Leader Election in Asynchronous Distributed Systems

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2017考研英语双语阅读：领导者与管理者的不同

2017考研英语双语阅读：领导者与管理者的不同考研英语阅读提分要多看多练多总结，很多题材都离不开时事新闻，大家平时要多注意阅读一些双语新闻，提升词汇量，拓展知识面。

下面凯程网考研频道分享双语新闻阅读，大家要多练练。

2017考研双语新闻阅读：领导者与管理者的不同“My job was to make everyone understand that theimpossible was possible. That’s the differencebetween leadership and management,”reads the back cover of Alex Ferguson’s new book,Leading .“我的工作就是让所有人都明白，世上没有不可能之事。

这是领导与管理之间的不同，”亚历克斯弗格森爵士(SirAlex Ferguson)的新书《领导力》(Leading)的封底上写道。

It’s hard to think of a business idea that has had more sticking power than the distinctionbetween leadership and management. And, as with most simple but powerful notions, thedichotomy is part caricature, part resonant truth. We have come to use it as a shorthand todistinguish the noble from the slavish, the outstanding from the ordinary, the good from thebad. “The manager is a copy; the leader is an original,”said Warren Bennis, the businessscholar.很难想出一种比领导与管理的区别更引人探讨的商业理念。

大胆创新之处英语作文

大胆创新之处英语作文Title: The Essence of Bold Innovation。

In the realm of human endeavor, innovation stands as the cornerstone of progress. It is the force that propels societies forward, igniting advancements across various domains. Yet, amidst the myriad of innovations, it is the bold ones that truly redefine the landscape, leaving an indelible mark on history. So, what exactly distinguishes these bold innovations from the rest?At the heart of bold innovation lies the courage to challenge the status quo. It involves venturing into uncharted territories, defying conventional wisdom, and embracing the inherent risks. Take, for instance, the advent of electric vehicles (EVs). Despite skepticism and entrenched interests, pioneers like Tesla dared to envision a future powered by sustainable transportation. Their audacity not only revolutionized the automotive industry but also catalyzed a global shift towards greeneralternatives.Moreover, bold innovation thrives on the willingness to embrace failure as a stepping stone to success. It entails pushing boundaries, experimenting relentlessly, and learning from setbacks. Consider the case of SpaceX, spearheaded by Elon Musk. The company's quest to revolutionize space exploration has been punctuated by numerous setbacks, including failed launches and rocket explosions. However, each setback served as invaluable lessons, propelling SpaceX towards groundbreaking achievements like reusable rocket technology and ambitious missions to Mars.Furthermore, bold innovation transcends mere product development; it embodies a holistic approach to problem-solving. It entails challenging systemic inequities, fostering inclusivity, and addressing pressing societal challenges. One remarkable example is the initiative by Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, to ensure equitable access to life-saving vaccines worldwide. By leveraging innovative financing mechanisms and partnerships, Gavi has played apivotal role in immunizing millions of children in the most remote corners of the globe, thus exemplifying the transformative power of bold innovation in global health.Additionally, bold innovation is characterized by its transformative impact on industries and societies at large. It disrupts entrenched norms, reshapes economic paradigms, and empowers individuals to unleash their creative potential. Consider the rise of the sharing economy, epitomized by platforms like Airbnb and Uber. Theseventures have fundamentally altered the way we travel, work, and interact, democratizing access to resources and unlocking new sources of economic value.Furthermore, bold innovation often entails navigating regulatory and ethical complexities with foresight and integrity. It involves fostering transparent dialogue, upholding ethical standards, and safeguarding the interests of stakeholders. For instance, the development of gene-editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 holds immense promise for curing genetic diseases and enhancing agricultural productivity. However, it also raises profound ethicaldilemmas regarding genetic manipulation and human enhancement, underscoring the importance of responsible innovation.In conclusion, bold innovation embodies the spirit of daring vision, resilience, and ethical stewardship. It transcends boundaries, drives progress, and shapes the course of human history. As we stand on the precipice of unprecedented challenges and opportunities, let us heed the call to embrace bold innovation as a catalyst for a brighter, more equitable future.。

经济学人文章(四六级雅思精读素材)2020-08-27

The Economist August 29th 2020 Business 55Depending on whom you ask, Califor-nia is a leader in clean energy or a cau-tionary tale. Power outages in August prompted stern critiques from Republi-cans. “In California”, D onald Trump tweeted, “D emocrats have intentionally implemented rolling blackouts—forcing Americans in the dark.” In addition to pro-voking outrage and derision, however, the episode is also likely to inspire investment.The Golden State has long been Ameri-ca’s main testing ground for green compa-nies. Californians buy half of all electric cars sold in America. Theirs is the country’s largest solar market. As California deals with heat waves, ﬁres and a goal of carbon-free electricity by 2045, the need for a reli-able grid is becoming ever more obvious.For years ﬁrms competed to generate clean power in California. Now a growing num-ber are vying to store and manage it, too. August’s blackouts have many causes,including poor planning, an unexpected lack of capacity and sweltering heat in not just California but nearby states from which it sometimes imports power. Long before the outages, however, electricity op-erators were anxious about capacity. Cali-fornia’s solar panels become less useful in the evening, when demand peaks. In No-vember state regulators mandated that utilities procure an additional 3.3 gigawatts (gw ) of capacity, including giant batteries that charge when energy is abundant and can sell electricity back to the grid.Too few such projects have come online to cope with the surge in demand for air-conditioning in the scorching summer. But more are sprouting across the state. On Au-gust 19th ls Power, an electricity ﬁrm backed by private equity, unveiled a 250-megawatt (mw ) storage project in San Die-go, the largest of its kind in America. In July the county of Monterey said Vistra Energy,a Texan power company, could build as much as 1.2gw of storage.The rooftop solar industry stands to beneﬁt from a new Californian mandate that requires new homes to install panels on their roofs from this year. Sunrun, the market leader, is increasingly pairing such residential installations with batteries. In July, for instance, the company said it had won contracts with energy suppliers in the Bay Area to install 13mw of residential solar and batteries. These could supply power to residents in a blackout or feed power into the grid to help meet peak demand. Sunrunis so conﬁdent in its future that it has bid $3.2bn for Vivint Solar,its main rival.Another way to stave oﬀoutages is to curb demand.Enel,a European power company,has contracts with local utilities to work with large commercial and indus-trial clients.When demand rises,Enel pays customers to reduce energy consumption,easing demand on the grid.A company called OhmConnect oﬀers something sim-ilar for homeowners.Even as such oﬀerings scale up,the need for reliability means that fossil fuels will not disappear just yet.On September 1st California’s regulators will vote on whether to delay the retirement of four natural-gas plants in light of the outages.The state remains intent on decarbonising its power system over the next 25years.But progress may not move in a straight line.7NEW YO RKBusinesses compete to battle California’s blackoutsEnergy utilitiesLitMany big companies may be struggling with depressed sales, but these are busy times for bribery-busters. Mexico is abuzz over allegations by an ex-boss of Pe-mex, the state oil giant, that several senior politicians received bungs from compa-nies including Odebrecht, a Brazilian con-struction ﬁrm (see Americas section). The scandal is the latest in a string of graft cases to make headlines this year, starting with Airbus’s record $4bn settlement in January over accusations of corruption for making illegal payments in various countries.Corporate bribery is hardly new. In sur-veys, between a third and a half of compa-nies typically claim to have lost business to rivals who won contracts by paying kick-backs. But such perceptions-based re-search has obvious limitations. A new study takes a more rigorous approach, and draws some striking conclusions.Raghavendra Rau of Judge Business School at the University of Cambridge, Yan-Leung Cheung of the Education University of Hong Kong and Aris Stouraitis of Hong Kong Baptist University examined nearly 200 prominent bribery cases in 60 coun-tries between 1975 and 2015. For the ﬁrms doing the bribing, they found, the short-term gains were juicy: every dollar of bribe translated into a $6-9 increase in excess re-turns, relative to the overall stockmarket. That, however, does not take account of the chances of getting caught. These have risen as enforcement of America’s 43-year-old anti-bribery law, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (fcpa ), has been stepped up and other countries have passed similar laws. The number of fcpa cases is up sharply since the ﬁnancial crisis of 2007-09, according to Stanford Law School (see chart). It has dipped a bit under Presi-dent Donald Trump, who has criticised the fcpa for hobbling American ﬁrms over-seas, but remains well above historic lev-els. Total ﬁnes for fcpa violations were $14bn in 2016-19, 48 times as much as in the four years to 2007.The authors also tested 11hypotheses that emerged from past studies of bribery.They found support for some, for instance that ﬁrms pay larger bribes when they ex-pect to receive larger beneﬁts, and that the net beneﬁts of bribing are smaller in places with more public disclosure of politicians’sources of income.But they punctured other bits of re-ceived wisdom. Most striking, they found no link between democracy and graft. This challenges the “Tullock paradox”, which holds that ﬁrms can get away with smaller bribes in democracies because politicians and oﬃcials have less of a lock on the sys-tem than those in autocratic countries, and so cannot extract as much rent. Such ﬁnd-ings will doubtless be of interest to corrup-tion investigators and unscrupulous exec-utives alike. 7Bribery pays—if you don’t get caughtBriberyA closer look at greasy palmsBrown envelopes, big chequesUnited States,Foreign Corrupt Practices ActSources:Stanford Law School;Sullivan &Cromwell*Investigations and enforcement actions †To August6543210605040302010020†10152000059095851977Enforcement actionsSanctions, $bnUtilitiesTransport Communications Basic materials Financial services Consumer goods Aerospace & defence TechnologyIndustrials Health care Oil &gas 100806040200Number of cases* by selected industry1977-2020†。

埃隆·马斯克的韧性和远见英语作文

埃隆·马斯克的韧性和远见英语作文Elon Musk: Resilience and VisionElon Musk, the billionaire entrepreneur and innovator, is a name that resonates with groundbreaking advancements and futuristic visions. His relentless pursuit of revolutionary ideas in the fields of technology, space exploration, and sustainable energy has solidified his reputation as one of the most influential figures of our time. Musk's remarkable success can be attributed to his exceptional resilience, unwavering determination, and unparalleled foresight.One of Musk's most admirable qualities is his unwavering resilience in the face of adversity. Throughout his career, he has faced numerous setbacks and challenges, from financial struggles to public scrutiny. However, Musk has always bounced back stronger, using each failure as a learning opportunity to fuel his drive for success. His ability to persevere in the face of failure has been a key factor in his ability to push the boundaries of innovation and achieve remarkable success.Musk's resilience is perhaps most evident in his work with SpaceX, the aerospace company he founded in 2002. In the early days of SpaceX, Musk faced numerous setbacks and failures,including three consecutive rocket launch failures that nearly bankrupted the company. However, Musk remained undeterred, continuing to push forward with his vision of making space travel more accessible and affordable. Today, SpaceX is a leading player in the aerospace industry, with a string of successful rocket launches and contracts with NASA and other major clients.In addition to his resilience, Musk is also known for his remarkable vision and foresight. He has a unique ability to see the potential of emerging technologies and trends before they become mainstream, enabling him to stay ahead of the curve and disrupt traditional industries. Musk's vision for the future is perhaps most evident in his work with Tesla, the electric vehicle company he co-founded in 2003. Musk recognized the potential of electric vehicles early on and set out to revolutionize the automotive industry with his line of high-performance, environmentally friendly cars. Today, Tesla is the leading producer of electric vehicles, with a market capitalization that surpasses that of traditional automakers like Ford and General Motors.Musk's vision extends beyond electric vehicles, however. He is also a strong advocate for sustainable energy and has investedheavily in solar energy and energy storage technologies through his company, SolarCity. Musk's long-term vision for a sustainable future is driving innovation in renewable energy and helping to combat climate change.In conclusion, Elon Musk's success can be attributed to his exceptional resilience and visionary outlook. His ability to persevere in the face of adversity and his foresight in identifying future trends and technologies have enabled him to achieve remarkable success in multiple industries. Musk's work with SpaceX, Tesla, and SolarCity exemplifies his commitment to pushing the boundaries of innovation and creating a better future for humanity. As we look to the future, Musk's example serves as a reminder of the power of resilience and vision in achieving transformative change.。

新GREissue分类提纲-leader篇-原创

8-111-149 In any field, business,politics,education,government-----thosein power should step down after five years.Reason: The surest path to success for any enterprise is revitalization through new leadership.偏负1.正：的确。

A。

revitalization可以带来新鲜血液，当一个机构中长时间的是同一个人领导的话，行为作风想法都难以产生质的飞跃或者突破breakthrough，新的领导可以带来新的想法，有助于创新。

B.revitalizing会带来竞争，为了赢得竞争就会不断的自我进步，从而能够促进整个机构水平的进步。

如果一直稳妥的处于位置上，没有竞争，人的惰性就会阻挡人进行不断的自我充实。

C。

长期处于领导位置，权力过于集中concentration of power，会导致职权的abuse。

不利于机构的发展和正义。

2.反：但是不能这么绝对，A。

要由不同的profession情况决定。

在business，一般的大企业的确可以通过revitalizing来获得新鲜血液促进竞争，但是在家族企业，run by a family，就不可以，家族企业要保证权力的稳定，要保证权力在自己家族的人手上。

在education，可能像校长headmaster可以，但是教授就不行，教授的研究具有连贯性，很多研究都会持续五年以上，而且随着在位的时间的增长，教授的资历、经验都会不断增长，学校不可能五年就把教授换掉，那是资源的流失。

在government，要分不同的国家根据不同的国情和ideology，也许有的国家就可以五年一换，促进领导人之间的竞争，促进民主democracy，但是有的国家国情不够稳定，比较conservation，领导人的在位时间需要大于五年来保证国家的稳定。

马斯克的星链计划英语文章

马斯克的星链计划英语文章English:Elon Musk's Starlink project aims to provide global high-speed broadband coverage by deploying a constellation of satellites in low Earth orbit. The ultimate goal is to bridge the digital divide by offering internet access to remote and underserved areas around the world. Unlike traditional internet providers, Starlink's satellites operate closer to the Earth, reducing signal latency and delivering faster connectivity. This technology has the potential to revolutionize internet access in rural communities, on ships, airplanes, and in disaster-stricken regions where traditional infrastructure is lacking. With thousands of satellites already launched and more planned for deployment, Starlink is steadily expanding its coverage and improving its service quality. Despite facing challenges such as regulatory hurdles and concerns over space debris, Elon Musk remains committed to his vision of creating a global satellite internet network that is fast, reliable, and accessible to all.中文翻译:马斯克的星链计划旨在通过在近地轨道部署一组卫星网络，提供全球高速宽带覆盖。

阿尔斯通附件翻译版

5
组织图、工作描述、报告行为每个职位必须有记录要求工作岗位描述, 相关的工作人员必须明确了解自己的职责 (他们自己能找到相关的文件吗?项目的每一职位的工作职责必须标准化工作负载整合允许资源管理得到最新的3次工作情况行动计划管理
确保一个适当的组织和管理过程来覆盖所有产品开发和实现阶段开放问题早期明确指出,解决,圆满地关闭
1.3 -是否有设计评审?
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确保项目是通过QCDT驱动指标确保供应商定期监控,他将不会影响客户的关键日期
1.4 -是否有明确的指标，针对预期目标 (QCDT)，评估项目的进展吗? 如果出现偏差，是否有一个流程监控指标与反应模式?是否有管理的项目关键路径吗?
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检查涉及到它们的发展实际的项目指标和行动计划
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P-FMEA或等效可用与主要风险缓解的行动计划。控制计划应与P-FMEA的一致性，并整合了REX，至少与客户的问题保持一致
确保 - 关键过程的识别，记录和验证（关键参数，过程能力和优化） - 细节或项目所需的新技术进行识别和人进行培训
1.7 - 对于每一个与安全相关的或关键过程（过程影响产品的功能/性能，内部和外部），是否有资格文件（工艺参数及组装业务，设备和运营商）？
确保系统到位，充分获取客户/产品的要求和所需的所有流程到位和验证。确保适用DTRF都可用，并处在良好的水平这个过程涵盖了所有的开发和执行阶段
1.5 - 供应商是否有一个过程，让审查并捕捉客户对相关的产品/过程的要求？这个过程是否包括偏差请求和管理？审查输出如何被告知到项目团队？ TIS：子句“工业参考COS”可与阿尔斯通共享的条款？
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检查供应商建立了： - 与识别的漏洞/问题逐字逐句的审查条款 - 适用标准需要特别的资格 - 存在的偏差过程 - 制造和测试计划样品

