故yL (G ～Χ)z ΑL (G ～Φ) 定理115　如果v 1…v r ]3w ,则存在w 1,…,w r 使得w =w 1…w r ,且对于各个i 有v i ]3w i ,此外派生v 1…v r ]3w 中使用的每次出现的生成式也出现于某v i ]3w i 的派生中,反之亦然.证明　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )因为v 1…v r ]3w v 1v 2…v r =u 0]Η1u 1]Η2…]Ηsu s =w ,并且有v 1]3u s 1,v 2]3u s 2,…,v r ]3u sr ;所以存在字w j =u sj (j =1,2,…,r ),使w =w 1…w r ,此外也有派生v 1…v r ]3w 中使用的每次出现的生成式也出现于某v i ]3w i 的派生中.下面定理说明可以删除任何仅生成2上有穷个字的任意变量(Ρ除外).定理116　设Φ≠Ρ是文法G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )的变量,使得A ～={(w ,Λ(w)) w ∈23,Φ]3w }为有穷,设G ～′=(V -{Φ},2,P ～′,Ρ,f ),其中P ～′由(1)P ～中所有不出现Φ的生成式,和(2)所有形如v →Ηu 1w 1…u r w r u r +1的生成式组成,其中各个(w i ,Λ(w i ))在A ～中,Φ不出现于vu 1…u r +1中,和v →Η1u 1Φ…u r Φu r +1∈P 且Η=Η1∧Λ(w 1)∧…∧Λ(w r ),则L (G ～)=L (G ～′).证明　因为G ～′的各个生成式都是G ～中的派生,所以L (G ～′)ΑL (G ～).为了证明L (G ～)ΑL (G ～′)( )只要证明(3)如果v ]3G ～w ,(w ,Λ(w )∈23,v ∈V -{Φ}3,则v ]3G ～′w 即可.假设(3)不真,令S 是具有下述性质的最小整数,即存在v ∈(V -{Φ})3,w ∈23和字v =v 0,v 1,…,v s =w 使得Πi 有v i ]G ～v i +1,但v ]3G ～′w 不真,由P ～′的构造某一v i 包含Φ的一次出现,令i 是使得v i 包含Φ的一次出现的最小整数,由s 的最小性,i =1,于是v 1形如y 1Φy 2Φ…Φy r +1,其中y j ∈(V -{Φ})3,j =1,2,…,r +1,因为v 0∈(V -{Φ})3,y 1形如u ′1u 1,y 2形如u ′2u 2,…,y r +1形如u r +1u ′r +1,v 0]Gv 1由P ～中生成式v →Ηu 1Φy 2…Φu r +1得到.由定理115,存在字z 1,w 1,z 2,w 2,…,z r ,w r 和z r +1使得(a )w =z 1w 1…w r z r +1(b )Π1≤j ≤r +1,有y j ]3G ～z j(c )Π1≤j ≤r ,有Φ]3G ～wj(d )在v ]3G ～w 的派生中使用的每次出现的生成式出现于某个y j ]3G ～z j ,或Φ]3G ～w j 的派生中,反之亦然.于是各个w j ∈A ～,此外,因为y j ]3G ～z j 是长度小于s 的派生,所以由s 的最小性,y i ]3G ～z i.因为v →Ηu 1w 1y 2…w r u r +1是P ～′的一个生成式,所以v =v 0]G ～′y 1w 1y 2…w r y r +1]3G ～′z 1w 1…w r z r +1=w .这是一个矛盾,因而L (G ～)ΑL (G ～′)( )05系统工程理论与实践1999年3月故由( )( )得　L (G ～)=L (G ～′)例　G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),V -2={Ρ,Φ1,Φ2}P ～:Ρ→1a Φ1,Φ1→0.5b Φ2,Φ1→0.2a ,Φ2→0.3b 取Φ1≠Ρ,则A ～={(a ,0.2),(bb ,0.3)},L (G ～)={(aa ,0.3),(abb ,0.3)},G ～′={V -{Φ1},2,P ～′,Ρ,f ′}.其中P ～′:Ρ→0.2aa ,Ρ→0.3abb ,Φ2→0.3b显然L (G ～′)={(aa ,0.2),(abb ,0.3)}=L (G ～)由上定理可得:推论　如L ～是一个语言,则存在一个文法G ～生成L ～,使得对于各个变量Φ≠Ρ,{w ∈23 Φ]3G ～w }是无穷集合.3　派生树定义311　设G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )的各个派生Φ=w 1]Η1w 2]Η2…]Ηrw r =w ,一棵叫做派生树的带有附标结点的有穷有根有向树,其中Φ是一个变量,而各个w i ∈V 3,派生树也叫做分析树或分析图,一个句子的分析树的目的是显示这个句子的各种短语和字的句法关系,Φ=w 1]Η1…]Ηr w r =w 的派生树,或Φ]3G ～w 的派生树是如下构造的:树的结点是形如(i 1,…,i k )的某个多元组,其中k ≤r 和i j 是一个正整数.树的有向线段是结点的所有有序对((i 1,…,i k ),(i 1,…,i k ,i k +1)),对Πi ,令Πi 是使得u i y i v i =w i 和u i z i v i =w i +1的生成式y i →Ηz i ,一元组(1)是树的根,而Φ是(1)的结点名称,如果w 2=Ε,令(1,1)是树中的结点,而Ε是(1,1)的结点名称,如果w 2=x 21…x 2n (2)是一个V 字,令(1,i )1≤i ≤n (2)是一个结点,是它的结点名称,假定对Πt ≤k ,在w t 中每次出现V 的一个元素都作为某结点的结点名称,现在(3) u k y k v k =w k ]Ηwk +1=u k z k v k 设(i 1,…,i s )是一个结点,它的结点名称是在(3)中出现的y k ,如果z k =Ε,令(i 1,…,i s ,1)是一个结点,令Ε是它的结点名称,如果z k =x k 1…x kL (k )是一个V 字,令(i 1,…,i s ,i ),1≤i ≤n (k )是一个结点,而x k i 是它的结点名称.对所有k ≤r -1重复这个步骤,最后得到的带有附标结点的有穷根有向树是派生树,它被称为实现,或者被Φ=w 1]Η1…]Ηrw r 实现.一个结点(j 1,…,j l )称为结点(i 1,…,i s )的延伸,如果s ≤t 且对所有k ≤s 有i k =j k .定义312　给定文法G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),对Φ=w 0]Η1w 1]Η2…]Ηrw r ,如果Πi ,w i =u i v i y i ,w i +1=u i z i y i以及v i →Ηiz i 是一个生成式,且u i ∈23,将派生Φ=w 0]Η1w 1]Η2…]Ηrw r 称为最左派生.定义313　一个文法G ～称为歧义的.如果存在L (G ～)中的某个字可以由两个最左派生(由Ρ)生成.一个不是歧义的文法称为无歧义的.例　G ～=(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f )其中P ～:Φ→1b Ρ,　Φ→0.5a ΦΦb ,Ρ→0.3a Φb ,Ρ→0.4ab Ρb ,Ρ→0.2a则Ρ]0.4ab Ρb ]0.2abab ,和Ρ]0.3a Φb ]1ab Ρb ]0.2abab 是abab 的两个最左派生,因此G ～是歧义的.定义314　一个语言L ～叫做先天歧义的,如果所有生成它的文法都是歧义的,否则L ～叫做是无歧义的.定理　如果L ～1,…,L ～r 是无歧义的无交语言,则∪ri =1L ～i 是一个无歧义语言1证明　可约定r =2的情况下证明,设G ～1=(V 1,2,P ～1,Ρ1,f 1)生成L ～1和G ～2=(V 2,2,P ～2,Ρ2,f 2)生成L ～215第3期Fuzzy 上下文无关语言的几个辅助定理不失一般性,可以假设(V 1-2)∩(V 2-2)= ,设G =(V ,2,P ～,Ρ,f ),其中Ρ V 1∪V 2,V =V 1∪V 2∪{Ρ},P ～=P ～1∪P 2∪{Ρ→1Ρ1,Ρ→1Ρ2},显然L (G ～)=L 1∪L 2.设Ρ]Η1G ～w 1]Η2G ～w 2…]ΗsG ～w s 和Ρ]t 1G ～y 1]t 2G ～…]t tG ～y t 是L (G ～)中字w s =y t 的两个最左派生.因为P ～中只有两个形如Ρ→1Φ的生成式,所以w 1和y 1是{Ρ1,Ρ2}中的元素,假定w 1=y 1=Ρ1,因为(V 1-2)∩(V 2-2)= ,两个派生中所有使用的生成式都在P ～1中,因为G ～1是无歧义的,所以派生是相同的,类似地如果w 1=y 1=Ρ2,派生也是相同的.假定w 1=Ρ1和y 1=Ρ2,则派生Ρ1=w 1]…]w s 在G ～1中,而Ρ2=y 1]…]y t 在G ～2中,所以w s =y t ∈L ～1∩L ～2;这就产生了矛盾,因为L ～1∩L ～2= ,于是派生是相同的,且G ～是无歧义的.参考文献1　Chom sky N .O n certain fo rm al p roperties of gramm ars .Info rm ati on and Con tro l ,1959,2:137～1672　[日]水平雅晴著,刘凤璞译1模糊数学及其应用,北京:科学出版社,1986(上接第12页)参考文献1　M Syslo .M in i m izing the jump num ber fo r partially o rdered set :A graph 2theo retic app roach ,O rder ,1984(1):1～192　黄沛钧,程国平1最优箭线图的绘制法则1系统工程理论与实践,1986,6(1):81～823　吴举林1箭线图的系统设计1系统工程理论与实践,1991,11(5):16～184　陈嵩强,齐越胜,孙继英1网络图的自动生成1运筹与管理,1993:3～45　邹庆云1网络图绘制的一种新算法1中国管理科学,1994(3):51～566　闻振卫1一个绘制统筹图的算法1运筹与管理,1995(2):15～227　W u Ju lin &W ang J ianfang .Comp lex ity of draw ing arrow diagram s .V ish i w a In ternati onal Jou rnal ofGraph T heo ry .in India 1992(1):53～5825系统工程理论与实践1999年3月。

积极话语分析

积极话语分析语言学结业论文Contents Abstract (I)Keywords (I)摘要 (II)关键词 (II)Introduction (1)I Literature Review (7)II Theoretical Framework: Positive Discourse Analysis (9)A. Attitude (9)1. Affect (9)2. Judgment (9)3. Appreciation (9)B Engagement (10)1. Dialogic Expansion (10)2. Dialogic Contraction (10)C. Graduation (10)1. Focus (10)2. Force (10)III Data Collection (11)IV PDA of Radio Address (12)A. Attitude System Perspective (12)1. Affective Meaning (13)2. Judgmental Meaning (15)3. Appreciative Meaning (16)B. Engagement System Perspective (18)1. Dialogic Contraction (18)2. Dialogic Expansion (20)C. Graduation System Perspective (22)1. Force (22)2. Focus (23)D. Summary (24)Conclusion (25)Work Cited (28)Acknowledgment (29)AbstractAs a growing method of discourse analysis, the positive discourse analysis (PDA) introduced by Martin has been attracted increasing attention compared critical discourse analysis (CDA). The complementary theory of CDA makes it possible to analyze types of discourse from a productive perspective. With the purpose of positively analyzing the addresser’s real intention, the thesis makes a study on a piece of Obama’s weekly address about the government shutdown based on Appraisal Theory in its three subsystems, namely affect, judgment and appreciation. The study comes to the conclusion that the speaker is seeking the cooperation between two parties for reopening the government instead of simply criticizing Republicans. It also illustrates the applicability of Appraisal Theory with its advantages and disadvantages.Key WordsPDA; Appraisal Theory; radio address摘要作为新兴的话语分析方法，由马丁教授提出的积极话语分析得到越来越多的关注。

