major learning theories (3)
学习理论(英文)
Behaviorism
Confined to observable and measurable behavior
▪ Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
▪ Operant Conditioning - Skinner
Behaviorism
▪ Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games
Social Learning Theory
Learning From Models Albert Bandura
1. Attend to pertinent clues 2. Code for memory (store a visual
them find solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.
Cognitive Learning Theory
▪ Meaningful Verbal Learning
Advance Organizers:
New material is presented in a
A stimulus is presented in order to get a response:
S
R
Behaviorism
▪ Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
S
US
UR
CS
US
CR
Behaviorism
▪ Operant Conditioning - Skinner
人教版高中英语选择性必修第二册课后习题 Unit 1 分层跟踪检测(二)
01分层跟踪检测(二)LearningAboutLanguageA级必备知识基础练Ⅰ.单句语法填空1.Before conducting any eust get down to (do) thorough background research and planning.2.The field of robotics is closely (relate) to advancements in artificial intelligence and computer science.3.The (finding) of the scientific study suggest a connection between sleep patterns and cognitive performance.4. (initial),the scientists faced a series of challenges in setting up the compleent.5.The (theory) framework developed by the scientist laid the foundation for understanding the behavior of the particles in the experiment.Ⅱ.短语填空1.As a scientist,it is important uneay arise during the course of an experiment.2.The results of the research may not at first,but with further analysis,scientists can uncover the underlying patterns.3.In order to a successful scientific experiment,it is crucial to carefully plan the procedure.4.Scientists often need to specific aspects of their research in order to achieve meaningful results.5.When faced with uneportant for scientists to take a moment and approach the problem with a clear mind.Ⅲ.单句写作1.今天天气太暖和了,好像已经是春天了。
王蔷主编的《英语教学法教程》第二版-Unit
Unit 1 Language and Language LearningAims of the unitIn this unit we will discuss some general matters about language learning and teaching. We are going to discuss five questions on particular:1.How do we learn language?2.What are the common views on language?3.What are the common views on language learning?4.What are the qualities of a good language teacher?5.How can one become a good language teacher?1.1How do we learn languages?Mach of human behavior is influenced by their experiences. The way language teachers teach in the classroom is to some extent influenced by the way they learned languages. This is especially true in foreign language teaching. Before we discuss language learning theories, let us first reflect on our own language learning experience.Task 1Below is a list of interview questions on how people learn a foreign language. In the first column, write down your own responses. Then interview three other students in your class and enter their responses in the other columns. Discuss your findings in group of 4 and draw someFrom the above task, you may have found that 1) people started learning a foreign language at different ages; 2) people have different experiences in learning a foreign language, some find it easy, some find it difficult;3) people learn languages for different reasons; 4) people learn languages in different ways; 5) people have different understandings about language learning; 6) people have different capacities in language learning; 7) learning can be affected by the way it is taught; 8) learning is affected by the degree of success one is expected to achieve; and more. Thus the challenge confronting language teaching is how teaching methodology can ensure successful learning by all the learners who have more differences than the commonality.1.2views on languageThe question that all approaches to language teaching should answer is, ‘what is language?’The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus designs, teaching methodology, teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom. Different views on language generate different teaching methodologies.Task 2Work in group of 4. Brainstorm possible answer to the question: what isTo give a concise definition of language has always been difficult for linguists and philogists. Although there has been an enormous amount of research in language in the past century, no authoritative answer has been given to ‘what is language?’ rather, people have settle down to talk about views of language, seemingly allowing for or accepting different theories for the moment. However, language teachers clearly need to know generally what sort of entity they are dealing with and how the particular language they are teaching fits into that entity (Brown, 1994a). for sample definition of ‘language’ , please refer to Appendix 1.Structural viewThe structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology), and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax). Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structuralitems so as to be able to understand and produce language. When this structural view of language was combined with the stimulus-response principles of behaviorist psychology, the audio-lingual approach to language learning emerged.Functional viewIn the 1960s, British linguists developed a system of categories based on the communicative needs of the learner (Johnson and Marrow, 1981) and proposed a syllabus based on communicative functions. The functional view not only sees languages as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. therefore, learners learn a language in order to be able to do with it. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Examples of notions are the concept of present, past and future time, the expressions of certainty and possibility, the roles of agents, instruments with a sentence, and special relationships between people and objects.Interactional viewThe interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts.These three views present an ever wider view of language. The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary. The communicative or notional-functional view adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do. The interactional view says that to know how to do what you want to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, you have to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.The understanding of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method (Richard and Rodgers, 1986), but more importantly, it is closely related to the understanding of language learning. If language is considered to have a finite number of structural items, learning the language probably means learning these items. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantlya tool then to learn the language learning. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool, then to learn the language means to use it, rather than just study what it is and how it is formed. The next section discusses some current theories about language learning.Views on Language learning and learning in generalA language learning theory underlying an approach or method usually answers two questions; 1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning? 2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?Task3Work in groups of 4. Brainstorm the answers to the two questions stated above.Although these two questions have never been satisfactorily answered, a vast amount of research has been done from all aspects. The research can be broadly divided into process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories. Process-oriented theories are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receive, and the atmosphere. Some researchers attempt to formulate teaching approaches directly from these theories. For example, the Natural Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way are based on one or more dimensions of processes and conditions. At this level, it is too early to formulate a specific approach, because some aspects are still too vague, for example, what is done in these processes.Behaviorist theoryThe behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioural psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way human acquire language (Harmer, 1983). Based on their experiments, Watson and Raynor formulated a stimulus-response theory of psychology. In this theory all complex forms of behavior—motions, habits and such—are seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured. Theyclaimed that emotional reactions are learned in much the same way as other skills. The key point of the theory of conditioning is that ‘you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement’(Harmer, 1983:30).Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested that language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in the . One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless’listen and repeat’drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryThe term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if all language is a learned behavior, how can a child produce a sentence that never been said by others before?According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.Though Chomsky’s theory is not directly applied in language teaching, it has had a great impact on the profession. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-lingual method.Although people are pretty much still in the dark as to what language is and how language is learned, it is believed that general knowledge about language and language learning will help language teachers do a better job.Constructivist theoryThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows. Although constructivist theory was not developed for the understanding of language learning, it is widely applicable to learning in general. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learner’s interests and curiosity for learning (Archambault, 1964).Socio-constructivist theorySimilar to constructivist theory, socio-constructivist theory represented by Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding. In other words, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peer’s support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his/her skills and knowledge and knowledge to the fullest potential.What makes a good language teacher?Some people with an excellent command of a foreign language may not be able to teach the language well while others with a general command of the language can teach it very effectively. What do you think might account for this phenomenon?Task 4Work in groups. Reflect on your own learning experience from early school years to the university. Have you had an excellent English teacher? Try to identify as many qualities as possible of your best English teacher(s). Note down all the qualities that you think are important for a good EnglishIt is clear that whether someone can become a good foreign language teacher does not solely depend on his\her command of the language. There are a variety of elements that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles (Parrot, 1993).Task 5Ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles jointly contribute to the making of a good English teacher. All the adjectives in the box below could be used to characterize these three aspects.1. Work in groups of 4 and decide which adjectives describe ethic devotion,which describe personal styles and which describe professional qualities. Please write your answers on a separate piece of paper. 2. Add any adjectives to the list which describe further qualities thatyou feel are missing.3.These adjectives are intended to describe positive qualities or styles.Do you feel that any of them could have a negative side as well? If yes, in what way? For example, an authoritative teacher may make the students feel assured, but may also make the student less free to disagree with him\her.1993)From the above activities we can see that a good English teacher should have ethic devotion, certain desirable personal styles, and more importantly, he or she should have necessary professional qualities. These three aspects constitute the professional competence of a good English teacher. A person who has a good command of English is not necessarily a good teacher because he has only one of the elements of professional competence.It is assumed that all responsible English teachers have ethic devotion, and they are supposed to make their personal styles compatible with their work. These two aspects, which are beyond the scope of this book,can be achieved as long as the teacher himself\herself has the willingness to do so.A question that many teachers often ask is: I like my job, and I love the students, but how can I become a good English teacher? Our answer is that they need professional competence, which we are going to discuss in the next section.1.5How can one become a good language teacher?The most important and most difficult part of the making of a good language teacher is the development of professional competence, which is the state or quality of being adequately qualified for the profession, and armed with a specific range of skills, strategies, knowledge, and ability.Task 6Work in pairs and discuss how one can become a professionally competent teacher of English. For example, we have to develop our English proficiency first and also we may need to learn from experienced teachers through observations. What else can you think of? Make a list and then pool all your ideas together to find out about your common beliefs.A language teacher’s professional competence is much more difficult than a driver’s skill to handle a car, and is more complicated than a student’s competence of speaking foreign language. It involves more factors and longer learning time, and may never be finished.Some people think teaching is a craft; that is, a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts’techniques, just like an apprentice. Others hold the view that teaching is an applied science, based on scientific knowledge and experimentation. By making a compromise between these two views, Wallace (1991) uses a “reflective model” to demonstrate the development of professional competence. The following model is an adapted version to illustrate the process of becoming a professionally competent teacher.(Adapted from Wallace, 1991:15)From the above model, we can see the development of professional competence for a language teacher involves Stage 1, Stage 2 and Goal. The first stage is language development. All English teachers are supposed to have a sound command of English. As language is the subject matter for language teachers and also because language is always changing, language development can never come to an end.The second stage is the most crucial stage and it is more complicated because it involves three sub-stages: learning, practice, and reflection. The learning stage is actually the purposeful preparation that a language teacher normally receives before he\she starts the practice of teaching. This preparation can include:1. learning from others’experiences (empirical knowledge gainedthrough reading and observations)2. learning the received knowledge (language learning theories,educational psychology, language teaching methodology, etc.)3.learning from one’s own experiences as a learnerBoth experiential knowledge (others’and one’s own) and received knowledge are useful when a teacher goes to practice. This is the combination of ‘craft’and ‘applied science’knowledge. The learning stage is followed by practice. The term ‘practice’ can be used in two senses. In one sense, it is a short period of time assigned to do teachingpractice as part of one’s pre-service education, usually under the supervision of instructors. This practice is also called pseudo practice. The other sense of ‘practice’ is the real classroom teaching that a teacher undertakes after he/she finishes formal education.Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on reflecting on what they have been doing (Stanely, 1999). It should be noted that teachers reflect on their work not only after they finish a certain period of practice, but also while they are doing the practice.When the would-be teachers(trainees) are doing pseudo practice, they are often trying out ideas that they have learned in a methodology class. Therefore, they are likely to reflect on how well a certain idea or technique works and often their instructors may require them to do so. The pseudo practice is beneficial only if the student teachers take reflections seriously. The most difficult thing is to keep on reflecting on one’s work when one moves on to real classroom teaching.Ideally, a teacher should be able to attain his/her professional competence after some period of practice and reflection as shown in Figure . However, professional competence as an ultimate goal does not seem to have an end. With the ever-deepening of our understanding of teaching and learning, and with the ever changing needs of the society, of education, of students, and of the teaching requirements, one must keep on learning, practicing and reflecting. Actually professional competence is’a moving target or horizon, towards which professionals travel all their professional life but which is never finally attained ‘. (Wallace, 1991:58)Task 7Work in groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions in relation to the model presented in Figure .An overview of the bookThis second edition of A Course in English Language Teaching has allowed us the opportunity to expand the original 14 units into 18 in order toinclude topics reflecting the recent development in English language teaching both at home and abroad, to revisit a number of areas, to expand an clarify points that we felt were not sufficiently clear in the first edition, and to improve the pedagogical usefulness of the text.Overall, the book aims at introducing practical methods to teachers of English as a foreign language with some basic theories presented in the first two units. It is hoped that classroom teachers or would-be teachers will not simply copy or imitate what are suggested but be able to choose or adapt with an understanding of why.Unit 1 serves as an introduction for setting the scene for this methodology course. It discusses issues concerning views on language and language learning or learning in general with the belief that such views will affect teachers’ways of teaching and thus learners’ ways of learning. The qualities of a good language teacher is also discussed in order to raise the participants’ awareness of what is required for a good English teacher.Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) have been the most influential language teaching approaches in the past two decades and they have proven to be effective in a variety of language teaching contexts. In Unit 2 we introduce the basic principles of CLT and activities followed by an introduction to task-based approach. It is intended that most of the methods that we introduce in the remaining units will, to some extent, follow a communicative approach and task-based language teaching.Unit 3 is a new unit which focuses on the new National English Curriculum. It begins with a brief overview of the history of English language teaching in China followed by tasks and discussions on the goals, objectives, and design of the new English curriculum and ends with discussions on the challenges facing teachers today.We have arranged lesson planning and classroom management as the next two units of the book-Unit 4 and Unit 5 respectively. With regard to these two units, the new edition has replaced some previous lesson plan samples and added some relevant issues, . giving effective instructions, asking effective questions, and dealing with students’errors in the classroom. To have these two parts in the early units, our intention is that the reader will use what is covered in these two parts in the early units, our intention is that the reader will use what is covered in these two units to design mini classroom activities for the teaching of knowledge and skills that come in later units.Like the first edition of the book, Units 6, 7 and 8 focus on the teaching of language components, that is, the teaching of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, while Units 9, 10, 11, 12 focus on the teaching of four skills of language, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing, with Unit 13 discussing the integration of the four skills. Some new examples and new points are added to all these units in the new edition. It should be noted that neither the language components nor the language skills are taught in an isolated fashion. We present the teaching of these language components and skills in separate units so that there is a clearer focus of discussion. In classroom teaching, we hope teachers will be able to integrate all areas.Unit 14 is about moral education. This is a new unit aiming at raising teachers’ awareness of the scope available for moral education in language teaching so that teachers will be able to create opportunities and use relevant materials and activities to help students form positive social values towards life and work.Unit 15 deals with language assessment. We have avoided ‘testing’ and ‘examination’ as our unit title because we believe ‘assessment’ is a broader concept. In this unit we focus on classroom assessment rather than standard tests. Research evidence shows that classroom-based assessment provides a better evaluation of what the students have achieved during the course of study.Units 16 and 17 are also new units. Unit 16 is about learner differences and learner training. As the purpose of teaching is for learning to take place, learners will need to play a major role in the learning process. We think as teachers we need to understand learners and the differences among them so that appropriate methods and techniques can be selected or designed to cater for learner needs. Also, we teach in order not to teach. In this sense, we need to help learners develop awareness of different learning strategies and learn to take responsibility for their own learning . Unit 17 focuses on using and creating resources. It discusses how to use the available resources as well as how to explore hidden resources for teaching and learning.Unit 18 introduces the reader to the most basic things in the evaluation, selection and adaptation of textbooks used in language teaching and learning. In the future, classroom teachers will have to take more responsibility and be given more autonomy in selecting and adopting ELT textbooks for their students.Throughout the book, we provide a number of tasks for each unit. The tasks usually follow a discussion and are aimed at providing the reader with opportunities to relate theory to practice. Most of the tasks are open-ended, that is, they do not have fixed answers or solutions. Sometimes, discussions following the task provide the authors’ further comments. Occasionally, some tasks seem to need more ‘concrete’solutions. In that case, we remove the solutions to Appendix 1 at the back of the book. We intend that users of the book should solve the problems themselves before referring to the authors’ suggested solutions.Most of the tasks involve group work or pair work. If the book is used in class, we consider it very important for students to work in pairs or groups so that they can share knowledge and experience. Individual readers may find it inconvenient to perform the task. We suggest that they discuss the problems with their colleagues wherever possible.。
计算机科学与技术专业英语
计算机科学与技术专业英语Computer Science and Technology Major计算机科学与技术专业(jìsuànjī kēxué yǔ jìshù zhuānyè) - Computer Science and Technology Major计算机科学与技术（Computer Science and Technology）是计算机科学与技术学科的核心专业，主要培养学生具有计算机科学与技术专业的基本理论、基本知识和基本技能，能够在计算机科学与技术领域从事应用与开发、设计与实施、管理与服务等工作。
Computer Science and Technology is a core major in the field of computer science and technology. It mainly focuses on cultivating students with basic theories, knowledge, and skills in computer science and technology. Graduates will be able to engage in application development, design and implementation, management, and service in the field of computer science and technology.专业课程(zhuānyè kèchéng) - Major Courses计算机科学与技术专业的课程包括但不限于以下方面：The courses of the Computer Science and Technology major include but are not limited to the following aspects:1.基础课程(basic courses):- 计算机组成原理(Computer Organization and Architecture)- 数据结构与算法(Data Structures and Algorithms)- 操作系统(Operating Systems)- 离散数学(Discrete Mathematics)- 编译原理(Compiler Design)- 计算机网络(Computer Networks)2.核心课程(core courses):- 计算机图形学(Computer Graphics)- 数据库系统(Database Systems)- 人工智能(Artificial Intelligence)- 计算机安全(Computer Security)- 软件工程(Software Engineering)- 分布式系统(Distributed Systems)3.专业选修课程(major elective courses):- 数据挖掘(Data Mining)- 机器学习(Machine Learning)- 物联网技术(Internet of Things)- 云计算(Cloud Computing)- 嵌入式系统(Embedded Systems)就业方向(jiùyè fāngxiàng) - Career Paths计算机科学与技术专业的毕业生在以下领域有广泛的就业机会: Graduates of the Computer Science and Technology major have extensive job opportunities in the following fields:- 软件开发(Software Development)- 网络安全(Network Security)- 数据分析(Data Analysis)- 人工智能与机器学习(Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning)- 云计算与大数据(Cloud Computing and Big Data)- 嵌入式系统开发(Embedded System Development)- 网站设计与开发(Website Design and Development)- IT管理与咨询(IT Management and Consulting)以上是关于计算机科学与技术专业的简单介绍。
Unit 9 Learning 大单元说课课件高中英语北师大版(2019)必修第三册
Step 1
Step 2 Reading Post-reading Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Activity 8
Which of these suggestions do you think is the most useful for you?