制冷专业英语大全e

制冷专业英语根本术语制冷refrigeration蒸发制冷evaporative refrigeration沙漠袋desert bag制冷机refrigerating machine制冷机械refrigerating machinery制冷工程refrigeration engineering制冷工程承包商refrigeration contractor制冷工作者refrigerationist制冷工程师refrigeration engineer制冷技术员refrigeration technician制冷技师refrigeration technician制冷技工refrigeration mechanic冷藏工人icer制冷安装技工refrigeration installation mechanic 制冷维修技工refrigeration serviceman冷藏链cold chain制冷与空调维修店refrigeration and air conditioning repair shop冷藏refrigerated prvservation一般制冷换热器英语换热器heat exchanger热交换器heat exchanger紧凑式换热器compact heat exchanger管式换热器tubular heat exchanger套管式换热器double-pipe heat exchanger间壁式换热器surface type heat exchanger外表式换热器surface type heat exchanger板管式换热器tube-on-sheet heat exchanger板翅式换热器plate-fin heat exchanger板式换热器plate heat exchanger螺旋板式换热器spiral plate heat exchanger平板式换热器flat plate heat exchanger顺流式换热器parallel flow heat exchanger逆流式换热器counter flow heat exchanger*流式换热器cross-flow heat echanger折流式换热器turn back flow heat exchanger直接接触式换热器direct heat exchanger旋转式换热器rotary heat exchanger刮削式换热器scraped heat exchanger热管式换热器heat pipe exchanger蓄热器recuperator壳管式换热器shell and tube heat exchanger管板tube plate可拆端盖removable head管束bundle of tube 管束尺寸size of tube bundle顺排管束in-line hank of tubes错排管束staggered hank of tubes盘管coil蛇形管serpentine coilU形管U-tube光管bare tube肋片管finned tube翅片管finned tube肋管finned tube肋管束finned tube bundle肋片fin套片plate fin螺旋肋spiral fin整体肋integral fin纵向肋longitudinal fin钢丝肋wire fin内肋inner fin肋片管尺寸size of fin tube肋片厚度fin thickness肋距spacing of fin肋片数pitch of fin肋片长度finned length肋片高度finned height肋效率fin efficiency换热面积heat exchange surface传热面积heat exchange surface冷却面积cooling surface加热外表heat exchange surface基外表primary surface扩展外表extended surface肋化外表finned surface迎风外表face area流通外表flow area净截面积net area;effective sectional area迎风面流速face velocity净截面流速air velocity at net area迎风面质量流速face velocity of mass净截面质量流速mass velocity at net area冷〔热〕媒有效流通面积effective area for cooling or heating medium冷〔热〕媒流速velocity of cooling or heating medium干工况dry condition；sensible cooling condition 湿工况wet condition；dehumidifying condition接触系数contact factor旁通系数bypass factor换热效率系数coefficient of heat transmission effectiveness盘管风阻力air pressure drop of coil；air resistance of coil盘管水阻力pressure drop of cooling or heating medium外表冷却surface cooling蒸发冷却evaporating cooling冷却元件cooling element涡流管制冷英语涡流制冷效应vortex refrigerating effect兰克-赫尔胥效应Ranque-Hilsch effect涡流管制冷vortex tube refrigeration涡流管vortex tube兰克管Ranque tube膨胀喷嘴expansion injector涡流室vortex device别离孔板separation orifice调节阀control valve膨胀压力比expansion pressure ratio冷气流分量cold gas fraction热气流分量hot gas fraction冷却效应cooling effect加热效应heating effect冷却效率cooling efficiency磁制冷英语磁热效应magnetocaloric effect磁制冷magnetic refrigeration磁制冷机magnetic refrigerating machine磁冰箱magnetic refrigerator压缩机制冷系统及机组制冷系统refrigeration system制冷机refrigerating machine机械压缩制冷系统mechanical compression refrigeration system蒸气压缩制冷系统vapour compression refrigeration system压缩式系统compression system压缩机compressor制冷压缩机refrigerating compressor,refrigerant compressor吸气端suction end排气端discharge end低压侧low pressure side高压侧high pressure side蒸发压力evaporating pressure 吸气压力suction pressure,back pressure排气压力discharge pressure蒸发温度evaporating temperature冷凝压力condensing pressure冷凝温度condensing temperature吸气温度suction temperature回气温度back temperature排气温度discharge temperature压缩比compression ratio双效压缩dual compression单级压缩single-stage compression双级压缩compound compression多级压缩multistage compression压缩级compression stage低压级low pressure stage高压级high pressure stage中间压力intermediate pressure中间冷却intercooling多级膨胀multistage expansion湿压缩wet compression干压缩dry compression制冷系统refrigerating system机械制冷系统mechanical refrigerating system氟利昂制冷系统freon refrigerating system氨制冷系统ammonia refrigerating system压缩式制冷系统compression refrigerating system 单级压缩制冷系统single-stage compression refrigeration system双级压缩制冷系统two-stage compression refrigeration system多级制冷系统multistage refrigerating system复叠式制冷系统cascade refrigerating system混合制冷剂复叠系统mixed refrigerant cascade集中制冷系统central refrigerating plant直接制冷系统direct refrigeration system直接膨胀供液制冷系统refrigeration system with supply liqiud direct expansion重力供液制冷系统refrigeration system with supply liquid refrigerant for the evaporator by gravity液泵供液制冷系统refrigeration system with supply liquid refrigerant for evaporator by liquid pump间接制冷系统indirect refrigeration system融霜系统defrosting system热气融霜系统defrosting system by superheated vapour电热融霜系统eletrothermal defrosting system制冷系统故障breakdown of the refrigeratingsystem冰堵freeze-up冰塞ice plug脏堵filth blockage油堵greasy blockage液击〔冲缸、敲缸〕slugging湿行程wet stroke镀铜现象appearance of copper-plating烧毁burn-out倒霜frost back制冷机组refrigerating unit压缩机组compressor unit开启式压缩机组open type compresssor unit开启式压缩机open type compressor半封闭式压缩机组semihermetic compressor unit 半封闭式压缩机semihermetic compressor全封闭式压缩机组hermetically sealed compressor unit全封闭式压缩机hermetically sealed compressor压缩冷凝机组condensing unit全封闭式压缩冷凝机组hermetically sealed condensing unit半封闭式压缩冷凝机组semihermetically sealed condensing unit开启式压缩冷凝机组open type compressor condensing unit工业用压缩冷凝机组industrial condensing unit商业用压缩冷凝机组commercial condensing unit 整马力压缩冷凝机组integral horsepower condensing unit分马力压缩冷凝机组fractional horsepower condensing unit跨式制冷机组straddle refrigerating unit容积式压缩机及零部件英语容积式压缩机positive displacement compressor往复式压缩机〔活塞式压缩机〕reciprocating compressor回转式压缩机rotary compressor滑片式压缩机sliding vane compressor单滑片回转式压缩机single vane rotary compressor滚动转子式压缩机rolling rotor compressor三角转子式压缩机triangle rotor compressor多滑片回转式压缩机multi-vane rotary compressor 滑片blade旋转活塞式压缩机rolling piston compressor 涡旋式压缩机scroll compressor涡旋盘scroll固定涡旋盘stationary scroll,fixed scroll驱动涡旋盘driven scroll,orbiting scroll斜盘式压缩机〔摇盘式压缩机〕swash plate compressor斜盘swash plate摇盘wobble plate螺杆式压缩机screw compressor单螺杆压缩机single screw compressor阴转子female rotor阳转子male rotor主转子main rotor闸转子gate rotor无油压缩机oil free compressor膜式压缩机diaphragm compressor活塞式压缩机reciprocating compressor单作用压缩机single acting compressor双作用压缩机double acting compressor双效压缩机dual effect compressor双缸压缩机twin cylinder compressor闭式曲轴箱压缩机closed crankcase compressor开式曲轴箱压缩机open crankcase compressor顺流式压缩机uniflow compressor逆流式压缩机return flow compressor干活塞式压缩机dry piston compressor双级压缩机compund compressor多级压缩机multistage compressor差动活塞式压缩机stepped piston compound compressor,differential piston compressor串轴式压缩机tandem compressor,dual compressor截止阀line valve,stop valve排气截止阀discharge line valve吸气截止阀suction line valve局部负荷旁通口partial duty port能量调节器energy regulator容量控制滑阀capacity control slide valve容量控制器capacity control消声器muffler联轴节coupling曲轴箱crankcase曲轴箱加热器crankcase heater轴封crankcase seal,shaft seal填料盒stuffing box轴封填料shaft packing机械密封mechanical seal波纹管密封bellows seal转动密封rotary seal迷宫密封labyrinth seal轴承bearing滑动轴承sleeve bearing偏心环eccentric strap滚珠轴承ball bearing滚柱轴承roller bearing滚针轴承needle bearing止推轴承thrust bearing外轴承pedestal bearing臼形轴承footstep bearing轴承箱bearing housing止推盘thrust collar偏心销eccentric pin曲轴平衡块crankshaft counterweight,crankshaft balance weight曲柄轴crankaxle偏心轴eccentric type crankshaft曲拐轴crankthrow type crankshaft连杆connecting rod连杆大头crank pin end连杆小头piston pin end曲轴crankshaft主轴颈main journal曲柄crank arm,crank shaft曲柄销crank pin曲拐crank throw曲拐机构crank-toggle阀盘valve disc阀杆valve stem阀座valve seat阀板valve plate阀盖valve cage阀罩valve cover阀升程限制器valve lift guard阀升程valve lift阀孔valve port吸气口suction inlet压缩机气阀compressor valve吸气阀suction valve排气阀delivery valve圆盘阀disc valve环片阀ring plate valve簧片阀reed valve舌状阀cantilever valve条状阀beam valve 提升阀poppet valve菌状阀mushroom valve杯状阀tulip valve缸径cylinder bore余隙容积clearance volume附加余隙〔补充余隙〕clearance pocket活塞排量swept volume,piston displacement理论排量theoretical displacement实际排量actual displacement实际输气量actual displacement,actual output of gas气缸工作容积working volume of the cylinder活塞行程容积piston displacement气缸cylinder气缸体cylinder block气缸壁cylinder wall水冷套water cooled jacket气缸盖〔气缸头〕cylinder head平安盖〔假盖〕safety head假盖false head活塞环piston ring气环sealing ring刮油环scraper ring油环scrape ring活塞销piston pin活塞piston活塞行程piston stroke吸气行程suction stroke膨胀行程expansion stroke压缩行程compression stroke排气行程discharge stroke升压压缩机booster compressor立式压缩机vertical compressor卧式压缩机horizontal compressor角度式压缩机angular type compressor对称平衡型压缩机symmetrically balanced type compress吸收式制冷机英语吸收式制冷机absorption refrigerating machine吸收式制冷系统absorption refrigerating system间歇式吸收系统intermittent absoprtion system连续循环吸收式系统continuous cycle absorption system固体吸收式制冷solid absorption refrigeration氨-水吸收式制冷机ammonia/water absorption refrigerating machine单级氨-水吸收式制冷机single stage ammonia/water absorption refrigerating machine 多级氨-水吸收式制冷机multistage ammonia/water absorption refrigerating machine 双级氨-水吸收式制冷机ammonia/water absorption refrigerating machine with two stage absorption process双级发生和双级吸收式氨-水制冷机ammonia/water absorption refrigerating machine with two stage generation and absoprtion process 分解decomposition水解hydrolysis扩散diffusion能量增强剂energy booster缓蚀剂anticorrsive发生缺乏incomplete boiling吸收缺乏incomplete absorption喷淋密度sprinkle density溴化锂lithium bromide溴化锂水溶液aqueous solution of lithium bromide 氨水溶液aqueous solution of ammonia吸收剂absorbent,absorbing agent吸附剂adsorbent溶液solution浓度concentration溶解度solubility溶剂solvent溶质solute浓溶液rich solution,concentrated solution稀溶液weak solution,diluted solution溶液分压partial pressure of liquor吸收absorption吸附adsorption吸收式制冷absorption refrigeration吸附式制冷adsorption refrigeration工质对working substance热力系数heat ratio放气范围deflation ratio焓-浓度图enthalpy concentration chart溴化锂吸收式制冷机lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine单效型溴化锂吸收式制冷机single-effect lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine两效型溴化锂吸收式制冷机double-effect lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine单筒型溴化锂吸收式制冷机one-shell lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine 双筒型溴化锂吸收式制冷机two-shell lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine三筒型溴化锂吸收式制冷机three-shell lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine两级溴化锂吸收式制冷机two-stage lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine直燃式溴化锂吸收式制冷机direct-fired lithiumbormide absorption refrigerating machine 溴化锂吸收式冷温水机组lithiumbromide absorption water heater chiller无泵型溴化锂吸收式制冷机lithiumbromide absorption refrigerating machine with bubble pump 蒸汽型吸收式制冷机steam operated absorption refrigerating machine热水型吸收式制冷机hot water operated absorption refrigerating machine发生器generator沉浸式发生器submerged generator喷淋式发生器spray-type generator立式降膜式发生器vertical falling film generator直燃式发生器direct-fired generator高压发生器high pressure generator低压发生器low pressure generator吸收器absorber喷淋式吸收器spray absorber降膜式吸收器falling film absorber立式降膜式吸收器vertical falling film absorber卧式降膜式吸收器horizontal falling film absorber 喷淋装置spray system溶液换热器solution heat exchanger溶晶管anti-crystallinic pipe抽气装置purging system精馏器rectifier屏蔽泵shield pump发生器泵generator pump吸收器泵absorber pump蒸发器泵evaporator pump溶液泵solution pump氨水泵aqua-ammonia pump混合阀mixing valve太阳能制冷与供热英语太阳能solar energy太阳常数solar constant太阳能系统solar energy system被动式太阳能系统passive solar energy system主动式太阳能系统active solar energy system混合式太阳能系统hybrid solar energy system太阳能制冷solar cooling太阳能热机驱动制冷solarpowered cooling太阳能吸收式制冷机solar absorption refrigerating machine光-热转换制冷photothermal refrigeration光-电转换制冷photoelectrical refrigeration太阳能蒸汽喷射制冷机solar steam jet refrigerating machine连续式太阳能吸收式制冷机continual solar absorption refrigerating machine间歇式太阳能吸收式制冷机intermittent solar absorption refrigerating machine敞开式太阳能吸收式制冷机open solar absorption refrigerating machine太阳能空调装置solar air-conditioning system太阳能制冷系统solar energy cooling system,solar cooling system太阳能集热器solar collector选择式吸收外表selective absorber surface电淀积electrodeposition平板型太阳能集热器flat plate solar collector真空管太阳能集热器tubular solar collector,vacuum tube collector聚光型太阳能机热器focus solar collector集热量heat-collecting capacity集热温度heat-collecting temperature集热效率heat-collecting efficiency蓄热介质heat storge medium岩石蓄热容器rock storge container辅助热源supplementary heat source太阳能贮存系统solar energy storge system太阳能供热系统solar heating system,solar space heating installation自然循环闭式供水系统natural convection closed water system强制循环闭式供水系统forced convection in a closed water system热风供热系统warm air heating system家用太阳能热水系统solar domestic water heating system热管与余热制冷英语热管heat pipe深冷热管cryogenic heat pipe低温热管low temperature heat pipe中温热管moderate temperature heat pipe 高温热管liquid metal heat pipe管芯wick相容性compatibility传热极限heat transport limitation重力热管gravity assisted heat pipe热管换热器heat pipe exchanger深冷热管手术器heat pipe surgery cryoprobe余热exhaust heat低温余热low temperature exhaust heat余热制冷utilizing waste heat for refrigeration氟利昂透平freon turbine氟利昂透平离心式制冷机centrifugal refrigerating machine driven by freon turbine动力-制冷循环power/refrigeration cycle透平压缩机及零部件英语涡流swirl叶片颤振blade flutter叶片通过频率blade passing frequency喘振surging脱流stall叶轮反响度(反作用度) impeller