语言学专业词汇中英文对照版

语言学术语（英-汉对照）表appropriateness适宜性得体性broadening词义扩大Aapproximant无摩擦延续音Browncorpus布朗语料库abbreviation缩写词，略语aptitudetest素质测试Cablative夺格，离格Arabic阿拉伯语calculability可计算性accent重音（符）arbitrariness任意性calque仿造仿造词语accusative宾格argument中项中词主目cancellability可删除achievementtest成绩测试article冠词cardinalnumeral基数acousticphonetics声学语音学articulation发音cardinalvowel基本元音acquisition习得articulator发音器官case格acronym缩略语articulatoryphonetics发音语音学casegrammar格语法actionprocess动作过程artificialspeech人工言语casetheory格理论actor动作者aspect体category范畴addressform称呼形式aspirated吐气送气categoricalcomponent范畴成分addressee受话人assimilation同化causative使役的使投动词addresser发话人associative联想center中心词adjective形容词associativemeaning联想意义centraldeterminer中心限定词adjunct修饰成分附加语assonance准压韵半谐音chainrelation链状关系adverb副词attributive属性修饰语定语chainsystem链状系统affix词缀auditoryphonetics听觉语音学choice选择affixation词缀附加法authenticinput真实投入choicesystem选择系统affricate塞擦音authorialstyle权威风格circumstance环境因子agreement一致关系authoringprogram编程class词类airstream气流autonomy自主性classshift词性变换alliteration头韵auxiliary助词clause小句从句allomorph词/语素变体auxiliaryverb助动词click吸气音咂音allophone音位变体Bclipping截断法allophonicvariation音位变体babblingstage婴儿语阶段closedclass封闭类allophony音位变体现象back-formation逆构词法closedsyllable闭音节alveolarridge齿龈basecomponent基础部分cluster音丛alveolar齿龈音behaviouralprocess行为过程coarticulation协同发音ambiguity歧义behaviourism行为主义coda结尾音节符尾analogicalcreation类推造字bilabial双唇音code语码信码anapest抑抑扬格bilabialnasal双唇鼻音cognitivepsychology认知心理学anaphor前指替代bilateralopposition双边对立cognitivesystem认知系统anaphoricreference前指照应bilingualism双语现象coherence相关关联animate有生命的binarydivision二分法cohension衔接annotation注解binaryfeature二分特征co-hyponym同下义词antecedent先行词前在词binarytaxonomy二分分类学colligation类连结anthropologicallinguistics人类语言binding制约collocativemeaning搭配意义学bindingtheory制约论colorword色彩词anticipatorycoarticulation逆化协同blade舌叶舌面前部colorwordsystem色彩词系统发音blankverse无韵诗command指令antonomasia换称代类名blending混成法commoncore共核antonym反义词borrowing借用借词commonnoun普通名词antonymy反义(关系)boundmorpheme粘着语素communication交际appellative称谓性boundingtheory管辖论communicativecompetence交际能appliedlinguistics应用语言学bracketing括号法力appliedsociolinguistics应用社会语brevitymaxim简洁准则communicativedynamism,CD交际言学bridging架接性动力appropriacy适宜性broadtranscription宽式音标communicativelanguageteaching,CLT交际语言教学法consequent跟随成分cross-linguistic跨语言的communicativeSentencePattern,CSPconsonance辅音韵culturally-specific文化特异的交际性句子模式consonant辅音curriculum教学大纲communicativesyllabus交际教学大constantopposition不变对立customizing定制的纲constative表述的Dcommunicativetest交际性测试constituentcommand成分指令dactyl扬抑抑格communicative-grammaticalapproachconstituentproposition成分命题Danilanguage达尼语交际-语法教学法constituentstructureanalysis成分结dataretrieval,DR资料检索compactdisk激光盘database数据库构分析comparativedegree比较级constituent成分dative(case)与格competence能力construct编制dativemovement与格移动complement补语constructvalidity编制效度declarative陈述句complementaryantonym互补反义词construction构建decoding解码complementaryantonymy互补反义constructivism构建主义deductive演绎的关系contentanalysis内容分析deepstructure深层结构complementarydistribution互补分contentvalidity内容效度defeasibility消除可行性布contentword实义词definite有定的complexpredicate复合谓语contextdependent语境依赖的degeneratedata无用的语料component成分contextofsituation情景语境deixis指称componentialanalysis成分分析context语境delicacy精密阶compositeproposition复合命题contextualanalyses语境分析denotation外延指称compositionality复合性contextualmeaning语境意义dental齿音compound复合词复合句contrastiveanalysis对比分析dentalization齿音化comprehension理解controltheory控制理论derivation衍生computation计算controlledlanguage有控制的语言derivationalaffix衍生词汇computationallinguistics计算语言学convention常规规约derivationalmorphology派生形态学computationalsystem计算系统conventionalmeaning常规意义规约descriptiveadequacy描写充分性computer-assistedlearning,CAL计算descriptivelinguistics描写语言学意义机辅助学习conventionality常规性规约性designfeature结构特征computercorpus计算机语料库conversationalimplicature会话含义determiner限定词computerhardware计算机硬件conversationalmaxim会话准则developinggrammar发展语法computerliteracy计算机操作能力converseantonymy相反反义现象deviant变体computernetworks计算机网络conversion变换deviation偏离变异computersystem计算机系统cooperativeprinciple,CP合作原则devoicing清音化computer-assistedinstruction,CAI计coordinateconstruction并列结构diachroniclinguistics历时语言学算机辅助教学coordination并列diachronic历时的computer-assistedlearning,CALL计算coreferential互参的diacritic附加符号变音符机辅助语言学习coronal舌面前音diagnostictest诊断性测试conative意动的corpusdata语料库语料dialect方言concept概念corpus(plcorpora)语料素材dialectology方言学conceptualmeaning概念意义corpuslinguistics语料库语言学digitizedsound数字化语音concord一致（关系）context上下文dimetre二音步诗行concordance共现关系countable可数（名词）diphthong二合元音双元音concretenoun具体名词counterfactualproposition反事实命directobject直接宾语concurrent同时发生的directspeech,DS直接言语题conjugation词形变化couplet对句对联directthought,DT直接思想conjunct连接副词creativity创造性原创性directionality方向性conjunction连接词Creole克里澳尔语混和语discourse语篇话语conjunctionbuttressing连接词支撑cross-culturalcommunication跨文化discourseanalysis语篇分析话语分析connotation内涵discourseinterpretation语篇理解交际discrete分离的离散的finite有定的有限的民族学discrete-pointgrammar离散语法etic非位的素的finitestategrammar有限状态语discretepointtest分立性测试eventprocess事件过程法disjunction分离关系example-basedmachinetranslationfirst-personnarrator第一人称叙述displacement移位基于例句的机器翻译者dissimilation异化（作用）exchangeerror交换错误Firthianphonology弗斯音系学distinctivefeature区别性特征exchangesequence交际序列flap闪音distinguisher辩义成分exchangestructure交际结构flexibility灵活性变通性do-insertionruledo添加规则exhaustive穷尽的彻底的floppydisk软盘domain范围领域existent存在物focus焦点中心dorsal舌背音舌中音existential存在句folketymology俗词源学民间词源dorsum舌背（音）existentialprocess存在过程foregroundedfeatures突出特征doublecomparative双重比较existentialquantifier存在数量词foregrounding突出前景话drill-and-practicesoftware操练软件exocentric外向的foreignlanguageteaching外语教D-structureD结构exocentricconstruction外向结构学dual双数experiential经验的form形式dualisticview二分观点experientialfunction经验功能formaldifference形式差异duality二重性experimentalpsycholinguistics实验formalization形式化Eformation形成心理语言学earlyModernEnglish早期现代英语explanatoryadequacy解释充分性formative构形成分构词成分economy经济性简洁性explicitgrammarinstruction,EGI明freeform自由形式ejective爆发音freeindirectspeech,FIS自由间接言显的语法教学法electronicmail电子邮件expressionminimization表达最底程语ElizabethanEnglish伊利莎白时期英freeindirectthought,FIT自由间接思度语expressive表达的想ellipsis省略（法）extendedstandardtheory,EST扩展freemorpheme自由语素ellipticalsentencestructure省略句子freerootmorpheme自由词根语标准理论结构extensive引申的扩展的素embeddedelement嵌入成分extent-conditionformat程度条件格freevariant自由变体emic位学的freeverse自由韵文式emotive感情的externalevaluation外部评估French法语empirical经验主义的externalqualifier外部修饰语frequencyeffect频率效应empiricaldata经验主义的语料extrinsicsourcesoferror外在的错误fricative（摩）擦音empiricalvalidity经验效度friction摩擦来源empiricism经验主义eyemovement眼部移动front舌面前舌前的emptycategory,EC空范畴Ffullyautomatichighqualitytranslation,enablingskills使成技能化facevalidity卷面效度FAHQT全自动高质量翻译encoding编码facilitation便利促进functionword功能词endrhyme末端韵Fasoldfunction功能endocentricconstruction内向结构feasibility可行性functionalgrammar功能语法entailment蕴涵feature特征functionallinguistics功能语言学entrycondition入列条件feedback反馈functionalsentenceperspective,FSPepenthesis插音增音felicitycondition适宜性条件恰当条功能句子观equipollentopposition均等对立functionsoflanguage语言功能件equivalence相等feminine阴性fusion溶合equivalencereliability相等信度fiction小说fuzzy模糊的erroranalysis错误分析figurativelanguage比喻性语言象征GEST科技英语genderdifference性别差异性语言ethnicityidentity民族认同figuresofspeech修辞手段修辞格generallinguistics普通语言学ethnographyofcommunication交际finiteelement有定成分generalisation概括generativegrammar生成语法historicallinguistics历史语言学indicative陈述式陈述语气generativesemantics生成语言学holophrasticstage单词句阶段indirectobject间接宾语genitive属格所有格homonym同音/形异议词indirctspeech,IS间接言语genre体裁语类HopiHopi语indirectthought,IT间接思想German德语horizontalrelation链状关系Indo-Europeanlanguages印欧语given(information)已给信息Hornscale霍恩阶言globaltask整体任务humancognitivesystem人类认知系inference推论推理glottal喉音inferencedrawing推论统glottalstop喉塞音humanlanguage人类语言inferentialcommunication推论交goal目标humanspeech人类言语际governmenttheory支配理论humantranslation人译infinitive不定式government支配hypercorrection矫枉过正infix中缀grammaticalanalysis语法分析hyponym下义词inflection屈折（变化）grammaticalfunction;;hyponymy下义关系inflectionalaffix屈折词缀grammaticalstructure语法结构hypothesis假设inflectionalmorphology屈折形态gradableantonymy分等级的反义关hypothesis-deduction假设-演绎学系Iinflectiveendings屈折结尾gradualopposition渐次对立iamb抑扬格informationretrieval信息检索grammaticalcategory语法范畴iambicpentameter抑扬格五音步诗informationstructure信息结构grammaticalconcept语法概念informative(function)信息功行grammaticaldescription语法描写ICanalysis直接成分分析法能grammaticalform语法形式ICALL(intelligentCALL)智能计算机innateness先天性grammaticalmarker语法标记innatenesshypothesis（语法）天赋辅助语言学习grammaticalmeaning语法意义ideational(function)概念功假设grammaticalorganization语法组input输入能成identifying认同的inputhypothesis语言输入说grammaticalpattern语法类型idiom成语习语instrumental(function)工具功grammaticalprocess语法过程idiomatically-governed习语支配能grammaticalrule语法规则integrativetest综合性测试的grammaticalsentencepattern,GSPill-formedsentences不合适的句intensifier强调成分语法句形子intensive强调的增强的grammaticalstructure语法结illocutionaryact话中行为施为性行interactional(function)交互功构为能grammaticalsubject语法主语illocutionaryforce言外作用施为作interdental齿间音grammaticalsystem语法系统interface界面用grammaticalword语法词imaginative(function)想象功能interference干扰graphiticform文字形式immediacyassumption即时假定interjection感叹词GriceanmaximGrice准则immediateconstituentanalysis直接interlanguage中介语group词组interlingua国际语成分分析法guttural腭音imperativerule祈使规则interlingualapproach语际法Himperative祈使语气命令的interlocutor会话者half-rhyme半韵implicate意含internalevaluation内部评估hardpalate硬腭implication蕴涵含义internalstructure内部结构head中心词中心成分implicationconnective蕴涵连接internationalphoneticalphabet,IPA headedconstruction中心结构implicature含义言外之意国际音标heptameter七音步诗行impliedmeaning蕴涵意义internet互联网hierarchicalstructure等级结构implosive内破裂音内爆音interpersonal人际的hierarchicalsystem等级系统inanimate无生命的interpersonalfunction人际功hierarchy等级体系inclusivenessrelation内包意义能high高（元音）indefinite不定的，无定的interpretation解释interrogativesentence疑问句langue语言（系统）loantranslation翻译借词intonation语调larynx喉头loanblend混合借词intra-linguisticrelation语言内关系lateral边音旁流音loanshift转移借词intransitive不及物的Latin拉丁语loanword借词intrinsicsourcesoferror错误的内Latingrammar拉丁语法localareanetworks,LAN局域网源laxvowel松元音locutionaryact发话行为，表述性言invariableword不变词length长度音长语行为invention新创词语letter字母logicalcomponent逻辑成分inversion倒置，倒装level层，级，平面logicalconnective逻辑连词IPAchart国际音标图Levinson,Stephenlogicalformcomponent逻辑式成IPSsymbol国际音标符号lexeme词位词素分irony讽刺反话lexicalambiguity词汇歧义logicalformrepresentation逻辑式表isolatedopposition孤立对立lexicalchange词汇变化达Italian意大利语lexicallevel词汇层logicalformula逻辑公式Jlexicalmeaning词汇意义logicalfunction逻辑功能Japanese日语lexicalmorphology词汇形态学logicalsemantics逻辑语义学jargon黑话行语lexicalstudies词汇研究logicalstructure逻辑结构Jesperson,Ottolexicalword词汇词logicalsubject逻辑主语Johnson&Johnsonlexicogrammar词汇语法logophoricity词照应Johnsonlexicon词汇词典LondonSchool伦敦学派Jones,Daniellexis词longvowed长元音Kliaison连音连续lossofsound语音脱落kernelsentence核心句limerick打油诗loudness响度keyword关键词line诗行Mknowledge知识linearphonology线性音系学machinetranslation机器翻knowninformation已知信息linearstructure线形结构译Krashenlinguisticuniversity语言普遍性macrolinguistics宏观语言学Kruszewski,Mikolajlinguisticbehaviour语言行为macroproposition宏观命题Kuno,Susumolinguisticbehaviourpotential语言行macrostructure宏观结构Lmainclause主句为潜势label标示标记linguisticcompetence语言能Malinowski,Bronislawlabial唇音man-machinesymbiosis人机共生力labiodental唇齿音linguisticcontext语言语境上下文mannermaxim方式准则language语言linguisticdata语言素材mannerofarticulation发音方式languageacquisitiondevice,LAD语linguisticdescription语言描写marked标记的言习得机制linguisticdeterminism语言决定masculine阳性languageattitude语言态度matalinguistic元语言学的论languagechoice语言选择linguisticfacts语言事实material(process)物质过程languagecomprehension语言理linguisticrelativity语言相对性mathematicalprinciples数学原解linguisticsexism语言性别歧视理languagedata语言素材linguisticstructure语言结构maxim准则languagelearning语言学习linguistictheory语言理论maximalonsetprinciple最大节首辅languagemaintenance语言维护linguisticunit语言单位音