Intention
To practice critical thinking
What attitude should be adopted to deal with learning and life under different cultural backgrounds so as to improve students' logical and critical thinking
Theme: Human & Self
What
Topic: Learning
Aim: To form correct outlook on
Why
learning & strive to be an active lifelong learner
Value Orientation: Willing to learn, good at learning, lifelong learning
Method
Activity-based Teaching
Method
Individual Study
Communicative Teaching Method
Cooperative Study
Audio-visual Teaching Method
P art
大观念 小观念 单元目标 语篇 学生活动 学生评价
英语教学法教程名词说明题
Unit 1一，Views on language：一、Structural view （language competence）结构主义语言观—The founder：Saussure，lasen freeman&long—The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems：一、the sound system（phonology）二、sound combinations（morphology）the discrete units of meaning 3、the system of combining units of meaning for communication（syntax）—The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules andvocabulary2 、Functional view功能主义语言观—Representative：Johnson、marrow、swain canal (the core: grammar)—The function view not only sees language as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things功能不仅以为语言是一个语言系统,但也做情形的一种方式—Learners learn a language in order to be able to doing things with itUse the linguistic structure to express functions3、Interactional view 交互语言观（communicative competence）—Emphasis：appropriateness—Language is a communicative tool，which main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people—Learners need to know the rules for using the language in certain context 二，View on language learning语言学习观1.Process-oriented theories:强调进程are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to d o anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulu s, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learni ng of this system.There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that lea rning is aproces in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experie nces and what he/her already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and enga gement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.Unit 2一，What makes a good language teacher?ethic devotion, professional qualities ，certain desirable personal styles.四， principles of communicative language teaching (CLT) 交际语言教学法原那么1) Communication principle: activities that involve real communication promote l earning.2) Task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3) Meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supportsthe learning process.五，Howatt proposes a weak and a strong version of CLT.Weak version: learners first acquire language as a structural system and then lear n how to use it in communication. --- the weak version regards overt teaching of l anguage forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.Strong version: language is acquired through communication. The learners discov er the structural system in the process of leaning how to communicate.---regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for l earning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how langua ge is used in communication.六，PPP: presentation，practice，production三. Principles for good lesson planningA. AimB. VarietyC. FlexibilityD. learning abilityE. linkage四. Components of a lesson plan教案的内容A. Background informationB Teaching aimsC. Language contents and skillsD. stages and proceduresE. Teaching aidsF. End of lesson summaryG.. Optional activities and assignmentsH. After lesson reflectionUnit 5二，The role of the teacher 教师的角色1. Controller: control the pace, the time, the target language, the student.2. Assessor: two thingsa. as corrector: correct the mistakes, organizing feed back the learnersb. as evaluator: to create a success-oriented learning, atmosphere, more praise, less criticism3. Organizer : task based on teaching to design tasks and to organize4. Prompter: to give appropriate prompts hints5. Participant: to take part in the activities6. Resource-provider: as a walking dictionaryUnit 6一，Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.Unit 7三，pennington grammatical pedagogy:1.collocational grammar should biuld on collocational relations between individual lexical items and their subcategories2.Constructive offer learners a way to build elements that can be continually added in sequence3.Contextual it means that elements and structures are taught in relation to their context.四，mechanical practice机械操练1.substitute drills 替换the students substitute a part in a structure so that they getto know how that part function in a sentence2.Transformation drills转换change a given structure in a way so that they are exposed to another similar structureUnit 81. A: passive/receptive words :words that can be recognized or compared inreading and listening but can not be used automatically in speaking and writing.B: active/productive words: words that can be recognized and also be used in speech and writing by learners.Unit 11Sight vocabulary:words that one is able to recognise immediately are often referred to as sight vocabulary.Unit15Testing takes the pencil and paper form and it is usually done at the end of a learning periodAssessmen t involves the collecting of in formation or evidence of a learner s teaching and learning.Evaluation:can be concerned with a whole range of issues in and beyond language education :lessons courses programs and skills can all be evaluated ,四，bloom’s taxonomy 目标分类学1.knowledge知识:recalling facts ,terms,and basic concepts2.prehension明白得:understanding of facts and ideas byorganizing ,comparing,translating interpreting,describing and stating the main ideas3.application运用:applying acquired knowledge,facts ,techniques and rules in a different context.4.analysis分析:identifying relationships,causes or motives,and finding evidence to support main ideas.5.synthesis综合：combing elements in a different way and proposing alternative solutions,creative thinking.6.evaluation 评判：present and defend opinions by making informed judgement about information or ideas based on a set of criteria.、Teaching objectives中心the Ss will be able to understand the main idea of an article about XX and can write a list of XX for XX.辞汇be able to name the new word about XX in english using pictures as cues and be able to tell each other whatXX they like.情感be able to talk about their opinions or feelings about XX to each other.其他tell the five simple forms ofXX can role play the dialogue of XXWarming up.。
Lecture Five(2006.10.17)
Implication for language learning and teaching 1) theme shift for new information 2) comparative analysis for new structure and different culture 3)error analysis for the mental factors of the error.
the theory of signs eg. semiotics the analysis of systems using signs and signals for the purpose of communication semiotic linguistics (origin, structure, regulation and orientation of symbols) relief (a,b, , p-th) eg. 三人从众 semantic tri-angle (Saussure)
Cognitive Theories Gestalt psychology Piaget’s developmental psychology Ausubel’s “meaningful learning”
Gestalt psychology gestalt= pattern or configuration an approach to psychology in which behavior is studied as undivided wholes. Gestalt psychologists response to a situation in terms of a combination of separate responses to a combination of separate stimuli, but that it should be studied as a whole response to the whole situation. Gestaltists lay emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, recognition, sensormotor skills, learning even in social conduct.