reaction叶轮impeller半开式叶轮unshrouded impeller闭式叶轮shrouded impeller叶片blade,vane导流叶片组件pre-rotary vane assembly扩压器diffuser蜗壳scroll滑动slip透平压缩机turbocompressor离心式压缩机centrifugal compressor轴流式压缩机axial flow compressor刚性轴离心式压缩机stiff-shaft centrifugal compressor挠性轴离心式压缩机flexibleshaft centrifugal compressor亚音速压缩机subsonic compressor超音速压缩机supersonic compressor冷却塔英语自然通风式冷却塔atmpspheric cooling tower，natural draught cooling tower机械通风式冷水塔mechanical draught cooling tower吸风式冷水塔induced draught cooling tower送风式冷水塔forced draught cooling tower水膜式冷水塔film cooling tower水滴式冷水塔drop cooling tower喷雾式冷水塔spray cooling tower拉西环Rasching rings温度接近值approach水垢scale水垢抑制剂scale inhibitor藻类algae防藻剂algaecide淀渣slime升压阀back-up valve冷水塔water cooling tower，cooling tower凉水塔water cooling tower，cooling tower冷却塔water cooling tower，cooling tower喷水池spray pond干式冷水塔dry cooling tower湿-干式冷水塔wet-dry cooling tower冷水塔填料packing of cooling tower，fill of cooling tower膜式填料film packing帘栅形填料grid packing，grid fill片式填料plate packing，plate fill松散填料random packing，random fill飞溅式填料splash packing空气压缩制冷系统英语空气循环制冷air-cycle refrigeration空气循环制冷机air-cycle refrigerating machine涡轮冷却器turbine cooler温降temperature drops开式循环open cycle闭式循环closed cycle除水water elimination补气air supply回热式空气制冷循环regenerative air cycle飞机座舱空调系统aircraft air-conditioning system 增压式飞机空调系统"Bootstrap" system冲压空气ram air制冷系统自动调节流量调节flow regulation制冷剂控制器refrigerant control膨胀阀expansion valve节流阀throttle valve热力膨胀阀thermostatic expansion valve热电膨胀阀thermal electric expansion valve内平衡热力膨胀阀internal equalizer thermostaice expansion valve外平衡热力膨胀阀external equalizer thermostaice expansion valve外平衡管external equalizer pipe内平衡管internal equalizer pipe蒸发器阻力损失pressure drop of evaporator同工质充注same material charge交*充注cross charge吸附充注absorptive charge气体充注gas charge膨胀阀过热度superheat degree of expansion valve 过热温度调节superheat temperature regulation膨胀阀容量expansion valve capacity手动膨胀阀hand expansion valve自动膨胀阀automatic expansion valve浮球调节阀float regulation valve浮球阀float valve低压浮球阀low pressure float valve高压浮球阀high pressure float valve流量调节flow regualation制冷剂控制器refrigerant control膨胀阀expansion valve节流阀throttle valve热力膨胀阀thermostatic expansion valve热电膨胀阀thermal electric expansion valve内平衡热力膨胀阀internal equalizer thermostaice expansion valve外平衡热力膨胀阀external equalizer thermostaice expansion valve外平衡管external equalizer pipe内平衡管internal equalizer pipe蒸发器阻力损失pressure drop of evaporator同工质充注same material charge交*充注cross charge吸附充注absorptive charge气体充注gas charge膨胀阀过热度superheat degree of expansion valve 过热温度调节superheat temperature regulation膨胀阀容量expansion valve capacity手动膨胀阀hand expansion valve自动膨胀阀automatic expansion valve浮球调节阀float regulation valve浮球阀float valve低压浮球阀low pressure float valve高压浮球阀high pressure float valve恒压膨胀阀constant pressure expansion valve能量调节capacity regulator单机能量调节capacity regulation of single unit卸载能量调节capacity regulation of load drainage 程序指令式能量调节系统capacity regulation system of program order电磁阀solenoid valve电磁滑阀magnetic slide valve三通电磁阀three way magnetic valve蒸汽喷射式制冷系统英语蒸汽喷射制冷steam jet refrigeration蒸汽喷射制冷机steam-jet refrigerating machine蒸发式蒸汽喷射制冷机evaporation-type steam jet refrigeration machine混合式蒸汽喷射制冷机contact-type steam jet refrigerating machine蒸汽喷射制冷系统steam jet refrigerating system 蒸汽喷射器steam ejector主喷射器main ejector辅助喷射器auxiliary ejector喷射系数jet coefficient主冷凝器main condenser辅助冷凝器auxiliary condenser多效蒸发multieffective evaporation高位安装high-level installation低位安装low-level installation上下位安装high-low-level installation臭氧层保护英语臭氧ozone臭氧层ozonesphere,ozone layer臭氧层破坏ozonesphere depletion,ozonesphere disturbance消耗臭氧层物质ozone depleting substances〔ODS〕禁用制冷剂forbidden refrigerant过渡制冷剂transition refrigerant替代制冷剂substitute refrigerant自然制冷剂natural refrigerant氟利昂家族freon group全氟代烃fluorocarbon 〔FC〕氯氟烃chloroflurocarbon〔CFC〕氢氟烃hydrofluorocarbon〔HCF〕含氢氯氟烃hydrochloroflurocarbon〔HCFC〕含氢氯化烃hydrochlorocarbon〔HCC〕全氯化烃polychlorocarbon〔PCC〕哈龙Halon共沸混合物azeotropic mixture碳氢化合物hydrocarbon compound,hydrocarbon 〔HC〕臭氧消耗潜能值ozone depletion potential〔ODP〕温室效应greenhouse effect全球变暖global warming京都议定书kyoto protocol全球变暖潜能值global warming potential〔GWP〕变暖影响总当量total equivalent warming impact 〔TEWI〕寿命期气候性能life cycle climate performance 〔LCCP〕蕴含能量embodied energy不易收集的排放fugitive emissions热电制冷英语热电制冷thermoelectric refrigeration温差电制冷thermoelectric refrigeration半导体制冷semiconductor refrigeration热电效应thermoelectric effect塞贝克效应Seebeck effect珀尔帖效应Peltier effect热电制冷效应thermoelectric refrigeration effect汤姆逊效应Thomson effect焦耳效应Joule effect傅里叶效应Fourier effect温差电动势thermoelectric power塞贝克系数Seebeck coefficient优值系数figure of merit热电堆thermoelectric pile温差电堆thermoelectric pile最正确电流optimum current经济电流economic current热电半导体thermoelectric semiconductors热电材料thermoelectric material热电制冷材料thermoelectric cooling materialn型半导体n-type semiconductorsp型半导体p-type semiconductors半导体制冷器thermoelectric-refrigerating unit热电制冷器thermoelectric refrigerating unit热电空调器thermoelectric air conditioner半导体空调器thermoelectric air conditioner半导体恒温器thermoelectric thermostat半导体冷饮水器thermoelectric drinking water cooler半导体热泵thermoelectric heat pump半导体降温机thermoelectric dehumidifier低温半导体制冷器low temperature thermoelectric unit焊接式半导体制冷器soldered thermoelectric refrigerating unit粘接式半导体制冷器sticky thermoelectric refrigerating unit嵌装式半导体制冷器inlaid thermoelectric refrigerating unit复叠式半导体制冷器cascade thermoelectric refrigerating unit医用半导体制冷器medicine thermoelectric refrigerating unit盐水冷却系统开式盐水冷却系统open brine system闭式盐水系统closed brine system盐水箱brine bank盐水混合箱brine mixing tank盐水溢流箱brine return tank盐水回流箱brine return tank盐水膨胀箱brine balance tank盐水加热器brine heater盐水冷却器brine cooler盐水筒brine drum盐水集管brine header盐水泵brine pump盐水喷雾brine spray盐水喷淋brine sparge制冷暖通行业品牌中英文对照AEROFLEX “亚罗弗〞保温ALCO “艾科〞自控Alerton 雅利顿Alfa laval阿法拉伐ARMSTRONG “阿姆斯壮〞保温AUX 奥克斯BELIMO 瑞士“搏力谋〞BERONOR西班牙“北诺尔〞电加热器BILTUR 意大利“百得〞BOSIC “柏诚〞自控BROAD 远大Burnham美国“博恩汉〞锅炉CALPEDA意大利“科沛达〞水泵CARLY 法国“嘉利〞制冷配件Carrier 开利Chigo 志高Cipriani 意大利斯普莱力CLIMAVENETA意大利“克莱门特〞Copeland“谷轮〞压缩机CYRUS意大利〞赛诺思〞自控DAIKIN 大金Danfoss丹佛斯Dorin “多菱〞压缩机DUNHAM-BUSH 顿汉布什DuPont美国“杜邦〞制冷剂Dwyer 美国德威尔EBM “依必安〞风机ELIWELL意大利“伊力威〞自控EVAPCO美国“益美高〞冷却设备EVERY CONTROL意大利“美控〞Erie 怡日FRASCOLD 意大利“富士豪〞压缩机FRICO瑞典“弗瑞克〞空气幕FUJI “富士〞变频器FULTON 美国“富尔顿〞锅炉GENUIN “正野〞风机GREE 格力GREENCOOL格林柯尔GRUNDFOS “格兰富〞水泵Haier 海尔Hisense 海信HITACHI 日立Honeywell 霍尼韦尔Johnson 江森Kelon 科龙KRUGER瑞士“科禄格〞风机KU BA德国“库宝〞冷风机Liang Chi 良机LIEBERT 力博特MARLEY “马利〞冷却塔Maneurop法国“美优乐〞压缩机McQuary 麦克维尔Midea 美的MITSUBISHI三菱Munters 瑞典“蒙特〞除湿机Oventrop德国“欧文托普〞阀门Panasonic 松下RANCO “宏高〞自控REFCOMP意大利“莱富康〞压缩机RIDGID 美国“里奇〞工具RUUD美国“路德〞空调RYODEN “菱电〞冷却塔SanKen “三垦〞变频器Samsung 三星SANYO 三洋SASWELL英国森威尔Schneider 施耐德SenseAir 瑞典“森尔〞传感器SIEMENS 西门子SINKO "新晃“空调SINRO “新菱〞冷却塔STAND “思探得〞加湿器SWEP 舒瑞普TECKA “台佳〞空调Tecumseh“泰康〞压缩机TRANE 特灵TROX德国“妥思〞VASALA芬兰“维萨拉〞传感器WILO德国“威乐〞水泵WITTLER 德国〞威特〞阀门YORK 约克ZENNER德国“真兰〞计量制冷能力及计算术语英语运行工况operating conditions标准性能standard rating标准工况standard condition空调工况air conditioning condition内部条件internal conditions外部条件external conditions蓄热accumulation of heat蓄冷accumulation of cold制冰能力ice-making capacity热泵用压缩机的供热系数heat-pump compressor coefficient of performance容积效率volumetric efficiency容积输气量vulumetric displacement实际输气量actual displacement理论输气量theoretical displacement冷凝热量condenser heat过冷热量heat of subcooling过热热量superheat运转工况下的制冷量rating under working conditions标准制冷量standard rating名义工况normal conditions试验工况test conditions轴功率brake power效率efficiency指示效率indicated efficiency机械效率mechanical efficiency总效率overall efficiency制冷系数coefficient of performance 〔COP〕制冷压缩机的制冷系数refrigerating compressor coefficient of performance热力完善度thermodynamical perfectness能效比energy efficiency ratio 〔EER〕热泵供热系数heat-pump coefficient of performance空调有效显热制冷量useful sensible heat capacity of air conditioner空调有效潜热〔减湿〕制冷量useful latent heat (dehumidifyying) capacity of air conditioner空调器有效总制冷量useful total capacity of air conditioner制冷剂循环量circulating mass of refrigerant制冷剂循环容积circulating volume of refrigerant 单位压缩功compress work per mass示功图indicator diagram指示功indicated work摩擦功frictional work功率power摩擦功率frictional power指示功率indicated power理论功率idea power制冷量refrigerating capacity总制冷量gross refrigerating capacity净制冷量net refrigerating capacity单位制冷量refrigerating capacity per weighing单位容积制冷量refrigerating capacity per unit of swept volume制冷系统制冷量system refrigerating capacity单位轴功率制冷量refrigerating effect per shaft power压缩冷凝机组制冷量compressor condensing unit refrigerating capacity制冷压缩机制冷量refrigerant compressor capacity 蒸发器净制冷量net cooler refrigerating capacity制冷装置制冷装置refrigerating installation，refrigerating plant工业制冷装置industrial refrigerating plant商业制冷装置commercial refrigerating plant中心站房central station成套机组self-contained system标准安装code installation制冷回路refrigerating circuit热平衡heat balance货物负荷product load操作负荷service load设计负荷design load负荷系数load factor制冷装置试验与操作试运转commissioning吹污flush气密性试验gas-tight test，air-right test密闭容器closed container漏气air infiltration放气air vent检漏leak hunting，leak detection检漏仪leak detector卤素灯halide torch电子检漏仪electronic leak detector真空试验vacuum test试验压力test pressure工作压力operating pressure，working pressure最高工作压力highest operating pressure气密试验压力gas-tight test pressure设计压力design pressure平衡压力balance pressure充气aerate，gas charging制冷剂充注refrigerant charging首次充注initial charge保护充注holding charge，service charge制冷剂缺乏lack of refrigerant，under-charge，gas shortage缺液starveling充灌台charging board充灌量charge充注过多overcharge供液过多overfeeding制冷剂抽空pump down of refrigerant降温试验pull down test制冷[功能]试验refrigeration test卸载起动no-load starting，unloaded start卸载机构unloader闪发flash vaporization，instantaneous vaporization 闪发气体flash gas不凝性气体non condensable gas气体排除gas purging，degassing，gasoff阀针跳动hammering，needle hammer阀振荡hunting of a valve阀片跳动valve flutter，valve bounce短期循环short-cycling异常温升overheating 泄漏leak气蚀cavitation制冷剂瓶refrigerant cylinder，gas bottle检修用瓶service cylinder，gas bottle紧急泄放阀emergency-relief valve检修阀service valve平安阀pressure relief valve抽空阀pump out valve加油阀oil charge valve放油阀oil drain valve放空阀purge valve充灌阀charging valve喷液阀liquid injection valve润滑油润滑油lubricant oil冷冻机油refrigeration oil冷冻油refrigerant oil凝点condensation point闪点flash point浊点cloud point絮凝点flock point流动点pour point起泡foaming皂化saponify油泥sludge结碳carbonization制冷剂制冷剂〔制冷工质〕refrigerant高温制冷剂high temperature refrigerant低压制冷剂low pressure refrigerant中温制冷剂medium temperature refrigerant 中压制冷剂medium pressure refrigerant低温制冷剂low temperature refrigerant高压制冷剂high pressure refrigerant氟利昂freon卤化碳制冷剂halocarbo refrigerant氟利昂11 freon 11氟利昂12 freon 12氟利昂13 freon 13氟利昂14 freon 14氟利昂22 freon 22氟利昂113 freon 113氟利昂125 freon 125氟利昂134a freon 134a氟利昂152a freon 152a碳氢化合物制冷剂hydrocarbon refrigerant甲烷methane乙烷ethane丙烷propane丁烷butane异丁烷isobutane乙烯ethylene无机化合物制冷剂inorganic compund refrigerant 氨ammonia二氧化碳carbon dioxide二氧化硫sulphur dioxide干冰dry ice共沸制冷剂azeotropic mixture refrigerant氟里昂500 freon 500氟里昂501 freon 501氟里昂502 freon 502氟里昂503 freon 503氟里昂504 freon 504近共沸溶液制冷剂near azeotropic mixture refrigerant非共沸溶液制冷剂nonazeotropic mixture refrigerant蒸发器壳盘管式蒸发器shell-and-coil evaporator壳管式蒸发器shell-and-tube evaporator喷淋式蒸发器spray-type evaporator立管式蒸发器vertical-type evaporator平行管蒸发器receway coil螺旋管式蒸发器spiral tube evaporator“V〞型管蒸发器herringbone type evaporator沉浸式盘管蒸发器submerged evaporator板式蒸发器plate-type evaporator螺旋板式蒸发器spiral sheet evaporator平板式蒸发器plate-type evaporator，tube-in-sheet evaporator管板式蒸发器tube-on-sheet evaporator凹凸板式蒸发器embossed-plate evaporator吹胀式蒸发器roll-bond evaporator压焊板式蒸发器roll-bond evaporator制冰块器的蒸发器ice cube maker evaporator结冰式蒸发器ice-bank evaporator蓄冰式蒸发器ice-bank evaporator结霜蒸发器frosting evaporator除霜蒸发器defrosting evaporator无霜蒸发器nonfrosting evaporator强制通风蒸发器forced circulation evaporator 冷液式蒸发器liquid cooling evaporator封套式蒸发器wrap-round evaporator蒸发器evaporator直接冷却式蒸发器direct evaporator直接式蒸发器direct evaporator间接冷却式蒸发器indirect cooled evaporator间接式蒸发器indirect evaporator干式蒸发器dry expansion evaporator满液式蒸发器flooded evaporator再循环式蒸发器recirculation-type evaporator强制循环式蒸发器pump-feed evaporator冷凝器英语冷凝器condenser冷凝液condensate空冷式冷凝器air-cooled condenser风冷式冷凝器air-cooled condenser自然对流空冷式冷凝器natural convecton air-cooled condenser强制通风式冷凝器forced draught condenser冷凝风机condensate fan线绕式冷凝器wire and tube condenser水冷式冷凝器water-cooled condenser沉浸式盘管冷凝器submerged coil condenser套管式冷凝器double pipe condenser壳管式冷凝器shell and tube condenser组合式冷凝器multishell condenser卧式壳管式冷凝器closed shell and tube condenser 卧式冷凝器closed condenser立式壳管式冷凝器open shell and tube condenser 立式冷凝器open condenser，vertical condenser 壳盘管式冷凝器shell and coil condenser分隔式冷凝器split condenser淋激式冷凝器atmospheric condenser溢流式冷凝器bleeder-type condenser蒸发式冷凝器evaporative condenser板式冷凝器plate-type condenser空冷板式冷凝器air-cooled plate-type condenser 水冷板式冷凝器water-cooled plate-type condenser焊接板式冷凝器welded sheet condenser螺旋板式冷凝器spiral sheet condenser冷凝-贮液器condenser-receiver混合式冷凝器barometric condenser液化器liquefier冷凝水泵condensate pump冷凝器梳condensate comb。