原则languageprocessing语言处理linguisticuniversal语言普遍meaningpotential意义潜languagestructure语言结构性势languagesystem语言系统linguisticvariation语言变异meaningshift转移languageteaching语言教linguistics语言学meaning意学liprounding圆唇化义languageuniversal语言普遍性literallanguage本义语言mental(processs)思维过程心理过languageuse语言使用literarystylistics文学文体学程mentalism心灵主义node节变化message信息mothertongue母语本族nominalgroup名词词组metafunction元功能nominalization名词化语metalinguistic元语言的motivation动因动机nominative主格metaphor隐喻move（移动）non-authenticinput非真实语料的输metathesis换位（作用）MT机器翻译入metonymy换喻转喻MTquality机译质量non-contrastiveanalysis非对比性分metre韵律multilateralopposition多边对立析metricalpatterning韵律格式multi-levelphonology多层次音系non-conventionality非规约性microcomputer微机non-detachability非可分离性学microprocessor微处理器multilingualism多语制多语现象non-linearphonology非线性音系mid中（元音）N学mind思维narratee被叙述者non-linguisticentity非语言实体minimalattachmenttheory最少接触narrator叙述者non-pulmonicsound非肺闭塞音理论narrators’representationofspeechnon-reciprocaldiscourse非交替性语minimalpair最小对立体acts,NRSA言语行为的叙述者表篇minimalistprogramnon-reflexivepronoun非反身代词达minimumfreeform最小自由形narrator’respresentationofspeech,nonsensewordstage无意义词语阶式NRS言语的叙述者表达段mirrormaxim镜像准则narrator’respresentationofthoughtnonverbalcues非言语提示mistake错误acts,NRTA思维行为的叙述者表norm规范modalsubject语气主语notationsystem标写系统达modalverb情态动词narrator’repsresentationofthought,notion意念modality情态NRT思维的叙述者表达notional-functionalsyllabus意念功能modernFrench现代法语narrowtranscription窄式音标教学大纲modification修饰narrowing狭窄化nounphrase名词短语modifier修饰语nasal鼻音noun名词monomorphemic单语素的nasalcavity鼻腔numbersystem数字系统monophonemic单音位的nasalsound鼻音number数字monophthong单元音nasalstop鼻塞音Omonosyllabic单音节的nasaltract鼻道object宾语Motaguegrammar蒙太古语法nasality鼻音性object-deletion宾语省略mood语气nasalization鼻音化objectivecase宾格morph形素词素形式Nash,Walterobjectivity客观性morpheme语素词素形nativespeaker操本族语者obligatory强制性素naturallanguage自然语言observationaladequacy观察充分morpheme-exchangeerror词素交错naturalisticdata自然语料性误near-adultgrammar近成人语法abstruction阻塞morphemicshape词素形状negation否定否定结构OCRscanner光学字符阅读器扫描morphemicstructure词素结构negative否定的仪morphemictranscription词素标negativeinterference负面干扰octametre八音步诗行音negativemarker否定标记OldEnglish古英语morphologicalchange形态变化negativetransfer负转移one-placepredicate一位谓语morphologicalrule形态规则neogrammarian新语法学家on-linetranslation在线翻译morphology形态学network网络onomatopoeia拟声词morpho-phonemiccomponent形态networkcomputer网络计算机onset节首辅音音位成分neutralizableopposition可中立对openclass开放类morphophonemics形态音位学opensyllable开音节立morphophonology形态音系学newinformation新信息operationalsystem操作系统morpho-syntacticalchange形态句法newstylistics新文体学operative可操作性operator操作词person人称polysyllabic多音节（词）oppositenessrelation对立关系personal(function)自指性功能polysystemicanalysis多系统分析opposition对立pharyngeal咽头音喉音Portugese葡萄牙语optimalrelevance最适宜关联pharynx喉头positivetransfer正移转option选择phatic(communion)寒暄交谈交感性possessive所有的属有的optional可选择的possiblegrammar可能语言的语谈话oralcavity口腔phone音素音子法oralstop口阻塞音phonematicunit音声单位postalveolar后齿龈音ordinalnumeral序数词phoneme音位post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics后布龙originoflanguage语言起源phoneticalphabet音标菲尔德语言学orthography正字法phoneticformcomponent语音形式postdeterminer后限定词ostensivecommunication直示交post-structuralistview后结构主义观部分际phoneticsimilarity语音相似性点output产出phoneticsymbol语音符号pragmaticinference语用推论overgeneralization过分法则化phonetictranscription标音pragmaticroles语用角色Ppragmatics语用学（法）palatal腭音舌面中音phonetics语音学PragueSchool布拉格学palatal-alveolar腭齿龈音phonologicalanalysis音位分析派palatalization（硬）腭化phonologicalcomponent音位部predeterminer前限定词paradigm聚合体predicatecalculus谓语演算分paradigmaticrelation聚合关phonologicallevel音系层predicatelogic谓语逻辑系phonologicalprocess音位过程predicate谓语paraphrase释义意译phonologicalrepresentation音位表predicator谓语（动）词parole言语predictivevalidity预测效度达partofspeech词类phonologicalrule音位规则pre-editing预先编辑译前加工participant参与者phonologicalstructure音位结构prefix前缀particle小品词语助词phonologicalsystem音位系统pre-modifiedinput预修正的输particulargrammar特定语的语phonologicalvariant音位变体入法phonology音系学premodifier前修饰语partitive部分的部分格phrasalverb短语动词preposition介词passivetransformation被动转phrase短语prepositionalcalculus介词演算换phrasestructure短语结构prepositionallogic介词逻辑passive(voice)被动语态phrasestructuregrammar短语结构prepositionalopposition介词对patterndrilltechnique句型操练语法立法phrasestructurerule,PSrule短语结prepositionalphrase介词短pattern模式构规则语patterning制定模式pidgin皮软语洋泾滨语不纯正外prescriptive规定式pause停顿presupposition前提预设语peak（节）峰Pitch音高声调高低primarycardinalvowel主要基本元perceptualspan感知时距placeofarticulation发音部位音perfectionism完善主义play剧本primarystress主重音第一重音perfective完成体plosion爆破principleofinformativeness信息性performancetest语言运用测试plosive爆破音爆发音原则performance语言运plural复数principleofleasteffort最省力原用pluralism多元主义则performative(verb)行事性动plurality复数形式principleofquantity数量原则词poetic(function)诗学功能privativeopposition表非对立表缺对perlocutionaryact话后行为poetry诗歌立perseverativecoarticulation重复性polymorphemic(word)多语素process过程协同发音词productionerror产生性错误productivity多产性realisation体现R-principle关联原则proficiencytest水平测试recall回忆rulesystem规则系统pro-form代词形式替代形式receivedpronunciation,RP标准发rule-basedapproaches基于规则的programminglanguage编程语言音方法progressive进行体receiver受话者信息接受者rulesoflanguage语言规则progressiveassimilation顺同化recencyeffect近期效应Sprojectionrule投射规则recognition识别samenessrelation相同关系pronominal代词recursion可溯Sanskrit梵文pronoun代词recursive可溯的还原的Sapir-WhorfHypothesis萨丕尔-沃夫pronunciation发音recursiveness递归性假设pronunciationdictionary发音词典reference所指参照Saussure索绪尔pronunciation发音referentialmeaning所指意义scaleofdelicacy精密阶proportionalopposition部分对referentialtheory所指理论schema图式立referential所指的scheme-orientedlanguage面向图式proposition命题reflectedmeaning反映意义的语言prosestyle散文风格reflexive(form)反身形式secondlanguageacquisition第二语prosodicanalysis节律分析超音质分regionaldialect地域方言言习得析register语域secondarycardinalvowel次要基本元psycholinguistics心理语言学regressiveassimilation逆同化音psycholinguistic-sociolinguisticregulatory(function)控制性语言功secondarystress次重音approach心理-社会语言学方法segment音段能psychologicalreality心理现实relationmaxim关系准则selectionrestriction选择限制psychologicalsubject心理主语relationalopposite关系对立selectionalrules选择规则psychologyoflanguage语言心理学relationalprocess关系过程self-reflexive自反身psychometric-structuralistapproachrelativeclause关系分句关系从句semanticassociationnetwork语义关心理测定-结构主义法relativepronoun关系代词联网络pulmonicsound肺闭塞音relativeuninterruptibility相对的非间semanticchange语义变化Putonghua普通话semanticcomponent语义部断性Qrelevancetheory关联理论分Q-basedimplicature基于质量的含reliability信度semanticfeature特征义repetition重复semanticinterpretation语义解释Q-principle质量原则representationalsystem表达系统semanticinterpretativerules语义解quality质representational表达实体释规则量residue剩余成分semanticprocess语义过程restrictedlanguage限制性语言semanticrepresentation语义表达qualitymaxim质量准则retrievalprocess检索过程semanticsentencepattern,SSP语义quantifier数量词retrievalsystem检索系统句型quantitativeanalysis定量分析retroflexsound卷舌音semantictriangle语义三角quantitativeparadigm数量变化表reverserhyme反陨semantics语义学quantitymaxim数量准则revisedextendedstandardtheory,semi-consonant半辅音quatrain四行诗REST修正扩展标准理论semioticsystem符号系统Rrewritingrules重写规则semiotics符号学range范围rheme述位semi-vowel半元音rank级rhetoricalskill修辞技能senserelation意义关系rationalism理性主义rhyme韵韵角压韵sense意义rawdata原始素材rhythm韵律节奏sentence句子R-basedimplicature基于关联的涵Romanalphabetletter罗马字母sentencefragments句子成分义root词根sentencemeaning句义reader读者rootmorpheme词根语素sentencememory句子记忆readingcomprehension阅读理解roundvowel圆元音sentencestress句重音sentencestructure句子结构speechsynthesis言语合成superlativedegree最高级sententialcalculus句子演算spelling拼写,拼法superordinate上坐标词setting场景splitinfinitives分裂的不定式suprasegmentalfeature超语段特征sibilant咝擦音spokencorpus口语语料库surfaceform表层形式sign符号spokenlanguagetranslation口语翻surfacerepresentation表层表达signified所指受指surfacestructure表层结构译signifier能指施指spondee扬扬格syllabicstructure音节结构simile明喻spoonerism首音互换斯本内现象syllabification音节划节simultaneity同时性spread展元音syllable音节singular单数S-structure表层结构syllabusdesign教学大纲设计situationalcontext情景语境stability稳定性syllabus教学大纲situationallevel情景层stabilityreliability稳定性效度syllogism三段论法situationalsyllabus情景教学大纲StandardEnglish标准英语symbol符号situationalvariation情景变异standardtheory标准理论synchronic(linguistics)共时（语言学）slot空缺standardization标准化synonym同义词socialrole社会角色statisticalanalysis统计分析synonymous同义的socialsemiotic社会符号学status地位synonymy同义现象socio-culturalrole社会文化角色stem词干syntacticcomponent句法部分sociolinguisticstudyoflanguage语言stimulus刺激syntacticfeatures句法特征的社会语言学研究stimulus-response刺激反应syntacticfunction句法功能sociolinguisticstudyofsociety社会stop闭塞音syntacticmarker句法标记的社会语言学研究storedknowledge储存知识syntacticprocess句法过程sociolinguistics社会语言学strategicknowledge学习策略知识syntacticrestriction句法限制sociologicalapproach社会学方法stratification层syntacticstructure句法结构softpalate软腭streamofconsciousness意识流syntacticalchange变化solidarity团结stresspattern重音模式syntagmaticrelation组合关系sonnet十四行诗stress重音syntax句法sonorant响音structuralanalysis结构分析systemnetwork系统网络sonorityscale响音阶structural(structuralist)grammar结systemofsigns符号系统sound语音systemofsystems系统的系统构语法soundimage语音图像structuralsyllabus结构教学大纲systemic(grammar)系统语法soundpattern语音模式structuraltest结构测试systemic-functionalGrammar,SFG系soundsegment音段structuralism结构主义统功能语法soundsystem语音系统structuralistlinguistics结构主义语言soundwave音波T学speaker’smeanin说g话者意义structuralistview结构主义观点tacitknowledge默契的知识speech言语style文体风格tagmeme法位speechacttheory言语行为理论stylisticanalysis文体分析tagmemics法位学speechcommunity言语社团stylistics文体学tap一次接触音speechcomprehension言语理解subcategorize次范畴targetlanguage目标语言speechevent言语事件subject主语tautology同义反复冗辞speechfunction言语功能subject-deletion主语省略template模块speechmode言语方式subjectivetest主观性测试tensevowel紧元音speechorgan言语器官subjectivity主观性tense时态speechperception言语感知subjunctivemood虚拟语气testcontent测试内容speechpresentation言语表达subordinateconstruction从属结构testform测试形式speechproduction;言语产生subordination从属testee受试者speechresearch言语研究substitutability替代性testing测试speechrole言语角色substitution替换test-retestreliability一测再测信speechsound语音suffix后缀度tetrameter四音步诗行Uvoicing浊音化，有声化text语篇Unaspirated不松气的vowelglide元音音渡textcomprehension语篇理解underlyingform底层形式vowel元音textencoding语篇编码underlyingrepresentation底层表达Wtextinterpretation语篇解释uninterruptibility非中断性webpage网页textstyle语篇风格universalgrammar,UG普遍语法Wh-interrogative特殊疑问句textualorganization语篇组织universalquantifier普遍限量词womenregister女性语域textual语篇功能universal普遍现象word词theme主位universality普遍性wordclass词类theoreticallinguistics理论语言学universalsoflanguage语言的普遍现wordformation词语形成third-personnarrator第三人称叙述wordgroup词组象者unmarked未标记的wordmeaning词义thoughtpresentation思想表达unroundedvowel非圆元音wordorder词序three-placepredicate三位谓语urbandialectology都市方言学wordrecognition词语识别tone声调音调user用户wordformation词语形成tongueheight舌高user-friendly方便用户的word-for-word逐词翻译tongueposition舌位utterancemeaning语句意义wording措辞tonguetip舌尖utterance语句workingmemorysystem工作记忆系topic主题uvula小舌统tracetheory轨迹论uvular小舌音writing文字traditionalgrammar传统语法writingsystem文字系统transcribed标音Vwrittenlanguage书面语transcription音标标音validity效度writtentext篇章transfer移转variable可变化的Xtransferapproach移转法variableword可变化词X-barTheoryX-bar理论transformation转换variation变异Ytransformationofinterrogation疑问variety变体语体yes/nointerrogative是非问句转换velar软腭音yes/noquestion是非问句transformationalcomponent转换部velarization腭音化Z分、transformationalgrammar转换语velum软口盖zeroform零形式法verb动词transformationalprocess转换过程verbphrase动词短语transformationalrule转换规则verbalcommunication言语交际transformational-generativegrammar,verbalprocess言语过程TGgrammar转换生成语法verbiage言辞transitivity及物性vernacularlanguageeducation本地translation翻译化教育treediagram树形图verticalrelation选择关系trill颤音vocabulary词汇trochee抑扬格长短格vocalcord声带trope转喻隐喻vocalorgan发音器官truthcondition真值条件vocaltract声道truthvalue真值vocative呼格tu/vousdistinction你/您区别voice语态turnlength话语轮次长度voicedconsonant浊辅音turnquantity话语轮次数量voicedobstruent浊塞音turn-taking依次发言voiced(sound)浊音two-placepredicate二位谓语voicelessconsonant清辅音two-wordutterance二词话语voicelessobstruent清塞音typology类型学voiceless(sound)清音。