Lecture Three
associative cognitive composite
learning
♦ The Nature of human learning
learning
change growth or maturation development thinking the development of association Smoke – fire A smoke would changes into a fire. There is no fire without smoke. The house is on fire! dangerous, people present at random run away or put down the fire
change e.g.
e.g.
stimulus fire
response put the key into the lock → turn the key → open the door → leave the door and find a safe place
associative learning learning which happens when a connection or association is made, usually between two things, e.g. “table→ food” This is called association by contiguity. Associative meaning of a word.
e.g. stimulus puppy
response warm young furry lively kitten etc. child young affectionate naughty amusing noisy lovable irritating sweet grubby etc. The associative meaning of a word is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear or see the word.
英文版布鲁姆掌握学习理论
1) Mastery Learning Theory掌握学习理论1.Bloom s Mastery Learning Theory has exerted great influence on teaching in Chinese primary and middle schools especially in junior middle schools since it was introduced to China in 1986.布鲁姆的掌握学习理论自1986年被介绍到我国以来,对我国中小学特别是初中教学产生了较大影响,但在实践运用中也有其局限性,必须批判性和推陈出新地运用,才能促进我国的素质教2) mastery Learning掌握学习1.Inspiration from Bloom s Theory of "Mastery Learning" to the Quality-oriented Education;布卢姆“掌握学习”对素质教育的启示2.The Theory of Mastery Learning and Its Application in the Teaching of Our Middle and Primary Schools;掌握学习理论及其在我国中小学教学中的应用3.In response to this situation,selecting the teaching mode of"mastery learning"is indispensible to run out of the plight for the teaching of judicial documents with a guide of Bloom s Master Learning Theory.针对这一状况,以布鲁姆掌握学习理论为指导,推行"掌握学习"教学模式是司法文书教学走出困境的应然之选。
西方文明史大纲(修改版)
Introduction to Western Civilization1. Subject description and overviewThe subject provides the beginning students with an understanding of the history of Western civilization from pre-historic times to the 18c. It will emphasize the reading and discussion of influential incidents that have shaped the intellectual and cultural heritage of the Western World during its ancient, medieval and early modern periods.The subject will enable students to develop a better understanding of the history of the Western world, and learn to analyze critically some of the current Western issues from the historical perspective.The student will learn aspects of the development of Western cultural, political, religious and social processes from hominid evolution to the Early Modern period. Therefore, in class, the student will be encouraged to get involved in the following discussions∙Describe changes in thought as it relates to Western culture in this period∙Identify and discuss some of the major people, events and time periodsThe study of Western Civilization enables individuals to develop a better understanding of the western historical issues which affect the West and the world as a whole. The knowledge gained from this course in Western Civilization will be of lifelong value to the student. The influence of the subject on all areas of activity should stimulate the individual to continue reading and conducting research in detail concerning western civilization. It is recognised that students doing this subject may be drawn from different backgrounds and may hold different interests. Some may wish to study Western Civilization as preparation for further specialisation in the subject. Others may study the subject to complement other subject disciplines, such as, western literature, eastern civilization or the history of Chinese literature. Somestudents may see the subject as one worthy of study in its own right.2. Pre-requisite units and assumed knowledgeNone3. Learning aims and outcomesLearning outcome 1:Explain the development of the Western civilization in ancient times.ASSESMENT CRITERIA:a.Discuss the characteristics of the Western civilization in ancient times.b.Explain the impact brought by the agricultural revolution in Neolithic Age onthe human civilization.c.Discuss the political and cultural characteristics of the Roman Empire andtheir influence on the world to come.Learning outcome 2:Explain the development of the Western civilization in Middle Ages.ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:a.Discuss the role that trade and cities played in European society in highMiddle Ages.b.Explain the emergence, the growth and the decline of the church power inMedieval Civilizationc.Describe the great event “The Black Death” in the 14c.Learning outcome 3:Discuss the growth of the Western civilization in the early Modern Ages.ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:a.Discuss the Renaissance and its great impact on the Western world.b.Explain the Protestant Reformation and its social impact (especially onreligion and politics).c.Describe and discuss the European expansion in 17c.d.Explain the scientific revolution and the emergence of the modern science.Learning outcome 4:Discuss the main thread of the history of Western civilization.ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:a.Explain the significant periods of the history.b.Explain the major events in the history of Western civilization.c.Discuss the major persons during the course.d.Attempt to apply basic historical methodologies and critical thinking to currentand historical controversies4. Weighting of final gradeGrades will be assigned on the basis of the following percentages: Attendance 10Attitude, class activities, & participation 15Reading Outcomes(LO1,2,3) 10Assignments 25Exams and Quizzes(LO4) 40Total 1005. PoliciesAttendance PolicyThe student is responsible for punctual and regular attendance in all classes and required class activities. Unexcused absences will be reflected in the final grade. The teacher does not grant excused absences; therefore, contact the teacher prior to class if the student is not going to attend. The student is tardy if not in class at the time the class is scheduled to begin and is admitted to class. Extenuating circumstances require documentation and approval by the appropriate department head and academic dean. Three unexcused absences will directly lead the student to F.Participation PolicyDiscussion. The class will be followed in which everyone is expected to engage in thoughtful and critical discussion of the major ideas, theories, and positions advanced in the readings. To assist students with this, they will be grouped. Each week, students should prepare a list of three questions or statements about the readings. The student will hand these in at the beginning of the class session. Each group’s conversation should be directed and guided by discussion leaders. Shortly after five minutes of discussion, some a group will be asked to demonstrate the conclusion concerning about those questions. Additionally, there will be in-class questions coming out of the chapters. Each student is encouraged to get involved in the discussion.Discussion Leader Each week, individuals are responsible for leading class discussions for one group. They will regulate most of the flow and direction of discussion. Discussion leaders should e-mail an outline of their discussion plan by noon before the assigned class. I don’t want our discussions to be a free-for-all. Discussion leaders should address the following general questions:•What are the major events of the chapter?•What is the significance of the current chapter with contemporaries?•What is the connection of the chapter with previous ones?The readings may address further discussion/explanation regarding the content. The annotated bibliography must include: author(s), title of article, chapter, or book, publication name, volume and/or issue of publication, page numbers, and date published. Handouts and PowerPoint presentations are also useful.Policies on Exams and QuizzesQuizzes. A series of questions will be distributed in class and after class. Students’ responses to these questions will be marked. These questions will cover the previous chapters of the course. The in-class quizzes should be accomplished as the time asked, while the after-class assignments should be handed before the due time. Otherwise, late assignments will not be marked.Final Examination. The students are asked to finish the paper in required time. Cheating and plagiarism are not allowed. Otherwise, the final score would be counted 0.PlagiarismAny form of cheating is NEVER tolerated. Any student ONCE caught cheating on a quiz, assignment or examination will receive a 0 for that particular work of the whole semester. At the beginning of the semester the definition of plagiarism will be carefully explained. When any thoughts or writings of another person are used, the sources must be clearly identified (using quotes, bibliography and giving reference).Classroom Policies●No eating, cellular phones, electronic dictionaries, smoking, chatting or drowsingin class.●Please try to speak in English rather than Chinese in class.●Students are not allowed to attend class without textbooks.●Respect classmates’ ideas, opinions, and questions of your classmates.●All your classroom involvement, performance and after-class communicationswith instructor will affect your participation score.6. Texts and other recoursesThe primary textbook:Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization: A Brief History, Third Edition, Beijing: Peking University Press, 2006.The supplementary textbooks:Woelful, James and Sarah Truelove. Patterns in Western Civilization, 4th ed.. Needham Hts, MA: Simon and Schuster, 2007.Marvin Perry, Western Civilization: A Brief History,Tenth Edition, Boston: Wadsworth, 2013.董小燕：《西方文明史纲》，浙江大学出版社，2001年版。