Peters (2010) Episodic Future Thinking Reduces Reward Delay Discounting

NeuronArticleEpisodic Future Thinking ReducesReward Delay Discounting through an Enhancement of Prefrontal-Mediotemporal InteractionsJan Peters1,*and Christian Bu¨chel11NeuroimageNord,Department of Systems Neuroscience,University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf,Hamburg20246,Germany*Correspondence:j.peters@uke.uni-hamburg.deDOI10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.026SUMMARYHumans discount the value of future rewards over time.Here we show using functional magnetic reso-nance imaging(fMRI)and neural coupling analyses that episodic future thinking reduces the rate of delay discounting through a modulation of neural decision-making and episodic future thinking networks.In addition to a standard control condition,real subject-speciﬁc episodic event cues were presented during a delay discounting task.Spontaneous episodic imagery during cue processing predicted how much subjects changed their preferences toward more future-minded choice behavior.Neural valuation signals in the anterior cingulate cortex and functional coupling of this region with hippo-campus and amygdala predicted the degree to which future thinking modulated individual preference functions.A second experiment replicated the behavioral effects and ruled out alternative explana-tions such as date-based processing and temporal focus.The present data reveal a mechanism through which neural decision-making and prospection networks can interact to generate future-minded choice behavior.INTRODUCTIONThe consequences of choices are often delayed in time,and in many cases it pays off to wait.While agents normally prefer larger over smaller rewards,this situation changes when rewards are associated with costs,such as delays,uncertainties,or effort requirements.Agents integrate such costs into a value function in an individual manner.In the hyperbolic model of delay dis-counting(also referred to as intertemporal choice),for example, a subject-speciﬁc discount parameter accurately describes how individuals discount delayed rewards in value(Green and Myer-son,2004;Mazur,1987).Although the degree of delay discount-ing varies considerably between individuals,humans in general have a particularly pronounced ability to delay gratiﬁcation, and many of our choices only pay off after months or even years. It has been speculated that the capacity for episodic future thought(also referred to as mental time travel or prospective thinking)(Bar,2009;Schacter et al.,2007;Szpunar et al.,2007) may underlie the human ability to make choices with high long-term beneﬁts(Boyer,2008),yielding higher evolutionaryﬁtness of our species.At the neural level,a number of models have been proposed for intertemporal decision-making in humans.In the so-called b-d model(McClure et al.,2004,2007),a limbic system(b)is thought to place special weight on immediate rewards,whereas a more cognitive,prefrontal-cortex-based system(d)is more involved in patient choices.In an alternative model,the values of both immediate and delayed rewards are thought to be repre-sented in a unitary system encompassing medial prefrontal cortex(mPFC),posterior cingulate cortex(PCC),and ventral striatum(VS)(Kable and Glimcher,2007;Kable and Glimcher, 2010;Peters and Bu¨chel,2009).Finally,in the self-control model, values are assumed to be represented in structures such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex(vmPFC)but are subject to top-down modulation by prefrontal control regions such as the lateral PFC(Figner et al.,2010;Hare et al.,2009).Both the b-d model and the self-control model predict that reduced impulsivity in in-tertemporal choice,induced for example by episodic future thought,would involve prefrontal cortex regions implicated in cognitive control,such as the lateral PFC or the anterior cingulate cortex(ACC).Lesion studies,on the other hand,also implicated medial temporal lobe regions in decision-making and delay discounting. In rodents,damage to the basolateral amygdala(BLA)increases delay discounting(Winstanley et al.,2004),effort discounting (Floresco and Ghods-Shariﬁ,2007;Ghods-Shariﬁet al.,2009), and probability discounting(Ghods-Shariﬁet al.,2009).Interac-tions between the ACC and the BLA in particular have been proposed to regulate behavior in order to allow organisms to overcome a variety of different decision costs,including delays (Floresco and Ghods-Shariﬁ,2007).In line with theseﬁndings, impairments in decision-making are also observed in humans with damage to the ACC or amygdala(Bechara et al.,1994, 1999;Manes et al.,2002;Naccache et al.,2005).Along similar lines,hippocampal damage affects decision-making.Disadvantageous choice behavior has recently been documented in patients suffering from amnesia due to hippo-campal lesions(Gupta et al.,2009),and rats with hippocampal damage show increased delay discounting(Cheung and Cardinal,2005;Mariano et al.,2009;Rawlins et al.,1985).These observations are of particular interest given that hippocampal138Neuron66,138–148,April15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.damage impairs the ability to imagine novel experiences (Hassa-bis et al.,2007).Based on this and a range of other studies,it has recently been proposed that hippocampus and parahippocam-pal cortex play a crucial role in the formation of vivid event repre-sentations,regardless of whether they lie in the past,present,or future (Schacter and Addis,2009).The hippocampus may thus contribute to decision-making through its role in self-projection into the future (Bar,2009;Schacter et al.,2007),allowing an organism to evaluate future payoffs through mental simulation (Johnson and Redish,2007;Johnson et al.,2007).Future thinking may thus affect intertemporal choice through hippo-campal involvement.Here we used model-based fMRI,analyses of functional coupling,and extensive behavioral procedures to investigate how episodic future thinking affects delay discounting.In Exper-iment 1,subjects performed a classical delay discounting task(Kable and Glimcher,2007;Peters and Bu¨chel,2009)that involved a series of choices between smaller immediate and larger delayed rewards,while brain activity was measured using fMRI.Critically,we introduced a novel episodic condition that involved the presentation of episodic cue words (tags )obtained during an extensive prescan interview,referring to real,subject-speciﬁc future events planned for the respective day of reward delivery.This design allowed us to assess individual discount rates separately for the two experimental conditions,allowing us to investigate neural mechanisms mediating changes in delay discounting associated with episodic thinking.In a second behavioral study,we replicated the behavioral effects of Exper-iment 1and addressed a number of alternative explanations for the observed effects of episodic tags on discount rates.RESULTSExperiment 1:Prescan InterviewOn day 1,healthy young volunteers (n =30,mean age =25,15male)completed a computer-based delay discounting proce-dure to estimate their individual discount rate (Peters and Bu ¨-chel,2009).This discount rate was used solely for the purpose of constructing subject-speciﬁc trials for the fMRI session (see Experimental Procedures ).Furthermore,participants compiled a list of events that they had planned in the next 7months (e.g.,vacations,weddings,parties,courses,and so forth)andrated them on scales from 1to 6with respect to personal rele-vance,arousal,and valence.For each participant,seven subject-speciﬁc events were selected such that the spacing between events increased with increasing delay to the episode,and that events were roughly matched based on personal rele-vance,arousal,and valence.Multiple regression analysis of these ratings across the different delays showed no linear effects (relevance:p =0.867,arousal:p =0.120,valence:p =0.977,see Figure S1available online).For each subject,a separate set of seven delays was computed that was later used as delays in the control condition.Median and range for the delays used in each condition are listed in Table S1(available online).For each event,a label was selected that would serve as a verbal tag for the fMRI session.Experiment 1:fMRI Behavioral ResultsOn day 2,volunteers performed two sessions of a delay dis-counting procedure while fMRI was measured using a 3T Siemens Scanner with a 32-channel head-coil.In each session,subjects made a total of 118choices between 20V available immediately and larger but delayed amounts.Subjects were told that one of their choices would be randomly selected and paid out following scanning,with the respective delay.Critically,in half the trials,an additional subject-speciﬁc episodic tag (see above,e.g.,‘‘vacation paris’’or ‘‘birthday john’’)was displayed based on the prescan interview (see Figure 1)indicating which event they had planned on the particular day (episodic condi-tion),whereas in the remaining trials,no episodic tag was pre-sented (control condition).Amount and waiting time were thus displayed in both conditions,but only the episodic condition involved the presentation of an additional subject-speciﬁc event tag.Importantly,nonoverlapping sets of delays were used in the two conditions.Following scanning,subjects rated for each episodic tag how often it evoked episodic associations during scanning (frequency of associations:1,never;to 6,always)and how vivid these associations were (vividness of associa-tions:1,not vivid at all;to 6,highly vivid;see Figure S1).Addition-ally,written reports were obtained (see Supplemental Informa-tion ).Multiple regression revealed no signiﬁcant linear effects of delay on postscan ratings (frequency:p =0.224,vividness:p =0.770).We averaged the postscan ratings acrosseventsFigure 1.Behavioral TaskDuring fMRI,subjects made repeated choices between a ﬁxed immediate reward of 20V and larger but delayed amounts.In the control condi-tion,amounts were paired with a waiting time only,whereas in the episodic condition,amounts were paired with a waiting time and a subject-speciﬁc verbal episodic tag indicating to the subjects which event they had planned at the respective day of reward delivery.Events were real and collected in a separate testing session prior to the day of scanning.NeuronEpisodic Modulation of Delay DiscountingNeuron 66,138–148,April 15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.139and the frequency/vividness dimensions,yielding an‘‘imagery score’’for each subject.Individual participants’choice data from the fMRI session were then analyzed byﬁtting hyperbolic discount functions to subject-speciﬁc indifference points to obtain discount rates (k-parameters),separately for the episodic and control condi-tions(see Experimental Procedures).Subjective preferences were well-characterized by hyperbolic functions(median R2 episodic condition=0.81,control condition=0.85).Discount functions of four exemplary subjects are shown in Figure2A. For both conditions,considerable variability in the discount rate was observed(median[range]of discount rates:control condition=0.014[0.003–0.19],episodic condition=0.013 [0.002–0.18]).To account for the skewed distribution of discount rates,all further analyses were conducted on the log-trans-formed k-parameters.Across subjects,log-transformed discount rates were signiﬁcantly lower in the episodic condition compared with the control condition(t(29)=2.27,p=0.016),indi-cating that participants’choice behavior was less impulsive in the episodic condition.The difference in log-discount rates between conditions is henceforth referred to as the episodic tag effect.Fitting hyperbolic functions to the median indifference points across subjects also showed reduced discounting in the episodic condition(discount rate control condition=0.0099, episodic condition=0.0077).The size of the tag effect was not related to the discount rate in the control condition(p=0.56). We next hypothesized that the tag effect would be positively correlated with postscan ratings of episodic thought(imagery scores,see above).Robust regression revealed an increase in the size of the tag effect with increasing imagery scores (t=2.08,p=0.023,see Figure2B),suggesting that the effect of the tags on preferences was stronger the more vividly subjects imagined the episodes.Examples of written postscan reports are provided in the Supplemental Results for participants from the entire range of imagination ratings.We also correlated the tag effect with standard neuropsychological measures,the Sensation Seeking Scale(SSS)V(Beauducel et al.,2003;Zuck-erman,1996)and the Behavioral Inhibition Scale/Behavioral Approach Scale(BIS/BAS)(Carver and White,1994).The tag effect was positively correlated with the experience-seeking subscale of the SSS(p=0.026)and inversely correlated with the reward-responsiveness subscale of the BIS/BAS scales (p<0.005).Repeated-measures ANOVA of reaction times(RTs)as a func-tion of option value(lower,similar,or higher relative to the refer-ence option;see Experimental Procedures and Figure2C)did not show a main effect of condition(p=0.712)or a condition 3value interaction(p=0.220),but revealed a main effect of value(F(1.8,53.9)=16.740,p<0.001).Post hoc comparisons revealed faster RTs for higher-valued options relative to similarly (p=0.002)or lower valued options(p<0.001)but no difference between lower and similarly valued options(p=0.081).FMRI DataFMRI data were modeled using the general linear model(GLM) as implemented in SPM5.Subjective value of each decision option was calculated by multiplying the objective amount of each delayed reward with the discount fraction estimated behaviorally based on the choices during scanning,and included as a parametric regressor in the GLM.Note that discount rates were estimated separately for the control and episodic conditions(see above and Figure2),and we thus used condition-speciﬁc k-parameters for calculation of the subjective value regressor.Additional parametric regressors for inverse delay-to-reward and absolute reward magnitude, orthogonalized with respect to subjective value,were included in theGLM.Figure2.Behavioral Data from Experiment1Shown are experimentally derived discount func-tions from the fMRI session for four exemplaryparticipants(A),correlation with imagery scores(B),and reaction times(RTs)(C).(A)Hyperbolicfunctions wereﬁt to the indifference points sepa-rately for the control(dashed lines)and episodic(solid lines,ﬁlled circles)conditions,and thebest-ﬁtting k-parameters(discount rates)and R2values are shown for each subject.The log-trans-formed difference between discount rates wastaken as a measure of the effect of the episodictags on choice preferences.(B)Robust regressionrevealed an association between log-differences indiscount rates and imagery scores obtained frompostscan ratings(see text).(C)RTs were signiﬁ-cantly modulated by option value(main effectvalue p<0.001)with faster responses in trialswith a value of the delayed reward higher thanthe20V reference amount.Note that althoughseven delays were used for each condition,somedata points are missing,e.g.,onlyﬁve delay indif-ference points for the episodic condition areplotted for sub20.This indicates that,for the twolongest delays,this subject never chose the de-layed reward.***p<0.005.Error bars=SEM.Neuron Episodic Modulation of Delay Discounting140Neuron66,138–148,April15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.Episodic Tags Activate the Future Thinking NetworkWe ﬁrst analyzed differences in the condition regressors without parametric pared to those of the control condi-tion,BOLD responses to the presentation of the delayed reward in the episodic condition yielded highly signiﬁcant activations (corrected for whole-brain volume)in an extensive network of brain regions previously implicated in episodic future thinking (Addis et al.,2007;Schacter et al.,2007;Szpunar et al.,2007)(see Figure 3and Table S2),including retrosplenial cortex (RSC)/PCC (peak MNI coordinates:À6,À54,14,peak z value =6.26),left lateral parietal cortex (LPC,À44,À66,32,z value =5.35),and vmPFC (À8,34,À12,z value =5.50).Distributed Neural Coding of Subjective ValueWe then replicated previous ﬁndings (Kable and Glimcher,2007;Kable and Glimcher,2010;Peters and Bu¨chel,2009)using a conjunction analysis (Nichols et al.,2005)searching for regions showing a positive correlation between the height of the BOLD response and subjective value in the control and episodic condi-tions in a parametric analysis (Figure 4A and Table S3).Note that this is a conservative analysis that requires that a given voxel exceed the statistical threshold in both contrasts separately.This analysis revealed clusters in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC,À36,50,À10,z value =4.50)and central OFC (À18,12,À14,z value =4.05),bilateral VS (right:10,8,0,z value =4.22;left:À10,8,À6,z value =3.51),mPFC (6,26,16,z value =3.72),and PCC (À2,À28,24,z value =4.09),representing subjective (discounted)value in both conditions.We next analyzed the neural tag effect,i.e.,regions in which the subjective value correlation was greater for the episodic condi-tion as compared with the control condition (Figure 4B and Table S4).This analysis revealed clusters in the left LPC (À66,À42,32,z value =4.96,),ACC (À2,16,36,z value =4.76),left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC,À38,36,36,z value =4.81),and right amygdala (24,2,À24,z value =3.75).Finally,we performed a triple-conjunction analysis,testing for regions that were correlated with subjective value in both conditions,but in which the value correlation increased in the episodic condition.Only left LPC showed this pattern (À66,À42,30,z value =3.55,see Figure 4C and Table S5),the same region that we previously identiﬁed as delay-speciﬁc in valuation (Petersand Bu¨chel,2009).There were no regions in which the subjective value correlation was greater in the control condition when compared with the episodic condition at p <0.001uncorrected.ACC Valuation Signals and Functional Connectivity Predict Interindividual Differences in Discount Function ShiftsWe next correlated differences in the neural tag effect with inter-individual differences in the size of the behavioral tag effect.To this end,we performed a simple regression analysis in SPM5on the single-subject contrast images of the neural tag effect (i.e.,subjective value correlation episodic >control)using the behavioral tag effect [log(k control )–log(k episodic )]as an explana-tory variable.This analysis revealed clusters in the bilateral ACC (right:18,34,18,z value =3.95,p =0.021corrected,left:À20,34,20,z value =3.52,Figure 5,see Table S6for a complete list).Coronal sections (Figure 5C)clearly show that both ACC clusters are located in gray matter of the cingulate sulcus.Because ACC-limbic interactions have previously been impli-cated in the control of choice behavior (Floresco and Ghods-Shariﬁ,2007;Roiser et al.,2009),we next analyzed functional coupling with the right ACC from the above regression contrast (coordinates 18,34,18,see Figure 6A)using a psychophysiolog-ical interaction analysis (PPI)(Friston et al.,1997).Note that this analysis was conducted on a separate ﬁrst-level GLM in which control and episodic trials were modeled as 10s miniblocks (see Experimental Procedures for details).We ﬁrst identiﬁed regions in which coupling with the ACC changed in the episodic condition compared with the control condition (see Table S7)and then performed a simple regression analysis on these coupling parameters using the behavioral tag effect as an explanatory variable.The tag effect was associated with increased coupling between ACC and hippocampus (À32,À18,À16,z value =3.18,p =0.031corrected,Figure 6B)and ACC and left amygdala (À26,À4,À26,z value =2.95,p =0.051corrected,Figure 6B,see Table S8for a complete list of activa-tions).The same regression analysis in a second PPI with the seed voxel placed in the contralateral ACC region from the same regression contrast (À20,34,22,see above)yielded qual-itatively similar,though subthreshold,results in these same structures (hippocampus:À28,À32,À6,z value =1.96,amyg-dala:À28,À6,À16,z value =1.97).Experiment 2We conducted an additional behavioral experiment to address a number of alternative explanations for the observed effects of tags on choice behavior.First,it could be argued thatepisodicFigure 3.Categorical Effect of Episodic Tags on Brain ActivityGreater activity in lateral parietal cortex (left)and posterior cingulate/retrosplenial and ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (right)was observed in the episodic condition compared with the control condition.p <0.05,FWE-corrected for whole-brain volume.NeuronEpisodic Modulation of Delay DiscountingNeuron 66,138–148,April 15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.141tags increase subjective certainty that a reward would be forth-coming.In Experiment 2,we therefore collected postscan ratings of reward conﬁdence.Second,it could be argued that events,always being associated with a particular date,may have shifted temporal focus from delay-based to more date-based processing.This would represent a potential confound,because date-associated rewards are discounted less than delay-associated rewards (Read et al.,2005).We therefore now collected postscan ratings of temporal focus (date-based versus delay-based).Finally,Experiment 1left open the question of whether the tag effect depends on the temporal speciﬁcity of the episodic cues.We therefore introduced an additional exper-imental condition that involved the presentation of subject-speciﬁc temporally unspeciﬁc future event cues.These tags (henceforth referred to as unspeciﬁc tags)were obtained by asking subjects to imagine events that could realistically happen to them in the next couple of months,but that were not directly tied to a particular point in time (see Experimental Procedures ).Episodic Imagery,Not Temporal Speciﬁcity,Reward Conﬁdence,or Temporal Focus,Predicts the Size of the Tag EffectIn total,data from 16participants (9female)are included.Anal-ysis of pretest ratings conﬁrmed that temporally unspeciﬁc and speciﬁc tags were matched in terms of personal relevance,arousal,valence,and preexisting associations (all p >0.15).Choice preferences were again well described by hyperbolic functions (median R 2control =0.84,unspeciﬁc =0.81,speciﬁc =0.80).We replicated the parametric tag effect (i.e.,increasing effect of tags on discount rates with increasing posttest imagery scores)in this independent sample for both temporally speciﬁc (p =0.047,Figure 7A)and temporally unspeciﬁc (p =0.022,Figure 7A)tags,showing that the effect depends on future thinking,rather than being speciﬁcally tied to the temporal spec-iﬁcity of the event cues.Following testing,subjects rated how certain they were that a particular reward would actually be forth-coming.Overall,conﬁdence in the payment procedure washighFigure 4.Neural Representation of Subjective Value (Parametric Analysis)(A)Regions in which the correlation with subjective value (parametric analysis)was signiﬁcant in both the control and the episodic conditions (conjunction analysis)included central and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC),bilateral ventral striatum (VS),medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC),and posterior cingulate cortex(PCC),replicating previous studies (Kable and Glimcher,2007;Peters and Bu¨chel,2009).(B)Regions in which the subjective value correlation was greater for the episodic compared with the control condition included lateral parietal cortex (LPC),ante-rior cingulate cortex (ACC),dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC),and the right amygdala (Amy).(C)A conjunction analysis revealed that only LPC activity was positively correlated with subjective value in both conditions,but showed a greater regression slope in the episodic condition.No regions showed a better correlation with subjective value in the control condition.Error bars =SEM.All peaks are signiﬁcant at p <0.001,uncorrected;(A)and (B)are thresholded at p <0.001uncorrected and (C)is thresholded at p <0.005,uncorrected for display purposes.NeuronEpisodic Modulation of Delay Discounting142Neuron 66,138–148,April 15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.(Figure 7B),and neither unspeciﬁc nor speciﬁc tags altered these subjective certainty estimates (one-way ANOVA:F (2,45)=0.113,p =0.894).Subjects also rated their temporal focus as either delay-based or date-based (see Experimental Procedures ),i.e.,whether they based their decisions on the delay-to-reward that was actually displayed,or whether they attempted to convert delays into the corresponding dates and then made their choices based on these dates.There was no overall signiﬁcant effect of condition on temporal focus (one-way ANOVA:F (2,45)=1.485,p =0.237,Figure 7C),but a direct comparison between the control and the temporally speciﬁc condition showed a signiﬁcant difference (t (15)=3.18,p =0.006).We there-fore correlated the differences in temporal focus ratings between conditions (control:unspeciﬁc and control:speciﬁc)with the respective tag effects (Figure 7D).There were no correlations (unspeciﬁc:p =0.71,speciﬁc:p =0.94),suggesting that the observed differences in discounting cannot be attributed to differences in temporal focus.High-Imagery,but Not Low-Imagery,Subjects Adjust Their Discount Function in an Episodic ContextFor a ﬁnal analysis,we pooled the samples of Experiments 1and 2(n =46subjects in total),using only the temporally speciﬁc tag data from Experiment 2.We performed a median split into low-and high-imagery participants according to posttest imagery scores (low-imagery subjects:n =23[15/8Exp1/Exp2],imagery range =1.5–3.4,high-imagery subjects:n =23[15/8Exp1/Exp2],imagery range =3.5–5).The tag effect was signiﬁcantly greater than 0in the high-imagery group (t (22)=2.6,p =0.0085,see Figure 7D),where subjects reduced their discount rate by onaverage 16%in the presence of episodic tags.In the low-imagery group,on the other hand,the tag effect was not different from zero (t (22)=0.573,p =0.286),yielding a signiﬁcant group difference (t (44)=2.40,p =0.011).DISCUSSIONWe investigated the interactions between episodic future thought and intertemporal decision-making using behavioral testing and fMRI.Experiment 1shows that reward delay dis-counting is modulated by episodic future event cues,and the extent of this modulation is predicted by the degree of sponta-neous episodic imagery during decision-making,an effect that we replicated in Experiment 2(episodic tag effect).The neuroi-maging data (Experiment 1)highlight two mechanisms that support this effect:(1)valuation signals in the lateral ACC and (2)neural coupling between ACC and hippocampus/amygdala,both predicting the size of the tag effect.The size of the tag effect was directly related to posttest imagery scores,strongly suggesting that future thinking signiﬁ-cantly contributed to this effect.Pooling subjects across both experiments revealed that high-imagery subjects reduced their discount rate by on average 16%in the episodic condition,whereas low-imagery subjects did not.Experiment 2addressed a number of alternative accounts for this effect.First,reward conﬁdence was comparable for all conditions,arguing against the possibility that the tags may have somehow altered subjec-tive certainty that a reward would be forthcoming.Second,differences in temporal focus between conditions(date-basedFigure 5.Correlation between the Neural and Behavioral Tag Effect(A)Glass brain and (B and C)anatomical projection of the correlation between the neural tag effect (subjective value correlation episodic >control)and the behav-ioral tag effect (log difference between discount rates)in the bilateral ACC (p =0.021,FWE-corrected across an anatomical mask of bilateral ACC).(C)Coronal sections of the same contrast at a liberal threshold of p <0.01show that both left and right ACC clusters encompass gray matter of the cingulate gyrus.(D)Scatter-plot depicting the linear relationship between the neural and the behavioral tag effect in the right ACC.(A)and (B)are thresholded at p <0.001with 10contiguous voxels,whereas (C)is thresholded at p <0.01with 10contiguousvoxels.Figure 6.Results of the Psychophysiolog-ical Interaction Analysis(A)The seed for the psychophysiological interac-tion (PPI)analysis was placed in the right ACC (18,34,18).(B)The tag effect was associated with increased ACC-hippocampal coupling (p =0.031,corrected across bilateral hippocampus)and ACC-amyg-dala coupling (p =0.051,corrected across bilateral amygdala).Maps are thresholded at p <0.005,uncorrected for display purposes and projected onto the mean structural scan of all participants;HC,hippocampus;Amy,Amygdala;rACC,right anterior cingulate cortex.NeuronEpisodic Modulation of Delay DiscountingNeuron 66,138–148,April 15,2010ª2010Elsevier Inc.143。