商务英语信函中模糊用语的语用分析

商务信函中的模糊用语分析和翻译技巧THE V AGUE LANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION SKILL IN BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE摘要本文首先结合模糊语言的国内外研究实际探讨了它的起源和发展，指出它在语言中不可缺少的地位；然后阐述了商务英语的定义及其特点，并说明了模糊语言在商务英语信函中所起到的积极作用，如使商务英语信函中的商务语言表达的更加灵活，从而加强了礼貌性。

中外商务英语信函中模糊用语的使用情况进行分析比较，并对今后如何更加恰当的使用模糊语言提出建议。

在译文中如出现谬误,势必导致双方误解从而贻误商机。

而质量上乘的译文则能取得“双赢”的效果。

关键词：模糊用语；商务英语信函；礼貌原则翻译技巧ABSTRACTThis paper first explores the origin and development of vague language combined with the research at home and abroad and points out its indispensible place. It then elaborates the definition and characteristics of Business English and shows the positive role of using vague language in business correspondence. That is, making business expression more flexible, thereby enhancing the courtesy. To be more specific，it not only makes the delivery of business message more accurate but also broadens human’s imagination. As a result, the listener is going to accept the information easily and the permissive chance will be increased. At last, the analysis and comparison of using vague language in business correspondence at home and abroad will be given and the feasible advice will be present.Key words：Vague Language; Business Correspondence; Politeness PrincipleContents1．Introduction (1)1.1 Necessity and significance of the study (1)1.2 Outline of the thesis (1)2. Vague language at home and abroad (3)2.1 Origin and definition of vague language (3)2.2 Clarification of some terms (6)2.3 Summary ........................................................................................ 错误！未定义书签。