异步通信的英语

异步通信的英语Asynchronous communication, also known as async communication, is a method of communication where the parties involved do not need to be present at the same time.This type of communication allows for flexibility and convenience, as individuals can send and receive messages at their own pace without the need for immediate responses. 。

One of the key benefits of asynchronous communication is that it allows for increased productivity and efficiency. With async communication, individuals can focus on their tasks without interruptions, as they can respond to messages when it is convenient for them. This can lead to better time management and improved workflow,as individuals can prioritize their work and respond to messages when they have the time and mental capacity to do so.Another advantage of asynchronous communication is that it allows for better collaboration among team members, especially in remote or distributed teams. With async communication tools such as email, instant messaging, and project management platforms, team members can easily share information, updates, and feedback without the need for real-time communication. This can lead to more thoughtful and well-thought-out responses, as individuals have the time to consider their messages before sending them.Additionally, async communication can help reduce misunderstandings and miscommunications. With asynchronous communication, individuals have the time to carefully craft their messages, ensuring that they are clear, concise, and well-thought-out. This can help prevent confusion and ambiguity, as individuals can take the time to clarify their points and provide context when needed.Furthermore, asynchronous communication can improve work-life balance, as individuals can set boundaries and control when they engage with work-related communication. This can help reduce stress and burnout, as individuals can disconnect from work when needed and focus on other aspects of their lives.In conclusion, asynchronous communication offers numerous benefits for individuals and teams, including increased productivity, better collaboration, reduced misunderstandings, and improved work-life balance. By leveraging async communication tools and practices, individuals and organizations can enhance their communication processes and achieve greater efficiency and effectiveness in their work.。

数字经济与实体经济深度融合的内涵和途径

数字经济与实体经济深度融合的内涵和途径一、引言A.引入数字经济和实体经济的概念B.数字经济与实体经济深度融合的意义和价值二、数字经济与实体经济的关系A.数字经济是实体经济的延伸和拓展B.数字经济给实体经济带来了新的机遇和挑战三、数字经济对实体经济的影响A.数字化推动实体经济转型升级B.数字经济改变了实体经济的发展方式四、实体经济对数字经济的支撑A.实体经济是数字经济的基础和支撑B.实体经济是数字经济数字化的源头五、数字经济与实体经济的融合途径A.构建数字经济和实体经济深度融合的平台B.实施数字化服务和效率提升的方案六、数字经济与实体经济融合的情况分析A.数字化深度渗透到实体经济各个领域B.实体经济数字化程度提升的实战案例七、数字经济与实体经济融合的挑战与未来展望A.数字经济与实体经济之间存在的问题与难点B.数字经济与实体经济融合的未来发展趋势与新机遇八、结论A.数字经济和实体经济必须深度融合B.数字经济和实体经济深度融合的前景和意义一、引言随着数字技术的不断进步和应用，数字经济已经成为了现代经济的核心，实体经济则是数字经济所服务的现实社会经济组织及其相关产业的总和。

它们的融合，对于经济社会的可持续发展，乃至人类社会的进步，具有不可替代的作用。

数字经济作为一种以数字信息技术为驱动，以数字化产品及服务为中心，以数字流通与数字支付为核心的经济形态，正逐渐取代传统实体经济成为世界经济发展的新引擎。

随着数字经济快速发展，实体经济在数字化转型中的角色越来越重要，两者的深度融合已经成为业界和政府普遍关注的重要议题。

本文旨在探讨数字经济与实体经济深度融合的内涵和途径，分析其意义和价值，挖掘数字经济和实体经济间的互动关系。

本文将分为八个章节进行探讨。

第一章主要介绍数字经济和实体经济的关系，为后面章节的展开奠定基础。

A. 引入数字经济和实体经济的概念数字经济是指以电子商务、数字支付、大数据、人工智能等为基础的全球经济体系，是经济发展的新动力，也是人类社会经济发展进程中的新经济模式。

雅思阅读刘洪波539考点词表格整理版可用于练习

1resemblelike,look like,be similar to 2recognizeperceive,acknowledge,realize,appreciate,a dmit,identify,comprehend,understand,know 3adjustchange,modify,shift,alter 4approachmethod,way 5fundamental rudimentary,preliminary,basic 6rely ondepend on 7domestichome,local,national 8measurecalculate,assess,evaluate 9traitcharacteristic,feature,property 10coinfirst used,invent 11artificialsynthetic,man-made 12promptinitiate,immediately 13exchange share,apply A to B 14underliebased on,ground,root 15ignoreneglect,overlook,underestimate 16fertilizerchemical,toxic,unnatural 17thatthis,it,they,those,these,such 代词18andor ，as well as ，both…and,not only…but also,other than,in addition,besides,on the one hand…on the other hand…,neither…nor…19rather than but,yet,however,whereas,nonetheless,neve rtheless,notwithstanding,although,though,in stead 20thanks to stem from,derive,owing to,due to,according to,because of,on account of,as a result of,leading to,because,since for,in that,as,therefore,hence 21diversityvariety,difference 22detectlook for,find,seek,search 23isolateinaccessible 24avoidescape,evitable 25budgetfund,financial 26adapt to fit,suit 27alternative subsitute 28compensate make up,off set 29component proportion 30militaryweapon,army 31criteriastandard 32curriculum syllabus,course of study 33feasibleviable,realistic 34constrain stop,control 35deficiency shortage,defect,weakness 36supplement provision 37distinguish separete,differentiate 38analyzeexamine,diagnose 39empharsize focus on,stress 40enormousmassive,large 41imitate mimic,copy2类1类42impair damage,diminish,decrease43hinder impede,prevent,deter,obstacle 44legitimate legal45limitation restriction46convention method,traditon47demanding troublesome48determine decide49accelerate speed up50ancient aged,old51beneficial helpful,advantageous,wholesome 52chronic lasting53conscious aware,knowing54minimize reduce,lessen55immunity resistance56imperactive compelling,necessary,urgent57secrete discharge,exude58exaggerate overstate59transmit pass,send,transfer60extinct die out,lost61exclusive only62guarantee assure63inherit receive64witness view,see65magnetic attractive66loss waste,gone67option choice68prefer to rather69priority preference,preferential70primary principal,main71principle rule72potential possibility73quantity number74settle fix,figure out75sophistiate complicate76specific detailed,particular77survive remain78swift quick,rapid79unexpectedly surprising80surrounding setting,environment81attempt try,test82expertise knowledge,skill83faculty ability84donate contribute85dynamics energy,force,move86incentive motive,stimulus87mortality death88peripheral unimportant,minor89vicinity neighbourhood,nearby90threaten endanger,jeopardize,risk,hazard 91practice method,exercise92bacteria virus,germ,microbe93be subject to face94be liable to portential95innate built-in,inborn96pattern formation97therapy treatment98original initial,first99confidential undiscovered,secret,hidden 100cognitive mental101comply with obey102consult ask for advice103superior higher,upper104co-operation support,work together105co-ordinate organize,harmonize106differ vary107cue hint,clue108signal symbol,mark,sign109abandon quit,give up,forsake,derelict 110halt stop,quit111fragile vulnerable112retain maintain113vanish disappear114delivery send115erode rust,damage116induce cause,lead to117stable constant,unchanged118integrate combine,whole119equal fair,even120grant offer3类121accumulate gather122addictive habit123adversity trouble124aggression attack125agreeable pleasant126aid help127allergic irritate128altitude height129application utilization130approve agree131array order132assign allocate133association union134attitude opinion135authority government136be consistent with compatible137bear tolerate138blight destroy139boundary barrier140bungle mishandle141burden load142calamity disaster143capacity volume144catastrophic disastrous145cater serve146certify verify147civic municipal148comment remark149commiment engagement150communal public151commute travel152compare contrast153conceal hide154concentrate focus155concur agree156confer grant157conflict unharmonious 158confuse puzzle159conservative traditional160considerable significant161contingent uncertain162controversial disputable163correlation link164courtship mate165crash collapse166credibility reliance167criminal conviction168crisis risk169criticism condemn170curb restrict171damp wet172dazzle flash173deadline limite174delay postpone175democratic republic176demographic populaiton statistic 177dental teeth178depression frustration179designate appoint180detain hold181devastate wreck182disclose expose183disparate different184display show185disrupt distroy186distract divert187distribute spread188documention record189domain field190dominate overbearing191dramatic striking192drought dry193durable lasting194eco-friendly environmentally-friendly 195elaborate illustrate196elderly aged197eliminate dispose198elusive hard199encyclopedia entire range of knowledge 200entrepreneur boss201equator geography202erratically unpredictably203established built204estate property205ethical moral206eventually finally207evidence proof208evolve develop209exceptional extreme,utmost210exhausted fatigue211experiment test212explicit clear213exploit use214extend expand215extract quotaition216famine hunger217finite limited218fitness heath219foe enemy220format structure221fragment piece222freeze chill223fullfill execute224gene factor225gifted talented226graphic picture227habitat residence228harbour hold229hardship difficult230harsh rough231hypothesis assumption232impact influence233impressive touching234in accordance with conform235inaccurate incorrect236inactive passive237inappropriate hard238indulge spoil239infest plague240installment payment on its completion 241intelligence mind242intense strong243interaction social activities244interference interdependence 245interior inner246interrupt stop247introverted shyness248involve associate249keen strong250label display251lack shortage252landscape scene253likelihood chance254limb arm or leg255linguistic language256log record257look-in opportunity,chance 258lopsided uneven259mainly primary260malfunction breakdown261mammal creature262manage to do success263manifest obvious264manufacture produce265marine sea266mate spouse267mechanism method268mental intelligent269mercury liquid metal270meteorology weather271migrate move272moisture humidity273monitor surveillance274motif theme275mould form276native original277nocturnal night278norm regulation279notoriety famous280objective goal281obligation responsibility282obscure hide283obtain get284odd strange285odour smell286offensive hostile287official authority288optimum best289ordinary common290organ a part of body291out of question impossible292overcome defeat293overtake surpass294paralyse connot move295paramount principal296participate join297patient repetitive 298peak top299permit allow300persuade influence301pessimistic negative302phase process303physical body304plagiarise copy305plenty of many306plot plan307pose cause308portable conveyable 309poverty poor310praise commend 311predict expect312pressing urgent313private personal314prohibit not allowed 315prolong extend316promote improve317prosper success318purify clean319qualify fulfill320radical utmost321range scope322rare unusual323rate rank,measure 324react respond325recreation entertainment 326reduction decrease 327refer to talk about 328rehearsal preparation 329reject exclude330relevant relative331religious sacred332reluctant unwilling333reproduce breed334responsible liable335revision editing336revive renaissance 337ruin destroy338scenic beautiful339shade shelter340skepticism doubt341soar increase342solely alone343solicitor lawyer344steer manage345stimulate motivate346stride progress 347succumb yield348subdivide break down 349subtle delicate 350substance matter351sufficiency enough 352supersede replace 353suppress hold354supremacy priority355suspicious odd356sustainable long-term 357symptom sign358tension upset359term word360throughout anywhere 361toll charge362trace track363transcend excel364transmit send365tremendous vast366trigger begin367tropical hot368unbiased fair369uniform consistent 370valuable benefit371versatile all-around 372view overlook 373violent fierce374visible see375visual image376well-being health。

【工程学科英语(整合第二稿)】参考答案

Unit OneTask 1⑩④⑧③⑥⑦②⑤①⑨Task 2① be consistent with他说，未来的改革必须符合自由贸易和开放投资的原则。

② specialize in启动成本较低，因为每个企业都可以只专门从事一个很窄的领域。

③ d erive from以上这些能力都源自一种叫机器学习的东西，它在许多现代人工智能应用中都处于核心地位。

④ A range of创业公司和成熟品牌推出的一系列穿戴式产品让人们欢欣鼓舞,跃跃欲试。

⑤ date back to置身硅谷的我们时常淹没在各种"新新"方式之中，我们常常忘记了，我们只是在重新发现一些可追溯至涉及商业根本的朴素教训。

Task 3T F F T FTask 4The most common viewThe principle task of engineering: To take into account the customers ‘ needs and to find the appropriate technical means to accommodate these needs.Commonly accepted claims:Technology tries to find appropriate means for given ends or desires;Technology is applied science;Technology is the aggregate of all technological artifacts;Technology is the total of all actions and institutions required to create artefacts or products and the total of all actions which make use of these artefacts or products.The author’s opinion: it is a viewpoint with flaws.Arguments: It must of course be taken for granted that the given simplified view of engineers with regard to technology has taken a turn within the last few decades. Observable changes: In many technical universities, the inter‐disciplinary courses arealready inherent parts of the curriculum.Task 5① 工程师对于自己的职业行为最常见的观点是：他们是通过应用科学结论来计划、开发、设计和推出技术产品的。

学术英语社科unit3 A翻译

1、失去一份工作可能是最痛楚的经济事件在一个人的生活。

大多数人们依托自己的劳动收入来维持他们的生活标准,许多人会从他们的工作取得的不仅是收入，还有自己的成绩感。

一个失去工作意味着此刻要定一个更低的生活标准,焦虑以后,并丧失自尊心。

这并非奇怪,因此,政治家竞选办公室常常谈论他们所提出的政策将帮忙制造就业机遇。

2、尽管必然程度的失业是不可幸免的，在一个复杂的经济与成千上万的企业和以百万计的工人，失业量的转变大致随着时刻的推移和席卷整个国家。

当一国维持其尽可能充分就业的工人，它实现了更高水平的国内生产总值会比留下了很多工人闲置更好。

3、失业问题一样分为两类，长期的问题和短时间的问题。

经济的自然失业率一般是指充分就业状态下的失业率。

周期性失业是指今年年失业率围绕其自然率的波动，它是紧密相关的经济活动的短时间起伏。

4、判定失业问题有何等严峻时，其中一个问题确实是要考虑是不是失业一般是一个短时间或长期的条件。

若是失业是短时间的，人们可能会得出结论，它不是一个大问题。

工人可能需要几个礼拜的工作之间找到最适合他们的口味和技术的开口。

但是，若是失业是长期的，人们可能会得出结论，这是一个严峻的问题。

许多个月的失业工人更易蒙受经济和心理上的困难。

5、经济引发一些失业的缘故之一是寻觅工作。

求职是工人与适合的职位相匹配的进程。

若是所有工人和所有工作一样，使所有工人，一样适用于所有作业，求职就可不能是一个问题。

下岗职工会专门快找到新的工作，超级适合他们。

可是，事实上，工人有不同的方式和技术,职位有不同的属性，在经济生活中众多的企业和家庭关于应聘者和职位空缺的信息缓慢传播。

6、摩擦性失业往往是在不同企业之间的劳动力需求转变的结果。

当消费者决定，他们更喜爱富士通而不是宏碁，富士通增加就业职位，宏碁就辞退工人。

前宏碁的工人必需寻觅新的就业机遇，而富士通必需决定招聘新工人开辟了各类作业。

这种转变的结果是一段时刻的失业。

7、一样，由于不同地域的国家生产不同的商品，在一个地区就业增加，在另一个减少。

自主创新和依靠外力的英语作文素材

全文分为作者个人简介和正文两个部分：作者个人简介：Hello everyone, I am an author dedicated to creating and sharing high-quality document templates. In this era of information overload, accurate and efficient communication has become especially important. I firmly believe that good communication can build bridges between people, playing an indispensable role in academia, career, and daily life. Therefore, I decided to invest my knowledge and skills into creating valuable documents to help people find inspiration and direction when needed.正文：自主创新和依靠外力的英语作文素材全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Self-Innovation vs. Reliance on External ForcesAs a student, I often find myself caught between the desire to innovate and create something entirely my own, and the temptation to rely on external forces and pre-existing resources.It's a constant tug-of-war, and finding the right balance can be challenging.On one hand, self-innovation is an incredibly rewarding and empowering experience. When you conceive an idea, nurture it, and bring it to fruition through your own efforts, there's an unparalleled sense of accomplishment and pride. It's a testament to your creativity, problem-solving skills, and perseverance. Moreover, self-innovation often leads to truly unique and groundbreaking solutions, as you're not constrained by the limitations or biases of external sources.Take, for instance, the case of Mark Zuckerberg and the inception of Facebook. What started as a college project born out of Zuckerberg's own ingenuity and determination eventually transformed into a global phenomenon that revolutionized the way we communicate and share information. Had he simply relied on existing social media platforms or followed conventional wisdom, we might have never witnessed such a game-changing innovation.However, self-innovation is not without its challenges. It requires an immense amount of time, effort, and resilience, as you're essentially starting from scratch and navigating uncharted territory. There's a high risk of failure, as you may encounterunforeseen obstacles or realize that your idea is not as viable as initially thought. Additionally, self-innovation often demands a diverse set of skills and knowledge, which can be difficult to acquire and master independently.This is where the allure of relying on external forces comes into play. By leveraging pre-existing resources, tools, and knowledge, we can potentially save time, minimize risks, and gain access to expertise and support that would otherwise be out of reach. For instance, as a student pursuing a degree in computer science, I could rely on established programming languages, frameworks, and libraries to build my projects, rather than attempting to create everything from the ground up.Moreover, external forces can provide valuable guidance and mentorship, helping us refine our ideas, identify potential pitfalls, and learn from the experiences of others who have walked a similar path. Collaborating with peers, seeking advice from professors, or participating in internships or research projects can expose us to new perspectives and insights that we might have otherwise overlooked.However, an overreliance on external forces can also be detrimental. When we become too dependent on pre-existing solutions or blindly follow the advice of others, we risk stiflingour own creativity and critical thinking skills. We may find ourselves trapped in a cycle of imitation, unable to break free from established norms and conventions.Furthermore, external forces can sometimes be biased, outdated, or simply ill-suited for our specific needs or goals. By relying too heavily on them, we may inadvertently perpetuate flawed approaches or miss out on opportunities for genuine innovation.So, what's the solution? In my opinion, the key lies in striking a balance between self-innovation and judicious reliance on external forces.As students, we should embrace self-innovation as a means of cultivating our creativity, problem-solving abilities, and intellectual independence. We should actively seek out opportunities to conceive and develop our own ideas, whether it's through personal projects, research initiatives, or entrepreneurial endeavors. By doing so, we not only contribute to the advancement of knowledge and progress but also develop invaluable skills that will serve us well in our future careers and endeavors.At the same time, we must recognize the immense value that external forces can provide. We should leverage existingresources, knowledge, and mentorship judiciously, using them as a foundation upon which to build our own innovations. By standing on the shoulders of giants, we can accelerate our learning curve, avoid reinventing the wheel, and benefit from the collective wisdom of those who have come before us.Crucially, however, we must maintain a critical mindset and avoid blindly accepting external forces as gospel. We should approach them with a healthy dose of skepticism, questioning their underlying assumptions, evaluating their relevance and applicability to our specific contexts, and identifying potential biases or limitations.Ultimately, the true path to innovation lies in the synthesis of self-innovation and external forces. By combining our own creativity and determination with the guidance and resources provided by external sources, we can create something truly remarkable – something that pushes the boundaries of what is possible while still remaining grounded in established principles and best practices.As I navigate my academic journey and beyond, I strive to embody this balance. I aim to nurture my own innovative spirit, constantly challenging myself to think outside the box and develop novel solutions to complex problems. At the same time,I remain open to learning from others, seeking out mentors and collaborators who can provide valuable insights and support.It's a delicate dance, one that requires constant recalibration and self-awareness. But by embracing both self-innovation and the judicious use of external forces, I believe we can unlock our full potential as students, scholars, and future leaders, paving the way for truly transformative and impactful innovations.篇2Self-Innovation vs. Reliance on External ForcesThroughout human history, there has been an ongoing debate around whether true progress and achievement stem from self-motivated innovation or from relying on external forces and influences. As a student, I have grappled with this question in various aspects of my academic journey. Do I succeed through my own hard work and creativity, or do I depend on the guidance and resources provided by teachers, institutions, and society at large?On one hand, the power of self-innovation cannot be overstated. Some of humanity's greatest accomplishments have come from individuals who dared to think outside the box and challenge conventional wisdom. Galileo Galilei's pioneering workin astronomy, for instance, faced immense opposition from the Catholic Church and the academic establishment of his time. Yet, his unwavering curiosity and willingness to question authority ultimately revolutionized our understanding of the universe.Similarly, in the realm of technology, many groundbreaking inventions have emerged from independent tinkerers and entrepreneurs working in garages or home labs. The personal computer revolution, spearheaded by visionaries like Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, is a prime example. By eschewing traditional corporate structures and embracing a DIY ethos, these innovators reshaped the entire computing landscape.From a student's perspective, self-innovation can manifest in various ways. It might involve exploring unconventional study methods, developing unique problem-solving strategies, or pursuing independent research projects outside of the classroom. By thinking critically and challenging established norms, we can push the boundaries of our understanding and potentially make novel contributions to our respective fields.However, it would be naive to discount the importance of external forces and support systems in driving progress and achievement. Even the most brilliant minds and pioneering thinkers have relied, to some extent, on the knowledge,resources, and infrastructure provided by larger institutions and societal frameworks.Universities, for instance, serve as crucibles of innovation by fostering collaborative environments, providing access to cutting-edge research facilities, and facilitating the exchange of ideas across disciplines. Many groundbreaking discoveries and innovations have emerged from the collective efforts of teams of researchers working within these academic institutions.Moreover, government funding and policies can play a pivotal role in shaping the direction and pace of innovation. The space race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era, for example, catalyzed tremendous advancements in aerospace engineering and related fields. Without the backing of national resources and political will, such endeavors would have been nearly impossible to undertake.From a student's perspective, relying on external forces can manifest in various forms. It might involve seeking mentorship from experienced professors, utilizing campus resources and facilities, or participating in collaborative research projects. By leveraging these external support systems, we can gain invaluable knowledge, guidance, and opportunities that can propel our academic and professional growth.Ultimately, the most effective approach may lie in striking a balance between self-innovation and strategic reliance on external forces. While independent thinking and creativity are essential for pushing boundaries and challenging the status quo, it is often through the synergy of individual efforts and institutional support that true transformative change can occur.As students, we should strive to cultivate our innate curiosity, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving abilities. At the same time, we must recognize the value of seeking guidance, collaborating with peers and mentors, and leveraging the resources and infrastructure provided by our educational institutions. By combining our individual drive for self-innovation with the power of external support systems, we can maximize our potential for personal growth, academic achievement, and, ultimately, contributing to the advancement of knowledge and society.In conclusion, the interplay between self-innovation and reliance on external forces is a complex and nuanced dynamic. While individual ingenuity and independent thinking are indispensable drivers of progress, true transformative change often requires the convergence of personal efforts with institutional resources and societal support systems. As students,our task is to navigate this balance judiciously, nurturing our intrinsic thirst for knowledge and creativity while strategically leveraging the guidance and opportunities afforded by the world around us.篇3Independent Innovation vs. Reliance on External ForcesEver since I was a kid, I've been really into science and technology. I remember spending hours tinkering with old electronics, trying to figure out how they worked and if I could modify or improve them in any way. My parents didn't always understand my geeky hobbies, but they encouraged my curiosity and let me set up a little workshop in the garage.As I got older and started learning about the history of innovation, I became fascinated by the stories of independent inventors and tinkerers whose creative sparks led to groundbreaking inventions and advancements. People like Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, the Wright Brothers, and Steve Wozniak. They didn't have big research labs or corporate backing - they followed their passions, thought outside the box, and persevered through failure after failure until they achieved something revolutionary.At the same time, I recognized the incredible resources, infrastructure, and brain power that large organizations and institutions can bring to research and development efforts. Juggernauts like NASA, Silicon Valley tech giants, international research consortiums, and major universities have capabilities that no lone individual could ever match. Their work has undeniably propelled humanity forward in countless fields.So which approach is better: independent, free-wheeling innovation driven by maverick thinkers? Or intensive R&D backed by the vast resources of corporations, governments, and academia? In my opinion, both models are valuable and the greatest advances often come from a synthesis of the two.The archetypal garage tinkerer has the freedom to explore weird ideas without being constrained by bureaucracy or the pressure to show constant, measurable progress. Their offbeat perspectives can spark wholly original lines of thinking that transcend conventional wisdom. When Thomas Edison was developing the light bulb, the scientific consensus was that his approach would never work. If he had given up or followed the crowd, we might still be sitting in the dark.Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started Apple Computer in a suburban garage, fueled by wild ideas about making computersaccessible to ordinary people. Their scrappy startup completely revolutionized the tech industry. Imagine if they had just taken regular jobs at established companies instead of taking that entrepreneurial leap.These lone innovators have the liberty to indulge their curiosities and pursue passion projects that big organizations would never greenlight because they seem too eccentric or impractical. But that openness to unconventional thinking is precisely what allows them to achieve such unconventional results. As the saying goes, "no guts, no glory."On the flip side, few individual amateurs could accomplish what large, well-funded teams can with their specialized knowledge, cutting-edge tools, and pooled brainpower. Good luck building a particle accelerator or sending a rover to Mars out of your garden shed! The immense scale and complexity of modern scientific and technological development often requires institutional resources, collaboration among experts across disciplines, and expensive capital.For example, CERN's Large Hadron Collider was an audaciously ambitious project that cost over 9 billion and involved over 10,000 researchers from 100+ countries. Coordinating such a massive, multinational effort would beutterly impossible for a lone eccentric. An individual might spark the initial idea, but executing on something of that magnitude necessitates government funding, political cooperation, and bringing together diverse technical teams with specialized facility.We see a similar dynamic in the world of tech startups. While a visionary like Steve Jobs started in his garage, Apple couldn't have grown into the juggernaut it is today without eventually achieving corporate scale. Entrepreneurial zeal and creative thinking are vital sparks, but to truly change the world, you ultimately need institutional backing.Large organizations also benefit from economy of scale, extensive infrastructure, and accumulated expertise that loners lack access to. This allows them to iterate on existing innovations at a rapid pace without having to start from square one each time. Corporations can take a cool concept developed in a university lab and use their vast R&D resources to streamline manufacturing, work through practical issues, and optimize the product for the mass market.So in an ideal world, the two approaches feed into each other. Quirky outsiders come up with the moonshot ideas that mainstream science or industry scoffs at...until those blue-skyvisions are eventually validated and absorbed by universities, national labs, or corporate R&D departments who have the means to thoroughly explore and harness those novel concepts at a larger scale.The alternating current system that powers our cities? Pioneered by the maverick Nikola Tesla, but its development and widespread adoption was driven by industrial titans like George Westinghouse. The Apollo space program that landed men on the moon? Sparked by backyard amateur rocket clubs, then amplified by NASA's eye-popping resources. Moderne-commerce? An eccentric concept - shopping from home via computer networks - until infrastructure from internet and logistics giants finally made it mainstream.So in retrospect, it seems that the greatest advancements arise from a productive cycle of individual ingenuity catalyzing institutional efforts that further develop, scale, and proliferate those original insights in ways a lone tinkerer could never accomplish alone. Independent innovation disrupts; institutional resources transform those disruptions into concrete progress. This symbiotic relationship has hopefully become clear.So then where do I hope to fit into this dynamic landscape of innovation? Well, in the short term, I thoroughly plan to embracemy identity as an impassioned amateur daydreamer. I intend to indulge every weird notion that pops into my head, unencumbered by practical considerations or judgments about what's "realistic."My rule is: if a batty idea captivates my imagination, I'll follow it down the rabbit hole of research and tinkering to see what unexpected insights or prototypes I can produce. Who knows, maybe I'll stumble into something significant. Even if not, the process of unfettered exploration itself yields personal growth, creative confidence, and honed critical thinking skills.Or perhaps some of my weird concepts will be radical enough to disrupt conventional thinking in a certain field, planting the seeds for the next big institutional research effort to run with and build upon. I may not cure cancer or Land on Mars myself, but I could instigate fresh thinking that sets the stage for teams of experts to accomplish such feats down the line.After all, we'd never have the wonders of semiconductors, cellular networks, nuclear energy, airplanes, or the internet today without the weird ideas and tireless obsessions of quirky individuals who dared to reimagine what's possible. Perhaps I can play a small part in provoking the next paradigm shift that improves the human condition.Simultaneously though, I aim to prepare myself for more institutional environments like university research labs or forward-thinking companies where I could one day integrate into collaborative teams working on complex, capital-intensive R&D initiatives. By immersing myself in the realms of both independent innovation and institutional resources during different phases of my journey, I believe I can best position myself to make a tangible impact and advance crucial fields in sustainable ways.So in summary, I don't think we have to decisively choose between free-spirited dreamers and deep-pocketed R&D programs when it comes to driving progress. We need both iconoclastic innovators AND institutional resources working in reciprocal harmony for society to keep evolving in positive directions. While my own path may oscillate between the two poles over time, I believe integrating the spirit of both independent and institutional efforts is key to making a lasting mark.Perhaps the most vital skill going forward will be the ability to translate between those two worlds - to gather unconventional ideas from the fringes and find ways to germinate, refine, and scale them up through largercollaborative systems and infrastructures. I hope to play a bridging role in facilitating that fertile exchange of creativity and resources. With open-minded humility, passion, critical thinking, and dedication, I believe our civilization's greatest ambitions can keep getting realized through the dynamism of this balanced approach.。