content analysis 英语定义

content analysis 英语定义全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Content analysis is a research technique used to analyze and understand the content of various forms of communication. It involves systematically and objectively categorizing and analyzing the content of text, images, audio, or video data to identify patterns, themes, and trends. This method is commonly used in fields such as media studies, marketing, psychology, sociology, and political science.The process of content analysis typically involves the following steps:1. Defining the research question: The first step in content analysis is to clearly define the research question or objective. This helps researchers focus their analysis on specific aspects of the content.2. Data collection: Researchers collect data in the form of texts, images, audio, or video that are relevant to the research question. This could include newspaper articles, social media posts, television programs, or other sources of media content.3. Coding: In content analysis, coding involves systematically categorizing and labeling the content based on predefined criteria. For example, researchers may code the presence of certain words, themes, or emotions in the content.4. Analysis: Once the data has been coded, researchers can analyze the content to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. This analysis can help researchers understand the underlying meanings and messages conveyed in the content.5. Interpretation: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the content analysis and draw conclusions about the content and its implications for their research question.Content analysis can be conducted using qualitative or quantitative methods, or a combination of both. Qualitative content analysis focuses on interpreting the meanings and themes in the content, while quantitative content analysis involves counting and analyzing the frequency of certain elements in the content.Overall, content analysis is a valuable research method that allows researchers to gain insights into the content of communication and understand the underlying messages, meanings, and trends present in various forms of media. By systematically analyzing and categorizing content, researcherscan identify patterns and gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter being studied.篇2Content analysis is a research method used to systematically analyze and interpret the content of various forms of communication such as texts, images, videos, and audio. It involves coding and categorizing data to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings within the content. Content analysis can be qualitative, quantitative, or a combination of both, depending on the research objectives and the nature of the data being analyzed.There are several steps involved in conducting content analysis. The first step is to define the research questions and objectives, which will guide the selection of the content to be analyzed. Next, researchers will develop a coding scheme, which is a set of categories and codes used to classify the content. This coding scheme can be pre-determined based on existing theories or literature, or it can be developed through an initial exploration of the data.Once the coding scheme is established, researchers will systematically analyze the content by coding each unit ofanalysis according to the categories and codes in the scheme. This process can be done manually or with the help of software tools designed for content analysis. After coding is complete, researchers will analyze the data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships within the content.Content analysis can be used in various fields and disciplines, including media studies, sociology, psychology, marketing, and political science, among others. It can be used to analyze the portrayal of certain groups or topics in the media, to explore public opinion on social issues, to track changes in language use over time, or to evaluate the effectiveness of communication campaigns, just to name a few examples.In conclusion, content analysis is a versatile and valuable research method that allows researchers to uncover valuable insights from a wide range of communication sources. By systematically analyzing and interpreting the content, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the messages, meanings, and implications embedded within the data.篇3Content analysis is a research method used to analyze the content of communication materials, such as texts, images,videos, and audio recordings. It involves systematically reviewing and interpreting the content of the materials to identify patterns, themes, and trends.The goal of content analysis is to gain insights into the messages, ideas, and values conveyed by the communication materials. Researchers use this method to examine the content of a wide range of materials, including news articles, advertisements, social media posts, speeches, and other forms of public discourse.Content analysis can be used to study a variety of research questions and topics. For example, researchers may use content analysis to examine the representation of gender, race, or other social categories in media content. They may also use content analysis to study the framing of political issues in news coverage or to analyze the messaging strategies of marketing campaigns.There are several steps involved in conducting a content analysis. First, researchers define the research questions and objectives of the study. They then develop a coding scheme or set of categories to classify the content of the materials. Next, researchers collect the materials and code them according to the established categories. Finally, researchers analyze the coded data to identify patterns and trends in the content.Content analysis is a valuable research method because it allows researchers to systematically analyze large amounts of data and to identify patterns that may not be immediately apparent. It can provide valuable insights into the messages and meanings conveyed by communication materials and can help researchers better understand the influence of media and other forms of communication on society.。

收敛思维单词填空聚焦重点

7. When you want to emphasize that you're not the only one who thinks something, you might say, "I am not the only one who _______ this."
8. To indicate a preference, you could use, "I'd _______ coffee over tea any day."
37. When you're emphasizing that you're not doing anything, you might say, "I'm not doing a _______."
38. If you want to express that you find something easy, you could use, "I can do that in my _______."
39. To express that you understand something perfectly, you might say, "I _______ where you're coming from."
40. When you're indicating that you are strongly against something, you might say, "I am _______ against it."
收敛思维单词填空聚焦重点
【试题】：
1. When you want to ask someone to repeat what they said, you might say, "Could you please _______ that?"