2013 CCNA英语词汇(音标)

2013 CCNA英语单词总汇Carrier['kæriə]载体Access 通路访问Accomplish [ə'kʌmpliʃ]完成实现Accordance [ə'kɔ:dəns]一致的Account [ə'kaunt]账号Active 活动、激活Additionally [ə'diʃənli]加上Adequate ['ædikwit]适当的Administrative [əd'ministrətiv]管理Advantage [əd'vɑ:ntidʒ]有优势利益Aggregation [,æɡri'ɡeiʃən]集合Algorithm ['ælɡəriðəm]算法Allocate ['æləukeit]分配Application [,æpli'keiʃən]请求Apply [ə'plai]申请应用Assign [ə'sain]分配指派Asynchronous[ei'siŋkrənəs]异步不同Automatic [,ɔ:tə'mætik]自动的Autonomous [ɔ:'tɔnəməs]自治的Authentication [ɔ:,θenti'keiʃən]认证、鉴别Authorization [,ɔ:θərai'zeiʃən]授权Attenuation [ə,tenju'eiʃən]衰减Architecture ['ɑ:kitektʃə]体系、结构、建筑学Auxiliary [ɔ:ɡ'ziljəri]辅助的Available [ə'veiləbl]可用到的Avoid [ə'vɔid]避免、消除Backup备份Balance['bæləns]平衡Bandwidth['bændwidθ]带宽Belong[bi'lɔŋ]属于Benefit['benifit]利益Block[blɔk]妨碍阻塞Boundary['baundəri]边界Branch[brɑ:ntʃ]分支Bridge网桥Broadband['brɔ:dbænd]宽带Binary ['bainəri]二进制Broadcast广播Buffer['bʌfə]缓冲器Bundle['bʌndl]捆包Cable 电缆Calculate['kælkjuleit]考虑计划Capability[,keipə'biləti]性能Capacity[kə'pæsəti]容量Card卡片Carrier ['kæriə]载体Case案例Catalyst['kætəlist]催化剂Cell单元Central['sentrəl]中心Certification[,sə:tifi'keiʃən]证明Channel信道Character['kærəktə]特性Characteristic[,kærəktə'ristik]特征Circuit['sə:kit]电路Circumstance['sə:kəmstəns]环境详情Collision[kə'liʒən]冲突Combination[,kɔmbi'neiʃən]联合Command[kə'mɑ:nd]命令Commit[kə'mit]提交Communication[kə,mju:ni'keiʃən]通讯Compare[kəm'pεə]比较Complain[kəm'plein]抱怨Complexity[kəm'pleksiti]复杂Component[kəm'pəunənt]组成Composite['kɔmpəzit]复合物Compress[kəm'pres]压缩Compression[kəm'preʃən]密集Concept['kɔnsept]概念Configuration[kən,fiɡju'reiʃən]配置Configure[kən'fiɡə]设定Confine[kən'fain]限制Congestion[kən'dʒestʃən]拥塞Connectivity[,kɔnek'tivəti]连通性Connector[kə'nektə]连接器Conserve[kən'sə:v]保存Consider[kən'sidə]考虑Consist[kən'sist]由-组成Console[kən'səul]控制台Continuous[kən'tinjuəs]连续的Contiguous[kən'tiɡjuəs]临近Continuous[kən'tinjuəs]连续的Contrast[kən'trɑ:st]对比Controller[kən'trəulə]管理员控制器Convergence[kən'və:dʒəns]集中、汇聚Convention[kən'venʃən]协定Corporate['kɔ:pərit]共同Cost[kɔst]成本Count[kaunt]计算计数Create[kri'eit]造成引起Crossover['krɔ:s,əuvə]交叉（线）Cycle['saikl]周期Database数据库Debug调试Decimal['desiməl]十进制Decrease[di'kri:s]减少backbone 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Transformational leadership and leader moral orientation

Transformational leadership and leader moral orientation:Contrasting an ethic of justice and an ethic of careSheldene K Simola a,⁎,Julian Barling b ,Nick Turner caBusiness Administration Program,Trent University,1600West Bank Drive,Peterborough,ON,Canada K9J 7B8bQueen's School of Business,Queen's University,Canada c Asper School of Business,University of Manitoba,Canadaa r t i c l e i n f o ab s t r ac tPrevious research on the moral foundations of transformational leadership has focused on aKohlbergian (1969,1976)ethic of justice.However,proposed associations between level ofjustice reasoning and transformational leadership have received only partial support.Wereasoned that an ethic of care would be more consistent with the nature of transformationalleadership than would be an ethic of justice.Multilevel regression analyses on data obtainedfrom a sample of leaders (N =55)and followers (N =391)at a Canadian university supportedour predictions.Speci ﬁcally,leader propensity toward using an ethic of care was signi ﬁcantly,positively related to follower perceptions of transformational (but not transactional)leadership.Leader propensity toward an ethic of justice was signi ﬁcantly,positively relatedto follower perceptions of transactional (but not transformational)leadership.Conceptual,research,and practical implications are discussed.©2009Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.Keywords:Ethics Ethic of care Ethic of justice Leadership Transformational leadership1.IntroductionDuring the last decade,there has been a growing interest in the intersection of leadership and ethics (e.g.,Banerji &Krishnan,2000;Bass &Steidlmeier,1999;Ciulla,1998a,b;Keeley,1998;Krishnan,2001;Wren,1998).However,despite the supposed centrality of ethics in effective leadership,there remains with few exceptions (e.g.,Brown,Treviño,&Harrison,2005;Treviño,Brown,&Hartman,2003)little empirical research in this area.Continued research could have important implications for leadership selection,development,and training.The primary purpose of this study was to contrast two alternative accounts of the relationship between leadership behaviors and moral problem solving orientation.While previous research has focused almost exclusively on a Kohlbergian (1969,1976)ethic of justice when assessing the moral foundations of transformational leadership (e.g.,Sivanathan &Fekken,2002;Turner,Barling,Epitropaki,Butcher,&Milner,2002),we contrast two moral reasoning orientations,namely an ethic of care (Gilligan,1982)and an ethic of justice.We argue that an ethic of care would be more consistent with the nature of transformational leadership than would an ethic of justice (Kohlberg,1969,1976),and that this distinction could explain inconsistencies in previous ﬁndings showing partial (Turner et al.,2002)or no (Sivanathan &Fekken,2002)support for hypothesized relationships between transformational leadership and an ethic of justice.The Leadership Quarterly 21(2010)179–188⁎Corresponding author.E-mail address:ssimola@trentu.ca (S.K.Simola).1048-9843/$–see front matter ©2009Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.Contents lists available at ScienceDirectThe Leadership Quarterlyj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w ww.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /l e a q u a180S.K Simola et al./The Leadership Quarterly21(2010)179–1881.1.Transformational leadership,transactional leadership,and moral reasoningBurns(1978)initially differentiated between“transactional”and“transformational”leadership.Transactional leadership refers to exchanges that advance the purposes of each party in economic,political,or psychological ways.In contrast, transformational leadership goes beyond beneﬁts that accrue to each individual through social exchange,and reﬂects a relationship in which leaders and followers engage with each other through a shared purpose in ways that transform and elevate their motivation,conduct,and ethical aspirations.Transformational leadership comprises four behavioral dimensions(Bass,1985; Bass&Riggio,2006).These include“idealized inﬂuence,”in which leaders demonstrate vision and mission,and serve as role models to followers;“inspirational motivation,”characterized by the inspiration of a shared vision and team spirit directed toward achievement of group goals;“intellectual stimulation,”which reﬂects the processes through which leaders rouse followers toward creativity,innovation,and careful problem solving;and,“individualized consideration,”which is manifested when leaders establish a supportive environment in which they attend carefully to the individual and unique needs of followers.The four dimensions of transformational leadership can be differentiated from transactional leadership style,which itself comprises two components,namely“contingent reward”(an exchange in which rewards are contingent upon actions)and“management by exception”(which involves the use of constructive criticism and negative reinforcement).Two previous studies have examined the relationship between transformational leadership and moral reasoning.Turner et al. (2002)assessed whether transformational and transactional leadership were associated with different levels of Kohlbergian (1969,1976)cognitive moral reasoning.Within this framework,individuals are thought to develop through three levels of moral reasoning.In the preconventional stage,self-interest is dominant,and obedience to authority takes place to avoid punishment.The conventional level emphasizes a shared understanding of societal norms and values in decision-making.Postconventional moral reasoning is the third and highest level,in which moral decisions occur based on universal moral principles(e.g.,life is more important than property).Turner et al.(2002)argued that individuals with more complex forms of Kohlbergian moral reasoning will be able to draw on more cognitively sophisticated conceptualizations of interpersonal situations.Therefore,they will be more likely to draw on a larger repertoire of ways to respond to life dilemmas,and to identify beneﬁts inhering in those choices that meet collective as opposed to individual needs.Turner et al.predicted that leaders with higher levels of Kohlbergian reasoning would exhibit more transformational leadership than leaders with lower levels of Kohlbergian reasoning.In addition,because transactional leadership relies on leader-follower exchange,it does not require an ability to identify a wider range of choices that would facilitate group (as opposed to individual)self-interest.Thus,level of moral reasoning was predicted to have no relationship to transactional behaviors.The data showed that leaders with preconventional(lowest)levels of moral reasoning demonstrated less trans-formational leadership behaviors than those with postconventional(highest)levels of moral reasoning.However,no difference in transformational leadership was found between leaders at the conventional(moderate)level of moral reasoning relative to leaders at either the preconventional or postconventional levels.Their second hypothesis,that no differences in moral reasoning would be found among transactional leaders,was supported.Sivanathan and Fekken(2002)also considered the relationship between transformational leadership and level of Kohlbergian moral reasoning,but they found that transformational leadership was not related to Kohlbergian moral reasoning level.Thus, whereas Turner et al.(2002)found partial support for their hypotheses about the relationship between transformational leadership and Kohlbergian level of moral reasoning,Sivanathan and Fekken(2002)found no relationship between these two variables.Although authors of both of these studies identiﬁed potential measurement issues that could account for these discrepancies between predicted and observed outcomes,1we suggest that speciﬁcation of the nature of moral problem solving orientation might help account for the relationship between transformational leadership and moral reasoning.Speciﬁcally,the ethic of justice (Kohlberg,1969,1976),which was used in the two aforementioned studies,and an ethic of care(Gilligan,1982)reﬂect two different approaches to understanding moral reasoning.In the current study,we develop and test different hypotheses concerning the relationships between transformational and transactional leadership and these two moral orientations of justice and care.paring moral orientationsKohlberg's(1969,1976)model of moral reasoning reﬂects a justice orientation,and is characterized by a focus on adjudicating between individual interests or rights in solving moral dilemmas.This orientation is predicated on impartiality,fairness, reciprocity,and the application of universal moral principles to abstract features of ethical situations.In the preconventional level of moral reasoning,individuals are primarily egocentric in choosing the behaviors that will aid them in avoiding punishment and maximizing self-interest(Kohlberg,1969,1976).However,as individuals develop cognitively,equality and fairness assume greater importance in moral decision making.In the conventional stage,fairness is evident in a shared understanding of societal norms and respect for conventions and laws,whereas in theﬁnal,post-conventional stage,fairness is related to equality of persons and reciprocity toward one another.Thus,the postconventional stage is characterized by reliance on universal moral principles that transcend laws.1Turner et al.(2002)identiﬁed that normative cut-off points dividing scores on their measure of moral reasoning might have been inadequate to differentiate levels of reasoning.Sivanathan and Fekken(2002)hypothesized that weak internal consistency of their measure of Kohlbergian reasoning combined with aIn contrast,Gilligan's (1982)focus on the ethic of care emerged in response to methodological concerns related to Kohlberg's (1969,1976)research.Speci ﬁcally,Kohlberg only studied males,and hypothetical dilemmas rather than actual ethical dilemmas experienced by the respondents themselves.Gilligan studied women confronted with actual moral dilemmas and in doing so,found evidence of an alternative moral orientation that was characterized by authentic relationships re ﬂecting concern with understanding the subjective experiences and needs of others,and by being genuinely responsive to these.Within Gilligan's perspective,individuals demonstrating a care orientation would not focus on adjudicating between competing rights as would be the case in a Kohlbergian perspective.Instead,a care orientation would focus on identifying creative ways of simultaneously ful ﬁlling competing responsibilities to others.Although Gilligan's research focused on the moral reasoning of women,subsequent meta-analysis has shown that use of an ethic of care is not strongly gender differentiated (Jaffee &Shibley-Hyde,2000).In addressing the ethics of transformational and transactional leadership,Bass and Steidlmeier (1999)noted that although both forms of leadership have clear philosophical foundations and components,the exact nature of these differs.Speci ﬁcally,the ethical issues that have salience to the transformational leadership construct as a whole are those that re ﬂect a concept of self that is “connected …(wherein)one's moral obligations …are grounded in a …conceptualization of individuals within community ”(Bass &Steidlmeier,1999,p.186).This characteristic of interconnection,seen as ethically central to transformational leadership,is also central to an ethic of care,as opposed to an ethic of justice in which notions of separation and autonomy would be critical.In terms of the four components comprising transformational leadership,“idealized in ﬂuence ”is associated with the notion of a “universal brotherhood ”(Bass &Steidlmeier,1999,p.187),as opposed to a sense of community based on “we-they ”value differences.This universal brotherhood also connotes the importance of interconnection central to a care approach,rather than the “we-they ”distinctions re ﬂecting the underlying justice characteristic of autonomy or separation from others.This sense of interconnection also involves being true to both self and others (Price,2003)in a way that is consistent with a care approach.Similarly,the “inspirational motivation ”component of transformational leadership implies the development of a shared vision,rather than pursuit of individual goals.The sense of community and connection implied by a shared vision is consistent with an ethic of care,whereas the primacy of individual rights and self-interest in pursuing individual goals is more re ﬂective on an ethic of justice.Additionally,the third component of transformational leadership,individualized consideration,implies responsiveness to the unique,subjective needs of followers,which again is consistent with an ethic of care.Finally,the “intellectual stimulation ”component of transformational leadership emphasizes creativity in the search for ideals.The use of creative,win –win problem solving approaches is also consistent with Gilligan's (1982)ethic of care.Within a care perspective,creativity speci ﬁcally refers to the tendency toward identifying ways to simultaneously ful ﬁll competing responsibilities (Gilligan,1982;Reiter,1996),as opposed to choosing between the con ﬂicting rights of different individuals.That is,care-based solutions are creative in that they rely on identifying and emphasizing the underlying interests of each party,in order to expand the array of options available,thereby facilitating non-zero sum solutions in which each party can win.Tendencies within a care approach toward simul-taneously ful ﬁlling competing responsibilities contrast with tendencies within a justice approach toward arbitrating between con ﬂicting rights.As detailed by Reiter (1996),decision-making within the justice framework tends not to focus on elucidation of underlying interests to attain wins for each party.Rather,in emphasizing the adjudication of individual rights,the justice approach tends to support the rights of one party only.It is therefore less likely to demonstrate creativity in the search for ideals that would be more characteristic of the intellectual stimulation component of transformational leadership.Based on the nature of transformational leadership,and the characteristics of an ethic of care,we propose:Hypothesis 1.Leaders with a higher propensity toward using an ethic of care will be perceived by their followers as being more transformational than those with a lower propensity toward using an ethic of care.In contrast,Bass and Steidlmeier (1999)argued that the ethical values salient to transactional leadership as an overall construct are those that are associated with individualist philosophies,wherein the primacy of self-interest among autonomous individuals leads to exchange-based transactions.Moreover,the moral legitimacy of these transactions requires fairness in all such transactions.As indicated in previous discussion,these characteristics are all consistent with Kohlberg's (1969,1976)justice orientation.In terms of the components comprising transactional leadership,contingent reward implies that individual rewards given by the leader will be conditional upon the enactment of certain tasks or behaviors by the follower.Similarly,active management-by-exception implies that punishment will be implemented by the leader if followers fail to demonstrate required behaviors or complete certain tasks.Both of these dimensions re ﬂect a form of exchange-based transaction consistent with the underlying assumptions of a justice approach,namely separation,autonomy,and principles of fairness in exchange.Thus,Hypothesis 2.Leaders with a higher propensity toward using an ethic of justice will be perceived by their followers as being more transactional than those with a lower propensity toward using an ethic of justice.2.Method2.1.Procedure and participantsThe sample comprised 55employees holding leadership positions in a Canadian university,along with 391of their followers.All leaders were residence life staff with responsibilities in a number of areas,including identi ﬁcation and management of 181S.K Simola et al./The Leadership Quarterly 21(2010)179–188182S.K Simola et al./The Leadership Quarterly21(2010)179–188of social and learning opportunities for followers;creation of a sense of community;and,leadership related to fundraising activities.Followers were students living in residence,each of whom reported to a given leader,and had responsibilities in accordance with university policies and regulations.The response rate for leaders was57%.Leaders(74.5%females)ranged in age from18to23years(M=20.04years,SD=1.14years).The response rate for followers was21.7%.University policy precluded collection of follower age and gender information.Follower gender and age were not salient to the hypotheses of the current study.For the population of all residence members,the average age was18.9years,and61.3%were women.The number of followers per leader ranged between2and17(median=6).Each eligible leader and follower received an email invitation to participate.The invitation contained a conﬁdential and individualized password that allowed access to the online survey,as well as the subsequent linkage of follower responses to their respective leaders.Leaders completed their survey as part of a larger group of questionnaires that were administered for other purposes,and were paid ten dollars per hour for completing the entire package.Followers also completed their survey as part of a larger group of questionnaires.They were offered the option of having their names entered into a draw for one of six$300cash prizes distributed across residence units,such that the probability of winning in any draw would be3.33%.2.2.Measures2.2.1.Measure of moral orientationLeader propensities toward using ethics of justice and care were assessed using the nine moral dilemmas comprising theﬁrst component of the Measure of Moral Orientation[MMO](Liddell&Davis,1996;Liddell,Halpin,&Halpin,1992).2Each of the nine dilemmas was accompanied by between six and nine statements representing possible responses to the dilemma,half of which were from a justice perspective(e.g.,“I would treat the administrator like everyone else,regardless of his personal circumstances”), and half of which were from a care perspective(e.g.,“I would want to talk with her andﬁnd out more about her life before making a decision”).Following each dilemma,participants indicated on a4-point Likert scale(1=strongly agree,4=strongly disagree)the extent to which they agreed with each of the possible responses.The mean score across all dilemmas on responses reﬂecting a justice orientation yielded a propensity toward justice score,and the mean score across all dilemmas on responses reﬂecting a care orientation yielded a propensity toward care score.The MMO has previously shown adequate internal consistency for both the justice(.73)and care(.84)components(Liddell et al.,1992).The justice and care components have also shown evidence of convergent and discriminant validity.For example, whereas the care component of the MMO was signiﬁcantly,positively related(r=.27,p b.01)to the World View Questionnaire [WVQ](Strander&Jensen,1993),which assesses the extent to which individuals prefer a worldview that encompasses care for others,the justice component of the MMO was not signiﬁcantly related to WVQ care scores(Liddell&Davis,1996;Liddell,2006). Similarly,whereas MMO justice scores were signiﬁcantly,positively related(r=.41,p b.001)to conventional levels of justice reasoning as measured by Rest's(1986)Deﬁning Issues Test,MMO care scores were unrelated to these scores(Liddell&Davis, 1996;Liddell,2006).Internal consistencies from the current study were.64and.77for the justice and care scales,respectively.2.2.2.Multifactor leadership questionnaireFollower perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership were measured using the45-item Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Form5×—Short Instrument[MLQ](Bass&Avolio,2000).3Followers rated the frequency(0=not at all, 4=always)with which their leaders demonstrated behaviors associated with both leadership styles.Five subscales measure transformational leadership.They include attributed idealized inﬂuence(e.g.,“Goes beyond his/her own self-interest for the good of the group”),behavioral idealized inﬂuence(e.g.,“Speciﬁes the importance of having a strong sense of purpose”),inspirational motivation(e.g.,“Articulates a compelling vision of the future”),intellectual stimulation(e.g.,“Seeks differing perspectives when solving problems”),and,individualized consideration(e.g.,“Treats each of us as individuals with different needs,abilities,and aspirations”).An additional two subscales measure transactional leadership:contingent reward and active management by exception.We did not assess the passive-avoidant/laissez-faire leadership factor that was identiﬁed by Bass and Avolio(2000)as non-transformational and non-transactional,nor did we assess the leadership outcomes assessed by the MLQ such as leader effectiveness and satisfaction with leadership.Within-group agreement with respect to follower perceptions of transformational leadership as indicated by the intraclass correlation,ICC(1),was.08,and the reliability of the group mean scores as reﬂected by the ICC(2)value was.38.Similarly,within-group agreement with respect to perception of transactional leadership as indicated by ICC(1)was.07,with the reliability of group mean scores as indicated by the ICC(2)being.34,supporting the use of multilevel analysis,as opposed to upward aggregation of data.Some concern exists about the appropriate factor structure of the MLQ(Bass&Avolio,2000).Although this might suggest the need for a conﬁrmatory factor analysis,such analyses are problematic when follower groups are of unequal(unbalanced)sizes. This is because when using of a Full Information Maximum Likelihood estimator,a different between-group model is speciﬁed2MMO items are reproduced here by special permission of Deborah Liddell.3MLQ items are reproduced here by special permission of the Distributor,Mind Garden,Inc.,855Oak Grove Ave.,Suite215,Menlo Park,CA94025,USA www. from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire by Bernard M.Bass and Bruce J.Avolio.Copyright1995by Bernard M.Bass and Bruce J.Avolio.for each group size.Although the Muthén Maximum Likelihood (Muthén,1989,1994)estimation algorithm provides a good maximum likelihood approximation,simulation studies show it to be effective only for group sample sizes of at least 100(Hox &Mass,2001);smaller group sample sizes have been associated with biased standard errors.Given these limitations,it was not possible to conduct a con ﬁrmatory factor analysis for the current sample.Rather,we relied on Bass and Avolio's (2000)factor model based on 3,786respondents from fourteen separate samples.2.2.e of transformational and transactional full-scales versus constituent dimensionsWhen selecting predictor variables for the current study,we used the overall scores that leaders received for transformational and transactional leadership,rather than the scores leaders received on the components comprising transformational and transactional leadership for two reasons.First,our goal was to address previous ﬁndings of partial (Turner et al.,2002)or no (Sivanathan &Fekken,2002)support for proposed relationships between level of Kohlbergian justice reasoning and transformational leadership.These previous studies used overall transformational and transactional leadership scores when assessing proposed relationships with level of Kohlbergian justice reasoning.To be consistent and facilitate comparison with previous research studies,we also opted to used full-scale leadership scores.Second,the constituent dimensions of transformational leadership tend to be very highly correlated with one another,making it dif ﬁcult to isolate unique associations with other variables.For this reason researchers often combine the constituent dimensions into an overall scale (Judge &Piccolo,2004;Judge,Woolf,Hurst,&Livingston,2008).2.2.4.Statistical controlsFirst,because prior research (e.g.,Bono &Judge,2004)has shown consistent relations between transformational and transactional leadership,we controlled for transactional leadership when transformational leadership was the outcome,and vice versa.Second,previous research has demonstrated a relationship between gender and transformational leadership (Bass,Avolio,&Atwater,1996;Eagly,Johannesen,Schmidt,&van Engen,2003),as well as age and moral reasoning (Gilligan,Rogers,&Tolman,1991;Rest,1994).Consistent with Turner et al.(2002),therefore,we included both leader age and gender as control variables.3.ResultsTable 1presents the means,standard deviations,and intercorrelations among variables.Note,however,that the current study was multilevel in nature,with each cluster of followers being unique to and nested within a particular leader.We therefore used hierarchical linear modeling (Raudenbush &Bryk,2002)to address dependencies within such clusters that might otherwise bias tests of signi ﬁcance (Muthén &Satorra,1989).3.1.Multilevel regression analysesTwo multilevel regression analyses were computed using HLM6(Raudenbush,Bryk,&Congdon,2000).First,follower perceptions of transformational leadership (level-1)were regressed onto follower perception of transactional leadership (level-1),leader gender and age (both level-2),and leader propensities toward using ethics of care and justice (both level-2).Second,follower perceptions of transactional leadership (level-1)were regressed onto transformational leadership (level-1),leader gender and age (both level-2),and leader propensities toward using ethics of justice and care (both level-2).For each of the two regressions,we ﬁtted three sequential models.The ﬁrst of these was a one-way random effects analysis of variance (ANOVA)model to test whether there was signi ﬁcant variance in leadership styles between groups.The second of these was a random-coef ﬁcient regression (i.e.,one-way random effects ANCOVA)used to test both our assumption of signi ﬁcant variation in intercepts across groups,and our assumption that the mean slope between level-1variables was signi ﬁcantly different from zero.The third model ﬁtted for each regression was an “intercepts-as-outcome ”model used to assess the actual hypotheses for the current study,as opposed to the assumptions underlying them.This model therefore assessed whether differences in moral problem solving orientation among leaders were related to follower perceptions of leadership style.We had no a priori conceptual grounds on which to expect differences among the slopes relating level-1variables,and ultimately were predicting and including variables with which to explain variation across groups only with respect to intercepts.Therefore,we held the slopes constant Table 1Means,standard deviations,and intercorrelations among variables.VariableM SD 12341.Care 3.05.21(.77)2.Justice 2.88.19.08(.64)3.TRF 2.57.82.08−.06(.94)4.TRA 2.10.77.01.04.75⁎⁎(.77)Note.N =391.Internal consistency reliabilities appear in parentheses along the diagonal.The correlations among care,justice and all other variables were computed using N =391.Therefore,care and justice scores for each group were assigned down to individual followers within those groups.Thus,the effective N for justice and care is 55.TRF =transformational leadership.TRA=transactional leadership.183S.K Simola et al./The Leadership Quarterly 21(2010)179–188。

楞次定律来拒去留的英语

楞次定律来拒去留的英语Lenz's Law: Resisting the Present, Embracing the Future.In the realm of electromagnetism, Lenz's law stands asa fundamental principle that governs the interactions between electric currents and magnetic fields. Named after Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz, a Russian physicist who formulated the law in 1834, it provides a crucial insight into how these two forces coexist and influence each other.The Essence of Lenz's Law.Lenz's law, in its essence, articulates that the direction of an induced electromotive force (EMF) orcurrent in a conductor is always such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. In other words, any action that attempts to alter the magnetic field surrounding a conductor will result in a reaction that resists that change.Understanding the Implications.To fully grasp the implications of Lenz's law, consider the following scenarios:1. A Changing Magnetic Field: When the magnetic field around a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. This EMF, in turn, generates an electric current that flows in a direction that opposes the initial change in magnetic flux.2. A Moving Conductor in a Magnetic Field: When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an EMF is induced in the conductor. Again, the direction of the induced EMF and the resulting current opposes the motion of the conductor, effectively slowing it down.Practical Applications of Lenz's Law.The applications of Lenz's law extend far beyond theoretical understanding, playing a crucial role in various practical applications:1. Electric Generators: Lenz's law is the underlying principle behind the operation of electric generators. As a conductor rotates within a magnetic field, an EMF is induced in the conductor, leading to the generation of electric current.2. Electric Motors: Electric motors work on the reverse principle of generators. When an electric current flows through a conductor placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force that opposes the magnetic field, causing it to rotate.3. Transformers: Transformers rely on Lenz's law to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another through magnetic coupling. By varying the number of turnsin each coil of a transformer, the voltage and current levels can be adjusted while maintaining the same power.4. Electromagnetic Braking: Lenz's law findsapplication in electromagnetic braking systems, where the interaction between a conductor and a magnetic field isharnessed to slow down moving objects.Beyond the Practical.While Lenz's law has profound practical implications,it also provides a deeper understanding of the fundamental nature of electromagnetism. It highlights the interconnectedness of electric and magnetic fields and the dynamic relationship between them.Summary.Lenz's law, a cornerstone of electromagnetism, states that any change in magnetic flux induces an EMF that opposes that change. This principle has far-reaching applications, from electric generators and motors to transformers and electromagnetic braking systems. It serves as a testament to the interplay between electric and magnetic fields and provides valuable insights into the behavior of these forces in our world.。

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Garcia-Molina gives two correctness requirements for leader election in asynchronous systems. The rst requirement, called Assertion 3, says that if two nodes are in the same group, then they have the same leader we express this requirement as follows:
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calls a Merge procedure. The Merge procedure sends messages to all of the other leaders, inviting them to join a new group with the inviting node as leader. When a leader receives an invitation, it forwards the invitation to the other members of its group. A node that
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speci cation is undesirably strong for some systems: it sometimes forces nodes that cannot directly communicate to be in the same group. These problems are not mentioned in 1]. This paper proposes a new speci cation, which is satis ed by the Invitation Algorithm and never forces nodes that cannot directly communicate to be in the same group. The Invitation Algorithm works roughly as follows for details, see 3] or 1]. Each node has a unique priority. Each node maintains a variable status containing its status, a variable grp identifying the group it is in, and a variable ldr identifying the leader of that group. A node's status is Normal except while the node is in the process of joining a new group. Periodically, each node that is not the leader of a group calls a Timeout procedure that checks whether the leader of its group is still alive, by sending a message to the leader and waiting for a reply. If the node does not receive a reply within the timeout period, the
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node invokes a Recovery procedure. The Recovery procedure puts node into a singleton group with node as the leader. Periodically, each leader calls a Check procedure, which
Leader Election in Asynchronous Distributed Systems
Scott D. Stoller
March 9, 2000
Abstract
In a previous paper, Garcia-Molina speci es the leader election problem for synchronous and asynchronous distributed systems with crash and link failures and gives an elegant algorithm for each type of system. This paper points out a aw in GarciaMolina's speci cation of leader election in asynchronous systems and proposes a new speci cation.
Assertion 4. Suppose there is a set R of nodes which are operational and pairwise
connected for the duration of an election. Suppose also that there is no superset of with this property. If no crashes occur during the election, then the election leaves the system in a state in which there is a node in such that for every
i i i
sends messages to every other node asking whether that node is a leader. If one or more other nodes replies that it is a leader, node pauses for a time inversely proportional to its priority (this helps prevent multiple nodes from initiating elections concurrently) and then
Assertion 3. At all times, for all operational nodes i and j , if status = Normal
i
and status = Normal and grp = grp , then ldr = ldr .
j i j i j
Note that Assertion 3 is satis ed by algorithms that always leave each node in a singleton group. To express that a good algorithm leaves the system in a state with a reasonably small number of groups, Garcia-Molina proposes a second requirement, called Assertion 4. Two nodes are connected in a time interval if all messages sent between them during that time interval are delivered with bounded delay.
Index terms: leader election, group membership, asynchronous distributed systems,
crash failures
In a previous paper, Garcia-Molina speci es the leader election problem for synchronous and asynchronous distributed systems with crash and link failures and gives an elegant algorithm for each type of system the algorithm for asynchronous systems is called the Invitation Algorithm 3]. The group communication system in Amoeba 5] uses the Invitation Algorithm to recon gure a group after a node crashes. In a recent textbook 1], Chow and Johnson write: \We will examine the classic election algorithms of Garcia-Molina. Several variations of election have been proposed, but the Garcia-Molina algorithm best de nes and handles the possible failures."
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node in , status = Normal and ldr = and grp = grp .
Email: stoller@ Web: /~stoller/ Address: Computer Science Department, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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with each other during an election, then at the end of the election, the nodes in are in a single group. However, Garcia-Molina's speci cation is unintentionally strong: contrary to his Theorem A4, the Invitation Algorithm does not satisfy it. Furthermore, Garcia-Molina's