Affect Analysis of Text Using

Affect Analysis of Text Using Fuzzy Semantic TypingPero Subasic,Member,IEEE,and Alison HuettnerAbstract—We propose a novel,convenient fusion of natural lan-guage processing and fuzzy logic techniques for analyzing the af-fect content in free text.Our main goals are fast analysis and visu-alization of affect content for decision making.The main linguistic resource for fuzzy semantic typing is the fuzzy-affect lexicon,from which other important resources—the fuzzy thesaurus and affect category groups—are generated.Free text is tagged with affect cat-egories from the lexicon and the affect categories’centralities and intensities are combined using techniques from fuzzy logic to pro-duce affect sets—fuzzy sets representing the affect quality of a doc-ument.We show different aspects of affect analysis using news con-tent and movie reviews.Our experiments show a good correspon-dence between affect sets and human judgments of affect content. We ascribe this to the representation of ambiguity in our fuzzy af-fect lexicon and the ability of fuzzy logic to deal successfully with the ambiguity of words in a natural language.Planned extensions of the system include personalized profiles for Web-based content dissemination,fuzzy retrieval,clustering,and classification. Index Terms—Computing with words,fuzzy logic,knowledge engineering,text mining,world wide web.I.I NTRODUCTIONT HE huge amount of text stored on computer systems is getting larger every day.Moving beyond the basic assump-tion that a given piece of text should be easily located,the next generation of systems aims toward integrated,personalized ser-vices and decision support.In these areas,a quick analysis of particular qualities in the text and an intuitive presentation to the user become increasingly important.To match an individual user’s profile on the World Wide Web,for example,it is nec-essary to introduce a human dimension into text understanding and representation.Expectations for modeling the purely sub-jective,human dimensions of text and data understanding are high,on both the users’and providers’sides.Here we exper-iment with qualitative analysis of affect-related information in free text.Affect-related information includes words describing emotions;like fear,anger,love,joy,and sorrow;feelings like warmth and excitement;attitudes like helpful,friendly,hostile; and other related categories such as temperament,humor,frame of mind,mood,spirits,morale,and disposition(including words like sweet,farce,wary,sanguine,depressed,eagerness,selfish). Our reasons for selecting this particular domain are threefold. First,affect-related information is pervasive in electronic doc-uments:in news stories(on politics,competitive sports,etc.), economic reports(corporate acquisitions,investor reactions),Manuscript received September11,2000;revised May8,2001.The authors are with the Clairvoyance Corporation,Pittsburgh,PA15232 USA(e-mail:p.subasic@).Publisher Item Identifier S1063-6706(01)06537-7.customer-oriented Internet sites(,), newsgroups(misc.consumer),corporate customer service, email(customer complaints,questions,opinions),artistic and cultural material(movie and art reviews),etc.Second, affect information is critical to human communication:recent work shows the importance of emotions in decision-making, perception and learning[8].And finally,we believe that con-clusions with respect to affect are extensible to other types of subjective information,such as flavors,styles,motivations,and perceptions,in general.Potential applications for qualitative text mining technology are completely open ended.This paper is an extended version of an earlier paper[9].Here,we present our work in more detail and present more application examples. Analyzing affect in a text presents us with two obvious sources of ambiguity and imprecision:the first being emotions themselves and the second,words in a natural language[10]. Rather than attempting to constrain and limit this ambiguity,we have taken the opposite approach.We explicitly represent and process ambiguity by introducing fuzzy logic into the picture. Specifically,we integrate basic techniques from fuzzy logic and from computing with words[13]with techniques from natural language processing(NLP).This work is also very related to the recent work on representing and manipulating perceptions [14].Since the central technique we use from NLP is semantic typing[7],we refer to this approach as fuzzy semantic typing. The fuzzy semantic typing approach is general in scope and can be applied to many different kinds of analysis.We illustrate its use in analyzing affect.At the most basic level,it involves:1)isolating a vocabulary of words belonging to a meta-lin-guistic domain(here,affect or emotion);2)using multiple categorizations and scalar metrics to rep-resent the meaning of each word in that domain;3)computing profiles for texts based on the categorizationsand scores of their component domain words;4)manipulating the profiles to visualize the texts.We take a multi-faceted approach to representing and manip-ulating qualitative information.We begin with an affect lexicon, which characterizes a large vocabulary of affect words in terms of a small set of basic categories,such as love,hate,happiness, and anger,each to some numerical degree.The categories from the affect lexicon constitute semantic tags,which are associated with words within a broad semantic domain.In the past,semantic tagging has generally been used for the-matic role assignment[3]or for word sense disambiguation (WSD)[4].Our approach is similar to the standard WSD ap-proach in that the lexicon entry for an ambiguous word rep-resents all of its possible meanings.However,where WSD re-quires selecting a single meaning for the word in context,our1063–6706/01$10.00©2001IEEEsystem simply assigns them all,exploiting rather than reducing the word’s ambiguity.For any relevant word that appears in a text,we include all of its possible meanings and connotations in our analysis of that text;and,we depend on the associated nu-merical weightings and the cumulative effect of related vocab-ulary to create a realistic picture of the text’s affective content. Semantic treatments of lexical ambiguity are more typically components of machine translation than of information retrieval (IR)or filtering systems,although there is some evidence that ambiguity resolution can improve performance in IR[6].Our approach is unusual in integrating lexico-semantic tags into a general-purpose text management system,capable of IR,fil-tering,categorization,and potentially other text management functions.We have dealt with ambiguity by allowing a single lexicon entry(domain word)to belong to multiple semantic categories. Imprecision is handled,not only via multiple category assign-ments,but also by allowing degrees of relatedness(centrality) between lexicon entries and their various categories.Gleeful, for example,is assigned to both happiness and excitement,but is given a higher centrality score in the happiness category.In addition to centralities,lexicon entries are also assigned numer-ical intensities,which represent the strength of the affect level described by that word.Thus,for example,abhorrent and dis-tasteful have roughly the same centrality on the repulsion scale, but abhorrent receives a higher intensity.After the affect words in a document are tagged,the fuzzy logic part of the system handles them by using fuzzy combina-tion operators,set extension operators,and a fuzzy thesaurus to analyze fuzzy sets representing affects.Fuzzy techniques pro-vide an excellent framework for computational management of the ambiguity and imprecision that are pervasive in the words of a natural language.There are additional reasons why fuzzy logic is a good choice for text management.First,eliminating ambiguity and imprecision from texts is unnatural and leads to misconceptions about the underlying meaning.When properly understood and managed,ambiguity and imprecision lead to en-hanced,more concrete and precise representations than other (e.g.,statistical)methods used for text analysis.This is espe-cially true in the case of qualitative analysis,when we are inter-ested in what essential features are present in some content.And second,since their emphasis is qualitative,fuzzy techniques are more appealing to humans,who tend to think qualitatively;this makes them good candidates for any human-friendly applica-tion.The appeal of fuzzy analysis will become apparent when we show visualizations of affect sets later in this document. Besides the fuzzy affect lexicon,we generate additional re-sources for enhanced functionality.A fuzzy thesaurus is gener-ated from the affect lexicon and used to expand affect sets;affect category groups are generated by clustering the fuzzy thesaurus to enable easier visualization,navigation,and browsing for the user.We provide a detailed explanation of these resources and the ways in which we generate them,with several practical ex-amples,in Section II.A primary representation vehicle in our system is a set of fuzzy semantic categories(affect categories)followed by their centralities and/or intensities,called the affect set.An affect set with attached centralities is always treated as a pure fuzzy set,and all fuzzy techniques applicable to fuzzy sets are applied to such affect sets.The handling of affect sets with intensities is different and more statistical,since,intensities represent less ambiguous,more quantitative features of the text.Affect sets and the fuzzy semantic typing technique are presented in Sec-tion III.Finally,visualization is a very important issue in our system. It demonstrates the real power of fuzzy semantic typing by pre-senting a concise,to-the-point,qualitative representation of af-fect in texts.Such visualizations constitute an excellent tool for decision making.We show some interesting visualization sam-ples of affect sets for movies and news articles in Section IV. In Section V,we illustrate computational applications of the ap-proach:retrieval of phrases whose affect content is similar to that of a given phrase and filtering of phrases based on a pre-set intensity threshold.In Section VI,we discuss ideas for further development of the system and in Section VII we summarize the paper and its conclusions.II.L INGUISTIC R ESOURCESThis section describes the linguistic resources of the fuzzy typing system:the affect lexicon,the fuzzy thesaurus and the affect category groups.A.Affect LexiconThe affect lexicon is a compendium of lexical entries for af-fect words,with their corresponding parts of speech,affect cat-egories,centralities,and intensities.Affect words were gath-ered from several sources.We began with an existing affect wordlist collected from newspaper articles by Mark Kantrowitz of Justsystem Pittsburgh Research Center.We converted the list to a new format and supplemented it rather haphazardly from an on-line thesaurus.We are currently experimenting with a more systematic,semi-automatic collection method based on WordNet[2],which we hope will prove both scalable and trans-ferable.An affect word is any word having an affect-related meaning or connotation:e.g.,abhor,abusive,amity,apprehend,arro-gance,etc.Any given affect word may have multiple entries in the affect lexicon,differing by part of speech value and/or category.The expressions of interest are a superset of simple "emotion"words:they include emotions(happiness),feelings (desire),attitudes(resentful),temperament(good-natured), humor(hilarious),frame of mind(cheerful),mood(sulk), spirits(morale),and disposition(sunny).We represent an affect word’s meaning by associating the word with one or more affect categories,from our initial inventory of83"atomic" affects.A relatively straightforward affect word,like terror will be associated with a single affect category.An affect word with a more complex meaning will be assigned to multiple categories—for example,infatuation is assigned to both love and insanity.An ambiguous word is simply assigned to all the categories necessary to capture its various meanings:e.g.,mad has three entries,associating it with insanity in its first sense and with irritation and anger in its second.All lexicon entries are root forms;forms in the text are part-of-speech tagged and stemmed before lookup.SUBASIC AND HUETTNER:AFFECT ANALYSIS OF TEXT USING FUZZY SEMANTIC TYPING485 Entries in the affect lexicon are of this form486IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON FUZZY SYSTEMS,VOL.9,NO.4,AUGUST2001 Assigning category labels and membership degrees to lexiconentries is a very subjective process.During the present proof-of-concept phase,the assignments have been made by a single lin-guist.They are obviously influenced by the linguist’s own expe-rience,reading background,and(since affects are in question)personal/emotional background and prejudices.Though subjec-tive,the process is not completely arbitrary—the assignmentsare general enough in the main to yield useful results.Ideally,however,we would like to involve additional linguists,to re-view and refine the inventory of atomic categories and to ensuresome consensus on the representation of difficult items.In a fin-ished system,repeated iterations and use of additional profilesor personal lexicons will allow the individual user to fine-tunemembership degrees and accommodate his or her own subjec-tive criteria.B.Fuzzy ThesaurusThe fuzzy thesaurus establishes relationships between pairsof affect categories,based on the centralities of items assignedto both categories in the lexicon.It contains entries of theformasinarranged in a matrix.When the relationship degree is equal to0,no entry is recorded in the fuzzy thesaurus.When the rela-tionship degree is equal to1.0we say that we have discoveredaffectual synonyms,asin(1)w h e rew e w a n t t o c o m p u t e a nd.h u m or(2)w h e rei s a u s e r-s e t t h r e s h o l d.I t i s wn o t i n g t h a tACG is not a similarity relation in the sense of Zadeh[12],since it lacks the transitivity property.The lack of transi-tivity is a direct consequence of the fact that the ACG is gener-ated from the fuzzy thesaurus,which is in turn generated fromthe affect lexicon.Transitivity can be enforced by computingthe missing relationship degrees from the existing ones.How-ever,we prefer to keep the original relationship degrees intact,in order to ensure the proper interpretation of the original affectcategory assignments reflected in the affect lexicon.Affect category groups can be used for more efficient group-ings of affect categories in visualization charts.An example isshown in Section IV.Since the affect category groups are computed from the fuzzythesaurus,each time the fuzzy thesaurus is changed,the affectcategory groups must be recomputed.This is a computationallyinexpensive operation,since the number of affect categories in-volved is typically small—in our prototype,there are only83categories.III.F UZZY S EMANTIC T YPINGFuzzy semantic typing is the process in which domain wordsfrom a document are identified.The words are assigned meta-in-formation from the typing lexicon in the form of semantic cat-egories and associated degrees;and the categories and degreesare combined to yield the overall representation of the docu-ment’s content.In this section,we describe in detail the steps inthis process for affect analysis.A.Affect SetsA central construct in our affect analysis is the affect set.Itcomprises the set of unique affect categories from a given text,SUBASIC AND HUETTNER:AFFECT ANALYSIS OF TEXT USING FUZZY SEMANTIC TYPING487Fig.1.Generation of the document affect set,a fuzzy set representing affective content of a document.with attached centralities and intensities.The following sections discuss the generation of an affect set for a general document.B.Tagging of Free TextThe process for tagging a document with an affect set is shown in Fig.1.It includes the following steps.1)Normalization and Tagging:1)The document is parsed and tokens(individual words)aregenerated one at a time.2)Each token is normalized using normalization rules forEnglish language,shown as Grammar in Fig.1.3)The normalized tokens are looked up in the affect lexicon.If a token has one or several lexicon entries,we retrieve all affect categories with their associated centrality and intensity scores.Using this algorithm,we generate the initial affect set for each document.As an example,consider a simple document consisting of this sentence:His first film,Un Chien Andalou(1928), co-directed by Salvador Dali,caused an uproar(he filled his pockets with stones, he wrote in his autobiography,so he would have something to throw if the audience attacked him).This document is taggedwithon the basis of its two affect words,uproar and attacked. Note,that since the word attacked belongs to both the affect categories violence and conflict,both categories are included as document tags.2)Combination of Centralities and Intensities and Docu-ment Affect Set:The following algorithm describes how to re-duce the initial affect set by combining the centralities and in-tensities of recurring categories.1)For each affect category that appears in the tagging set:a)Compute the maximal centrality(fuzzy union)of allcentralities attached to that affect category in thetagged document.The result is the centrality of thatcategory for the document as a whole.b)Compute the average intensity of all intensities at-tached to that affect category in the tagged docu-ment.The result is the intensity of that category forthe document as a whole.2)Counts of affect categories are combined with intensitiesusing simple averaging to yield the overall intensity score for the document.As an example,consider the following document:Luis Bunuel’s The Exterminating Angel (1962)is a macabre comedy,a mordant view of human nature that suggests we harbor savage instincts and unspeakable secrets. Take a group of prosperous dinner guests and pen them up long enough,he suggests, and they’ll turn on one another like rats in an overpopulation study.Bunuel be-gins with small,alarming portents.The cook and the servants suddenly put ontheir coats and escape,just as the dinner guests are arriving.The hostess is fu-rious;she planned an after-dinner enter-tainment involving a bear and two sheep. Now it will have to be canceled.It is typical of Bunuel that such surrealistic touches are dropped in without comment. The dinner party is a success.The guests whisper slanders about each other,their eyes playing across the faces of their fellow guests with greed,lust and envy. After dinner,they stroll into the drawing room,where we glimpse a woman’s purse, filled with chicken feathers and rooster claws.The output produced after fuzzy semantic tagging is given in Table I.We combine recurring affect categories into a set of unique tags,with centralities and intensities that accurately reflect the488IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON FUZZY SYSTEMS,VOL.9,NO.4,AUGUST 2001TABLE IE NTRIES AND A SSOCIATED A FFECT C ATEGORIES W ITH C ENTRALITIES ANDI NTENSITIES FOR THE M OVIE R EVIEW OF E XTERMINATING ANGELoverall document content.For this purpose,we discard the orig-inal affect words and the POS information,and combine the in-tensities and centralities of the remaining affect categories.Intensities and centralities are handled differently,since they represent different types of information.Centrality indicates the purity of a quality represented by an affect category.Intensity indicates the strength of that quality.Thus,the number of oc-currences of a particular affect category in the document does not affect its centrality,but does affect its intensity.Centrality,as the purity of a quality,depends on the maximal centrality over all instances of that affect category in a particular document.That is to say,the maximal purity of the quality in the document already implies vaguer or more diluted degrees of that quality and,therefore,is appropriate as the combined centrality/purity for that category.The appropriate operation here is thus fuzzy union.On the other hand,the more times an affect category is present in the document and the higher the intensities of its in-stances,the higher will be the combined intensity/strength at-tached to it.We,therefore,compute the intensity attached to an affect category as the average of all intensities attached to in-stances of that category.We believe this model is closer to how humans perceive intensities of words as they read.For example,if we encounter only one instance of a “strong”word (for ex-ample,greed in the desire category),together with many “weak”words (for example,wish,want,prefer ),the “weak”words will influence the intensity proportionally and reduce the overall ef-fect of the “strong”word.This is why we compute the average rather than some other function,such as the maximum—a max-imum would imply that the intensity of the “strongest”word is the intensity for the whole article,which is not what we expe-rience while reading.Another plausible approach would be to weight intensities depending on their position in the text,giving heavier weight to words near the beginning of the document,or belonging to highly exposed parts of the document,such as the title or abstract.After computing centralities using fuzzy union and arranging elements so that the elements with higher membership degrees (centralities)are at the front of the fuzzy set,we haveviolence,humor,warning,anger,success,slander,greedabsurdity,excitement,desirepleasure,promise,surfeitrepulsion,fearlack,death,slyness,intelligence,deception,insanity clarity,innocence,inferioritypain,disloyalty,failure,creation,surprise(5)where;;.For the example document,overall intensity is 0.6.SUBASIC AND HUETTNER:AFFECT ANALYSIS OF TEXT USING FUZZY SEMANTIC TYPING489Fig.2.Centralities with positive connotations up are shown separately from those whose connotations are negative.Affect categories are arranged into similar groups around the circle.Fig.3.When all centralities from Fig.2are expanded using the fuzzy thesaurus,we get a greater level of detail.Note that additional affect categories exist in the new chart.Centrality values are omitted for greater legibility(scale0–1).Overall intensity is used to detect documents with offensivecontent.For example,high overall intensity(0.7)in com-bination with the specific centrality profile490IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON FUZZY SYSTEMS,VOL.9,NO.4,AUGUST2001Fig.4.News report on train crash in London,October 1999.Centralities describe quality,and intensities,quantity (count and strength)of the affects in a document.As might be expected,the affects fear ,harm ,pain and surprise are most central.The most intense affects are conflict ,confusion ,disadvantage and pain.Fig.5.Profile of a recent cult movie Matrix generated from a movie review.Opposite affect categories are placed on opposite sides of the circle (the left side shows negative affects,the right side,positive).With a well-developed negative side,this movie is deservedly rated “R ”in the US.Affect Inspector.We show a basic browsing setup from that ap-plication in Appendix B.Each affect category’s centralities and intensities can be rep-resented as a point on the perimeter of a unit circle.Centralities and intensities can then be visualized,as shown in Figs.2–8.In order to demonstrate various ways these charts can be organized,we show different charts for different information objects.In Fig.2we show centralities with positive affects separated from centralities with mainly negative affects,for the movie re-view of Exterminating Angel .In this way,the positive versus the negative side of the document can be easily analyzed.More-over,groups of similar affect categories are shown close to each other.This facilitates a quick overview of aspects denoted by those groups.For example,in Fig.2,clarity ,creation and intel-ligence are not as well developed as success ,desire ,pleasure ,humor and excitement .Groups of similar affect categories are generated using the technique discussed in Section II-C.When all affect categories from Fig.2are expanded using the fuzzy thesaurus,we obtain the chart in Fig.3.The chart contains both positive and negative affects,with a higher level of detail,since new affect categories have been added to the chart through expansion.In Fig.4we show the affect structure of a news report con-cerning a train crash in London.We show both centralities and intensities for qualities typical of news on accidents.Opposing affect categories can be placed on opposite sides of the circle with respect to the center point.This is illustrated in Fig.5,for centralities in a Matrix review.With this arrangement,we can easily spot which part of the circle is best developed and understand its affective impact.SUBASIC AND HUETTNER:AFFECT ANALYSIS OF TEXT USING FUZZY SEMANTIC TYPING491Fig.6.Centralities (up)and intensities in T.S.Eliot’s famous “Rhapsody on a Windy Night.”Even the surrealistic content of this poem can be succesfully analyzed.The poem contains mixed affects of weakness,disadvantage,insanity and strength,clarity and openness .For intensities,clarity ,weakness ,and inferiority seem to prevail.Affect categories can be generated for sets of movies.We analyzed sets in the romance,action,science fiction,comedy,and family genres.Each set contains about 15movies and some movies belong to multiple sets (for example,12Monkeys be-longs both to the action and science fiction genres).The results are shown in Table II,along with profiles for news about acci-dents.The generated profiles confirm our expectations about affect categories for different movie genres:romance movies showed high levels of happiness ,innocence and justice ;action movies scored high on surprise ,strength and slyness ;family movies emphasized sensitivity ,morality ,responsibility and nurturance ;and so on.The composite profiles also reveal some less obvious features:high levels of immorality and inferiority in the romance movie set,and high levels of inferiority and destruction in the comedies,for example.Although the results in many cases represent typical characteristics of movie genres,we believe that some aspects of the results may reflect only the selected movies within the genre.Next,we show that poetry can be analyzed using this ap-proach.Fig.6shows centralities and intensities for a famous poem with a very accurate affect profile.Another application of this technique is personalization.We generated affect profiles for different users based on their movie preferences and the results clearly reflect different personal tastes.The illustration in Fig.7shows the centrality affect profiles obtained after merging profiles for each person’s favorite movies.In merging centrality affect profiles,we use the same approach as when merging affect profiles of individual words or sentences,that is,the union (maximum)operator.V .C OMPUTING W ITH A FFECT P ROFILESTo illustrate the computational potential of the fuzzy semantic typing framework,we present here an example of retrieval based on similarities drawn from affect categories.We illustrate the technique on retrieval of similar phrases,but it extends equallyTABLE IIC ENTRALITY R ESULTS BY TYPE。

2021高考英语二轮温习优选练阅读理解提升练主旨大意题1

精编优选练(十七)阅读理解——主旨大意题1 (限时：25分钟)ADuring lunch all my friends were talking about their families' plans for winter break, and I was more than a little jealous (妒忌的) since my parents couldn't take a vacation during Christmas week.I came home from school that day to find a newsletter from the Jewish Community (社区) Center, which contained an ad for an “alternative vacation” communityservice trip to New Orleans during Christmas week. I wondered whether cleaning neighborhoods destroyed by Hurricane Katrina and sleeping on the floor in a sleeping bag were really the way I wanted to spend Christmas vacation. I sent in an application anyway, went for an interview, and was actually very excited when I was accepted into the program.We arrived in New Orleans on December 23.First, we had dinner at a pizza place that had been destroyed by the hurricane. The owners told us about what they had gone through to rebuild their homes.On Christmas Eve, we spent the day removing garbage as part of a beautification project in the Lower Ninth Ward, which was most heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina.On Christmas Day, we worked at a center for homeless people. The people really appreciated our work, and we felt like we had made Christmas a little more special for them.My favorite project was helping at an animal rescue center. We walked the animals, cleaned their places, and fed them. Six thousand dogs and cats, separated from their owners, were rescued by that shelter after the hurricane.When I returned to New York and told my friends about my trip, I realized howridiculous I had been to be jealous of their Christmas plans. I looked around at my house, my dog, my family, and everything I owned and felt really spoiled (被宠坏的). All the things I saw in New Orleans，all the amazing people I met, and the small ways I was able to contribute to the rebuilding of the city made that week the most memorable vacation I can imagine.[语篇解读] 本文是一篇记叙文。

一个小举动就可以温暖一个人英语作文

一个小举动就可以温暖一个人英语作文A Small Act of Kindness Can Warm a HeartOne chilly morning last winter, I was walking to school kicking at the frosty leaves on the ground. My nose was all red and runny from the cold air. I had forgotten my mittens at home, so my hands were freezing! I shoved them deep into my coat pockets, trying to warm them up.As I got closer to the school, I saw my friend Emma sitting on the steps outside, her head down and her shoulders shaking like she was crying. My heart sank. I didn't like seeing my friends sad.I hurried over to her."Emma? Are you okay?" I asked, sitting down beside her on the cold concrete step. She looked up at me with teary eyes and sniffed."I lost my teddy bear," she whimpered. "The one my grandma gave me before she went to live in the nursing home. I've had him since I was a baby and I can't find him anywhere!"She buried her face in her hands again and let out a muffled sob. I felt terrible for her. I knew how much that teddy bear meant to her."When did you last have him?" I asked, putting my arm around her shoulders to try and comfort her. She's my best friend and I hated seeing her so upset."Last night at bedtime," she hiccuped. "I always cuddle him when I go to sleep. But this morning he was just...gone!" She started crying again in big gulping sobs.I looked around, considering what to do to help her feel better. That's when I spotted a little brown lump under one of the bushes near the steps. I squinted at it - and realized it was Emma's beloved teddy bear!"Emma, Emma! Look!" I cried, pointing. "There he is! Under the bush!"Emma's head whipped around and she gasped when she saw her treasured toy. She scrambled off the step and snatched him up, hugging him tightly to her chest."Oh Mr. Snuggles, I'm so glad I found you!" she said, raining kisses all over the top of his matted head. Then she turned and threw her arms around me in a big bearhug of her own. "Thank you, thank you, thank you!""I didn't do anything," I said with a laugh, hugging her back. "I just spotted him over there.""Yes, you did!" Emma insisted, pulling back to look at me seriously. "You saw that I was upset and you stopped to find out why instead of just walking by. Then you helped me look for him and pointed him out to me. If you hadn't done that, I might have never found Mr. Snuggles! You're the best friend ever."I could feel my face getting all hot from her words, but I was happy that I'd been able to help her. Seeing the relief and joy on her face after she'd been so sad and upset made my heart feel all warm and fuzzy inside.As we walked into school together, Emma clutching her teddy close, I realized that sometimes the smallest acts - like just taking a moment to check on a friend who seems down - can make the biggest difference in someone's day. A hug, a kind word, the simple act of listening or offering help...those are the things that really matter. Those are what make the world a little bit brighter and warmer.From that day on, I tried to go out of my way to do small kind things for those around me whenever I could. I complimented my baby sister's finger paintings. I offered to help my dad carry in the heavy grocery bags. I made get well cards for my grandpa when he was sick. And I always, always kept an eye out for my friends to make sure they were okay.Because I know firsthand how much a small kindness can mean. How it can warm someone's heart when they're feeling sad or scared or alone. And how amazing it feels to be the one offering that warmth and light to somebody else, even in some tiny way.Sometimes people think that in order to make a difference, you have to do huge, grand, important things. But that's not true at all! Some of the most meaningful impacts come from the littlest things we barely notice. A smile at a stranger having a bad day. Holding the door for someone whose hands are full. Asking a classmate how their weekend was and really listening to their answer.Those tiny acts of kindness and compassion might seem insignificant. But I've learned they're like the first flicker of a cozy fire on a cold night. Small but bright, casting a warm glow and bringing comfort. And once that spark catches, who knows how many people it may warm and inspire to pass the light on?So yes, I absolutely believe a single small gesture can warm someone to their core. Because I saw it firsthand the day I found Emma's lost teddy bear. What seemed like no big deal to me turned her sadness into sunshine. It showed me that even the tiniest acts of kindness have great power and meaning.Now whenever I see someone struggling or hurting, I make an effort to be there for them in whatever way I can, even if it's something that seems really small and simple. You never know what hearing a kind word or receiving a little help might mean to that person. It could be the warm hug their heart needs, just like finding Mr. Snuggles was for Emma.I hope I can spend my whole life being a bright, warm light in the world around me through small acts of kindness and caring. Because those are the things that matter most. Those are what make the world a genuinely comforting, cozy place, one little glimmer at a time.。

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Are extracurricular classes necessary?Editor’s note: Extracurricular classes or private supplementary tutoring is growing around the world particularly in China. Normally, in major Chinese cities, children have two or three extra lessons outside school. Parents in China pay much for their children to be tutored as they may feel inadequate if they do not help their child succeed in every way. However, it does pile economic pressure on parents and increase study burden of pupils. Are extracurricular classes necessary for students in China? Forum readers share their opinions.seneca (Expat in China)Many of the parents of these pupils lack higher education themselves. They have too high ambitions for their own children. They are not intelligent enough to distinguish between chaff and real education. They have a purely quantitative idea of education. Their children will be disadvantaged in real life with this pseudo-education imposed on them by their parents.huaqiao (China)Supplementary lessons must be catered to the child's talent. Don't just follow the crowd blindly. Be specific and this will benefit the child better and will not waste time and money. In the future, academic qualification may not be as important as skills-based or specific knowledge-based education. What parents must do is to find out what the child is talented in and help the child develop this talent. With natural talent, one is able to perform better and keep a job in the future.Boilermaker21 (US)Frankly, I am shocked at how physically weak many Chinese kids are. They are very intelligent, but they can't walk 400 meters without complaining about how tired they feel. I think the kids today are pretty spoiled. I am sure that 30 years ago, these kids would have to walk or ride a bike everywhere.MisterPanda (France)Extracurricular activities, yes, but only if the child shows interest in it (but you should not let the child drop the class after one or two lessons if he/she said he/she wants to attend, then he/she has to understand the meaning of commitment).Is cloning a good idea?Editor's note: "Zhongzhong" and "Huahua", the world's first cloned monkeys, have been created at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Shanghai. The successful cloning has sparked discussions online. What do you think of this latest scientific development? Will humans be next? Forum readers share their opinions LeonardWong (Singapore)The science of cloning should be further explored and advanced. It is presently not yet perfected. Many cloned animals exhibit genetic illness and deformities. Until the process is perfected, I would not recommend cloning animals.Ted180 (Canada)I have no objections to developing cloning techniques for both animals, including humans, and plants. This is all part of humanity's mastery of life. Science can make us more comfortable and prosperous.One element of cloning, that of animal muscle and fat cells, may spare animals from slaughter for food. Simply grow those cells in the appropriate culture, adding the flavors of the right grazing material, vitamins and minerals, and you produce "filet mignon" without slaughtering a single cow. The opposition to cloning is a kind of knee-jerk, primitive response by people who think we should leave all such matters to a mythical "God". Those days are ending.Animal supporter (UK)I am against animal cloning. Animals should not be designed as medical guinea pigs. Humans are testing new medicines on animals all the time, but animals can feel pain just as humans do. What if we humans were the ones getting tested on, operated on, and experimented on? Just because animals can't speak for themselves does not give us the right to take advantage of them.Ceciliazhang (China)As long as cloning can save lives, I have no problem with it. Monkey cloning is a major step forward that could offer better treatment or cures for serious diseases. In addition, by animal cloning we could save endangered species and bring extinct species back to life.cbcronin (US)I support it in regards to cloning individual body parts and tissues, but not whole individuals. If one day they can clone a body without a brain (using artificial means to regulate autonomic systems), I would support that as well.The problem with cloning entire individuals has been explored by science fiction for years, and many books and television programs have brought up valid concerns. The idea of the incredibly rich keeping developing clones for spare parts, is a frightening thought — and one that is not too far-fetched.Are 'five-star' public restrooms necessary?Editor's note: Since China's toilet revolution was launched in 2015, a number of "five-star” public bathrooms have popped up in cities around the country. Are luxury toilets necessary? Forum readers share their opinions. huaqiao (Expat in China)Public toilets should be functional and not aesthetics. Five-star toilets are an overkill. As long as there are toilet papers and soap and the toilets are clean and hygienic, that is good enough. Money should be spent on more cleaners or more clean functional toilets. We do not live in a toilet anyway. We just use it and go. ceciliazhang (China)People want the toilets to be clean and convenient and nothing fancy. It is a pure waste of money of building luxury facades, and efforts should be made to increase the coverage of public toilets and enhance their management to make them cleaner. Plus, people's concept of proper bathroom etiquette and personal hygiene standards should be improved.pnp (Expat in China)There is no need for a 5-star toilet; you just spend a few minutes in the toilet and make a fast exit once your business is done! People would be grateful for any decent toilet, not a luxury one!mixamixa (Finland)Toilets could be good if there would someone to take care of them properly and they would be built well. The person cleaning the toilet should use hot water, cleaning chemicals and keep the floor dry. Now a very common sight in China is an old woman "cleaning" the floor with dirty and old equipment and cold water. The floor is always wet due to excessive use of water and never dried.Motika (Swden)Yes of course it is. They set a future standard for public facility!HailChina! (Australia)It is absolutely necessary for China to have great public toilets. It doesn't matter what it is - China must do it best, especially public toilets. We have all heard tourists in the past complain about Chinese public toilets but now because of this great toilet revolution the complaining will be a thing of the past.I would agree that fancy toilets are a waste of money - like we don't need a guy playing a violin in there - but public toilets should be clean, well designed and nice. And there should be plenty of them. Now thanks to the toilet revolution we can all visit China with confidence.In the big cities it is easy to avoid the toilet problem by using 5-star hotel toilets. In Shanghai I can recommend the Peninsula hotel next to the white monument at the Bund. Nice clean toilets and even real towels to dry your hands.Can physical bookstores survive in the digital age?Editor's note: In the digital age of e-readers and tablets, is there a future for the bookstores? Forum readers share their opinions.huaqiao (China)Reading a book is much better than reading from an e-reader.1) There is no need to worry about battery life.2) You do not suffer from screen glare.3) There is no need to scroll or click.4) Books can be kept for a long time if well taken care of and there is no worry of memory corruption on the file.These are just a few examples of the advantages of books. I personally think books will not go extinct but will become rare.morning9 (Thailand)I love physical books. Reading on the Kindle is OK, but reading on the iPad is bad for your eyes. But in the end, I like the ability to flip back and forth as I read, and you can't do that with an e-book. Scrollbars are just not the same. I have a physical copy of all the books that I like, and e-books are just for entertainment. andreamoneti (Italy)In the EU it is the same thing. But only in real bookshops and in public libraries the readers can casually make unexpected discoveries. The governments should do something to sustain it.teamkrejados (France)Only for practical reasons do I have an e-reader: I couldn't bring as many books to China as I'm likely to read in one year. In my opinion, nothing compares to the feel and smell of a book. Spending a day in a library is one of the most peaceful times one can hope for.On the other hand...Considering the environment and these newer technologies that do not call for trees to be sacrificed for a good story, perhaps e-books are a good thing. Fewer books, more trees.jaseminsibo (Malaysia)I am a writer, and yes most of my books are sold online on Amazon, JD, eBay etc. The cost is cheaper and the books are available all over the world. However I still love the old bookstores’ look and feel. Something about it makes my heart go warm and fuzzy. I do have occasional book reading events at bookstores, so maybe authors can try this way too. Sell their books online but also have book readings at bookstores. This will keep bookstores alive and relevant, while the authors will have a global presence.Should no-homework policy be encouraged?Editor's note: Some primary schools in Nanjing, Jiangsu province, are starting to implement No HomeworkDay policy to ease the students' burden. The students will not receive homework on Wednesdays. Should students have homework? Forum readers share their opinions.TedM (UK)Homework can be effective in consolidating and reflecting on what is learned through the day, and as a preparation for lessons the next day. However, in China the hours spent on study in school are so excessive that there is little time for other educational and social issues; sport, leisure activities, family and social relationships. These are important too, but severely lacking in the present system.BlondeAmber (Ireland)Homework is necessary to ensure the class lessons have been learnt and understood. For language learners, time outside of class is essential as this is a skill that needs regular practice. So many students I teach don't seem to think this is important: many IELTS and TOEFL students seem to think that once they get a sufficient score, they don't need to continue doing any English practice, whereas this is only a measure of what they know at that point. Homework is also an important way teachers can monitor a students' progress or areas of weakness.Bloke (Expat in China)It is not a matter of homework or no homework, it is a matter of what kind of homework and how much. Excessive homework has been shown to have a counterproductive effect on students academic performances while even those who perform well academically but study too much show negative results in terms of stress and health problems. (Stanford Uni, Denise Pope)Yet, the right kind of homework at the right levels will of course result in increased academic standards. Homework that involves cognitive thought and problem solving, independent learning and research as well as group projects can all be very effective. The main thing is the student needs to be engaged and interested for learning to take effect.SDIvester (US)I agree with students having homework, but it be at the point that it is excessive. I would prefer to see study hours increased during the school day, and having the students grouped to interact with each other. This method seems less boring and possibly more constructive than having to go home and study without the help of others. mixamixa (Finland)Homework is OK, but homework for holidays is madness that I never understood. What's the point of holiday if one has to do homework at home?Time for gun controlOn Sunday, a gunman in a hotel overlooking the Las Vegas Strip opened fire on the crowd at a country music festival, killing at least 59 and injuring at least another 527, making it the deadliest mass shooting incident in US history.Da Wei, director of the International Strategy and Security Research Center, University of International Relations:Discussions over stricter gun control have been gonging on in the US for a long time, but there is hardly any progress; That's because it is increasingly more difficult for different groups in the US to reach consensus. Decades years ago, different groups with different interests in the US were discussing and debating with each other in constructive ways, but today they are quarrelling with each other. The result is endless mutual attacks without any attempts to find a solution to the problem.Especially, the issue of gun control involves conflicts between elites and the ordinary people, between the urban and rural residents, even among different states. With more than 50 killed and more than 500 injured, the price is rather heavy and the US must find ways to mend its disintegrating society.Lack of serious debate In US about gun controlGong Honglie, an associate professor of international studies at Nanjing University:At a press conference, the US police said they did not find any clues linking the shooter and any terrorist organization. There are also suggestions that the suspect had mental problems. Therefore, it is highly possible that the Las Vegas shooting, the most deadly of its kind, is not a terrorist attack or an attack with a political background, but rather an attack launched by someone extremely disturbed who hated society.Yet for the public, there is no difference between one kind of attack and another. They only care about how to stop such attacks and ensure their safety. That's a common challenge for all modern societies, especially the United States where gun control is rather loose and there are so many organizations and individuals that are out of control. They could learn from China some lessons on the governance of a modern society. Concerning gun control, US politicians always rush to discuss it only after a major attack happens. When the attacks are no longer in the media spotlight, they drop the issue again. Hope they will change this time, or it will be too late.Overcome obstacle of National Rifle AssociationZhu Sumei, a professor at the International Politics Department of the University of International Relations: After the tragedy in Las Vegas, US President Donald Trump expressed his "warmest condolences and sympathies" to the victims and their families. However, in order to prevent such tragedies from happening again, Trump needs to push through gun control. Do not forget that the police had found 17 firearms in thesuite of the suspect, an astonishing high number.For historical and practical reasons, guns are a very serious problem in the United States. As the chief supporter of the Second Amendment to the US Constitution, which grants US residents the right to bear arms, the National Rifle Association of America has about 5 million members nationwide, among which there are some quite powerful figures that are mostly Republicans. This group is a biggest obstacle to gun control in the US. Besides that, many Democrats avoid promoting gun control because they do not want to offend the NRA. That's why former US president Barack Obama tried hard to push it but the bill on gun control still failed to get the approval of the US Congress. In 2015, Obama even openly admitted being depressed about this situation.In gun control, Europe does a much better job than the US. It is so strict in Europe that terrorists even have few channels to get hold of them, so they have resorted to trucks and knives for their attacks. If the terrorists in Europe had guns, they would have caused much heavier casualties. Time for the US society to face the challenge.Peaceful, or just aimless?Famous Irish poet Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) once wrote: “Ah! Realize your youth while you have it.” He pointed out the important truth about how precious youth is in one’s journey through life.However, the popular internet slang word foxi – or “Buddhist” – is challenging this norm by encouraging young people to remain calm and peaceful and avoid conflict as much as possible – in other words, to live like a Buddha.The phrase was reportedly created in Japan in 2014 to describe young men who no longer bother to start relationships with women or follow someone else’s life path. They prefer to stay in their own peaceful world without being disturbed and care little about passion and success.Now, Chinese internet users are pairing the phrase with other words to describe a similar mindset. For example, “Buddhist students” are those who study just the right amount – they don’t cut class, but they don’t burn the midnight oil, either. There are also “Buddhist parents”, who interfere little with their children’s lives and let them develop however they like – the opposite of “helicopter parents”.In this fast-changing and competitive world, it’s only natural that people are seeking a spiritual anchor. However, some would compare foxi with “demotivational culture” – a phrase that describes young people who feel aimless and powerless. They say that foxi actually reflects the reality that young people are losing their will to fight. They are pretending to keep a healthy and wise attitude toward failure simply because they’re incapable of succeeding.The multiplication testThe UK has been trying to replicate the success of math education in China by encouraging teachers to use a series of textbooks called “Real Shanghai Mathematics,” which have been translated directly from Chinese into English. Besides, a multiplication test in some of England's primary schools is sparking debate in both the UK and China – where the test originates. The new multiplication test, or times table check, will be trialed at England’s primary schools in March. Some 7,250 pupils in Year 4 at 290 primaries, are expected to take part in the multiplication check before it becomes mandatory throughout the country in 2020.The test, which assesses knowledge of the times tables up to 12, is believed to be more suitable than the Chinese version which goes up to 9, since the duodecimal system is widely adopted in the UK.The test is extensively favored in Chinese schools, and is being gradually introduced to the UK, following the results of an experiment where British pupils who were taught math in the traditional Chinese way outperformed their peers by 10 percent. The experiment took place at Bohunt School in Hampshire in 2015.Supporters have hailed the new test, saying it contributes to a grasp of fundamental math. However, not everyone is pleased with the move.“There are so many things wrong with math education in this country that a times table test is really just picking at a sore,” said Mike Cameron on Twitter.“British students will hate Chinese,” joked Weibo user Bujiubujiu. “I believe it is a pressure on them,” said another Weibo user Feixufeixu.A multiplication test in some of England's primary schools is sparking debate in both the UK and China – where the test originates.英国部分小学推行的乘法表测试在中英两国引发热议，乘法表源自中国。