王蔷主编的《英语教学法教程》第二版-Unit
Unit 1 Language and Language LearningAims of the unitIn this unit we will discuss some general matters about language learning and teaching. We are going to discuss five questions on particular:1.How do we learn language?2.What are the common views on language?3.What are the common views on language learning?4.What are the qualities of a good language teacher?5.How can one become a good language teacher?1.1How do we learn languages?Mach of human behavior is influenced by their experiences. The way language teachers teach in the classroom is to some extent influenced by the way they learned languages. This is especially true in foreign language teaching. Before we discuss language learning theories, let us first reflect on our own language learning experience.Task 1Below is a list of interview questions on how people learn a foreign language. In the first column, write down your own responses. Then interview three other students in your class and enter their responses in the other columns. Discuss your findings in group of 4 and draw some conclusion.From the above task, you may have found that 1) people started learning a foreign language at different ages; 2) people have different experiences in learning a foreign language, some find it easy, some find it difficult;3) people learn languages for different reasons; 4) people learn languages in different ways; 5) people have different understandings about language learning; 6) people have different capacities in language learning; 7) learning can be affected by the way it is taught; 8) learning is affected by the degree of success one is expected to achieve; and more. Thus the challenge confronting language teaching is how teaching methodology can ensure successful learning by all the learners who have more differences than the commonality.1.2views on languageThe question that all approaches to language teaching should answer is, ‘what is language?’The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus designs, teaching methodology, teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom. Different views on language generate different teaching methodologies.Task 2Work in group of 4. Brainstorm possible answer to the question: what is language? When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas.To give a concise definition of language has always been difficult for linguists and philogists. Although there has been an enormous amount of research in language in the past century, no authoritative answer has been given to ‘what is language?’ rather, people have settle down to talk about views of language, seemingly allowing for or accepting different theories for the moment. However, language teachers clearly need to know generally what sort of entity they are dealing with and how the particular language they are teaching fits into that entity (Brown, 1994a). for sample definition of ‘language’ , please refer to Appendix 1.Structural viewThe structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations(morphology), and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax). Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language. When this structural view of language was combined with the stimulus-response principles of behaviorist psychology, the audio-lingual approach to language learning emerged.Functional viewIn the 1960s, British linguists developed a system of categories based on the communicative needs of the learner (Johnson and Marrow, 1981) and proposed a syllabus based on communicative functions. The functional view not only sees languages as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. therefore, learners learn a language in order to be able to do with it. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Examples of notions are the concept of present, past and future time, the expressions of certainty and possibility, the roles of agents, instruments with a sentence, and special relationships between people and objects.Interactional viewThe interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary ofthe language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts.These three views present an ever wider view of language. The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary. The communicative or notional-functional view adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do. The interactional view says that to know how to do what you want to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, you have to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.The understanding of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method (Richard and Rodgers, 1986), but more importantly, it is closely related to the understanding of language learning. If language is considered to have a finite number of structural items, learning the language probably means learning these items. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool then to learn the language learning. If language is more than just a system of structures, it is more importantly a tool, then to learn the language means to use it, rather than just study what it is and how it is formed. The next section discusses some current theories about language learning.Views on Language learning and learning in generalA language learning theory underlying an approach or method usually answers two questions; 1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitiveprocesses involved in language learning? 2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?Task3Work in groups of 4. Brainstorm the answers to the two questions stated above.When you are ready, join another group and share your ideas.Although these two questions have never been satisfactorily answered, a vast amount of research has been done from all aspects. The research can be broadly divided into process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories. Process-oriented theories are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receive, and the atmosphere. Some researchers attempt to formulate teaching approaches directly from these theories. For example, the Natural Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way are based on one or more dimensions of processes and conditions. At this level, it is too early to formulate a specific approach, because some aspects are still too vague, for example, what is done in these processes.Behaviorist theoryThe behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behaviouralpsychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way human acquire language (Harmer, 1983). Based on their experiments, Watson and Raynor formulated a stimulus-response theory of psychology. In this theory all complex forms of behavior—motions, habits and such—are seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured. They claimed that emotional reactions are learned in much the same way as other skills. The key point of the theory of conditioning is that ‘you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement’(Harmer, 1983:30).Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested that language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in the . One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless’listen and repeat’drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryThe term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioristtheory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if all language is a learned behavior, how can a child produce a sentence that never been said by others before?According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.Though Chomsky’s theory is not directly applied in language teaching, it has had a great impact on the profession. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-lingual method.Although people are pretty much still in the dark as to what language is and how language is learned, it is believed that general knowledge about language and language learning will help language teachers do a better job.Constructivist theoryThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows. Although constructivist theory was not developed for the understanding of language learning, it is widely applicable tolearning in general. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learner’s interests and curiosity for learning (Archambault, 1964).Socio-constructivist theorySimilar to constructivist theory, socio-constructivist theory represented by Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding. In other words, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peer’s support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his/her skills and knowledge and knowledge to the fullest potential.What makes a good language teacher?Some people with an excellent command of a foreign language may not be able to teach the language well while others with a general command of the language can teach it very effectively. What do you think might account for this phenomenon?Task 4Work in groups. Reflect on your own learning experience from early school years to the university. Have you had an excellent English teacher? Try to identify as many qualities as possible of your best English teacher(s). Note down all the qualities that you think are important for a good English teacher.It is clear that whether someone can become a good foreign language teacher does not solely depend on his\her command of the language. There are a variety of elements that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles (Parrot, 1993).Task 5Ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles jointly contribute to the making of a good English teacher. All the adjectives in the box below could be used to characterize these three aspects.1. Work in groups of 4 and decide which adjectives describe ethic devotion,which describe personal styles and which describe professional qualities. Please write your answers on a separate piece of paper. 2. Add any adjectives to the list which describe further qualities thatyou feel are missing.3.These adjectives are intended to describe positive qualities or styles.Do you feel that any of them could have a negative side as well? Ifyes, in what way? For example, an authoritative teacher may make the students feel assured, but may also make the student less free to disagree with him\her.(Adapted from Tasks for Language Teachers, Martin Parrot, 1993)From the above activities we can see that a good English teacher should have ethic devotion, certain desirable personal styles, and more importantly, he or she should have necessary professional qualities. These three aspects constitute the professional competence of a good English teacher. A person who has a good command of English is not necessarily a good teacher because he has only one of the elements of professional competence.It is assumed that all responsible English teachers have ethic devotion, and they are supposed to make their personal styles compatible with their work. These two aspects, which are beyond the scope of this book, can be achieved as long as the teacher himself\herself has the willingness to do so.A question that many teachers often ask is: I like my job, and I love the students, but how can I become a good English teacher? Our answer is that they need professional competence, which we are going to discuss in the next section.1.5How can one become a good language teacher?The most important and most difficult part of the making of a good language teacher is the development of professional competence, which is the state or quality of being adequately qualified for the profession, and armed with a specific range of skills, strategies, knowledge, and ability.Task 6Work in pairs and discuss how one can become a professionally competent teacher of English. For example, we have to develop our English proficiency first and also we may need to learn from experienced teachers through observations. What else can you think of? Make a list and then pool all your ideas together to find out about your common beliefs.A language teacher’s professional competence is much more difficult than a driver’s skill to handle a car, and is more complicated than a student’s competence of speaking foreign language. It involves more factors and longer learning time, and may never be finished.Some people think teaching is a craft; that is, a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts’techniques, just like an apprentice. Others hold the view that teaching is an applied science, based on scientific knowledge and experimentation. By making a compromise between these two views, Wallace (1991) uses a “reflective model” todemonstrate the development of professional competence. The following model is an adapted version to illustrate the process of becoming a professionally competent teacher.Figure Teacher’s professional development(Adapted from Wallace, 1991:15)From the above model, we can see the development of professional competence for a language teacher involves Stage 1, Stage 2 and Goal. The first stage is language development. All English teachers are supposed to have a sound command of English. As language is the subject matter for language teachers and also because language is always changing, language development can never come to an end.The second stage is the most crucial stage and it is more complicated because it involves three sub-stages: learning, practice, and reflection. The learning stage is actually the purposeful preparation that a language teacher normally receives before he\she starts the practice of teaching. This preparation can include:1. learning from others’experiences (empirical knowledge gainedthrough reading and observations)2. learning the received knowledge (language learning theories,educational psychology, language teaching methodology, etc.)3.learning from one’s own experiences as a learnerBoth experiential knowledge (others’and one’s own) and received knowledge are useful when a teacher goes to practice. This is thecombination of ‘craft’and ‘applied science’knowledge. The learning stage is followed by practice. The term ‘practice’ can be used in two senses. In one sense, it is a short period of time assigned to do teaching practice as part of one’s pre-service education, usually under the supervision of instructors. This practice is also called pseudo practice. The other sense of ‘practice’ is the real classroom teaching that a teacher undertakes after he/she finishes formal education.Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on reflecting on what they have been doing (Stanely, 1999). It should be noted that teachers reflect on their work not only after they finish a certain period of practice, but also while they are doing the practice.When the would-be teachers(trainees) are doing pseudo practice, they are often trying out ideas that they have learned in a methodology class. Therefore, they are likely to reflect on how well a certain idea or technique works and often their instructors may require them to do so. The pseudo practice is beneficial only if the student teachers take reflections seriously. The most difficult thing is to keep on reflecting on one’s work when one moves on to real classroom teaching.Ideally, a teacher should be able to attain his/her professional competence after some period of practice and reflection as shown in Figure . However, professional competence as an ultimate goal does not seem to have an end. With the ever-deepening of our understanding of teaching and learning, and with the ever changing needs of the society, of education, of students, and of the teaching requirements, one must keep on learning, practicing and reflecting. Actually professional competence is’a movingtarget or horizon, towards which professionals travel all their professional life but which is never finally attained ‘. (Wallace, 1991:58)Task 7Work in groups. Discuss possible answers to the following questions in relation to the model presented in Figure .An overview of the bookThis second edition of A Course in English Language Teaching has allowed us the opportunity to expand the original 14 units into 18 in order to include topics reflecting the recent development in English language teaching both at home and abroad, to revisit a number of areas, to expand an clarify points that we felt were not sufficiently clear in the first edition, and to improve the pedagogical usefulness of the text.Overall, the book aims at introducing practical methods to teachers of English as a foreign language with some basic theories presented in the first two units. It is hoped that classroom teachers or would-be teachers will not simply copy or imitate what are suggested but be able to choose or adapt with an understanding of why.Unit 1 serves as an introduction for setting the scene for this methodologycourse. It discusses issues concerning views on language and language learning or learning in general with the belief that such views will affect teachers’ways of teaching and thus learners’ ways of learning. The qualities of a good language teacher is also discussed in order to raise the participants’ awareness of what is required for a good English teacher.Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) have been the most influential language teaching approaches in the past two decades and they have proven to be effective in a variety of language teaching contexts. In Unit 2 we introduce the basic principles of CLT and activities followed by an introduction to task-based approach. It is intended that most of the methods that we introduce in the remaining units will, to some extent, follow a communicative approach and task-based language teaching.Unit 3 is a new unit which focuses on the new National English Curriculum. It begins with a brief overview of the history of English language teaching in China followed by tasks and discussions on the goals, objectives, and design of the new English curriculum and ends with discussions on the challenges facing teachers today.We have arranged lesson planning and classroom management as the next two units of the book-Unit 4 and Unit 5 respectively. With regard to these two units, the new edition has replaced some previous lesson plan samples and added some relevant issues, . giving effective instructions, asking effective questions, and dealing with students’errors in the classroom. To have these two parts in the early units, our intention is that the readerwill use what is covered in these two parts in the early units, our intention is that the reader will use what is covered in these two units to design mini classroom activities for the teaching of knowledge and skills that come in later units.Like the first edition of the book, Units 6, 7 and 8 focus on the teaching of language components, that is, the teaching of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, while Units 9, 10, 11, 12 focus on the teaching of four skills of language, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing, with Unit 13 discussing the integration of the four skills. Some new examples and new points are added to all these units in the new edition. It should be noted that neither the language components nor the language skills are taught in an isolated fashion. We present the teaching of these language components and skills in separate units so that there is a clearer focus of discussion. In classroom teaching, we hope teachers will be able to integrate all areas.Unit 14 is about moral education. This is a new unit aiming at raising teachers’ awareness of the scope available for moral education in language teaching so that teachers will be able to create opportunities and use relevant materials and activities to help students form positive social values towards life and work.Unit 15 deals with language assessment. We have avoided ‘testing’ and ‘examination’ as our unit title because we believe ‘assessment’ is a broader concept. In this unit we focus on classroom assessment rather than standard tests. Research evidence shows that classroom-based assessment provides a better evaluation of what the students have achievedduring the course of study.Units 16 and 17 are also new units. Unit 16 is about learner differences and learner training. As the purpose of teaching is for learning to take place, learners will need to play a major role in the learning process. We think as teachers we need to understand learners and the differences among them so that appropriate methods and techniques can be selected or designed to cater for learner needs. Also, we teach in order not to teach. In this sense, we need to help learners develop awareness of different learning strategies and learn to take responsibility for their own learning . Unit 17 focuses on using and creating resources. It discusses how to use the available resources as well as how to explore hidden resources for teaching and learning.Unit 18 introduces the reader to the most basic things in the evaluation, selection and adaptation of textbooks used in language teaching and learning. In the future, classroom teachers will have to take more responsibility and be given more autonomy in selecting and adopting ELT textbooks for their students.Throughout the book, we provide a number of tasks for each unit. The tasks usually follow a discussion and are aimed at providing the reader with opportunities to relate theory to practice. Most of the tasks are open-ended, that is, they do not have fixed answers or solutions. Sometimes, discussions following the task provide the authors’ further comments. Occasionally, some tasks seem to need more ‘concrete’solutions. In that case, we remove the solutions to Appendix 1 at the backof the book. We intend that users of the book should solve the problems themselves before referring to the authors’ suggested solutions.Most of the tasks involve group work or pair work. If the book is used in class, we consider it very important for students to work in pairs or groups so that they can share knowledge and experience. Individual readers may find it inconvenient to perform the task. We suggest that they discuss the problems with their colleagues wherever possible.。
lecture 3
CHAPTER 3CHAPTER SUMMARYWHAT IS LEARNING?Learning involves the acquisition of abilities that are not innate. Learning depends on experience, including feedback from the environment.WHAT BEHIVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES HAVE EVOLVED?Early research into learning studied the effects of stimuli on reflexive behaviors. Ivan Pavlov contributed the idea of classical conditioning, in which neutral stimuli can acquire the capacity to evoke behavioral responses through their association with unconditioned stimuli that trigger reflexes. E. L. Thorndike developed the termining future behavior. B. F. Skinner continued the study of the relationship between behavior and consequences. He described operant conditioning, in which rein forcers and punishers shape behavior.WHAT ARE SOME PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING? Reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior, and punishers decrease its frequency. Reinforcement can be primary or secondary, positive or negative. Intrinsic reinforcers are rewards inherent in a behavior itself. Extrinsic rinforcers are praise or rewards. Punishment involves weakening behavior by either introducing aversive consequences or removing reinforcers. The Premack Principle states thart a way to increase less-enjoyed activities is to more-enjoyed activities.Shaping through timely feedback on each step of an effective teaching practice based on behavioral learning theory. Extinction is the weakening and gradual disappearance of behavior as reinforcement is withdraw.Schendules of reinforcement are used to increase the probability, frequency, or persistence of desired behavior. Reinforcement schedules may be based on ratios or intervals and fixed or variable.Antecedent stimuli serve as cues indicating which behaviors will be reinforced or published. Discrimination involves using cues to detect differences between stimulus situations, whereas generalization involves responding to similarities between stimuli. Generalization is transfer or carryover of behaviors learned under one set of conditions to other situations.HOW HAS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY CONTRIBUTED TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN LEARNING?Social learning theory is based on a recognition of the importance of observational learning and self-regulated learning. Bandura noted that learning throughmodeling-directly or vicariously-involves four phases: paying attention, retaining the modeled behavior, reproducing the behavior, and being motivated to repeat the behavior. Bandura proposed that students should be taught to have expectations for their own performances and to reinforce themselves. Meichenbaum proposed steps for self-regulated that represent a form of cognitive behavior modification.Behavioral learning theories are central to the application of educational psychology in classroom management, discipline, motivation, instructional models, and other areas. Behavioral learning theories are limited in scope, however, in that they describe only observable that can be directly measured.*KEY TERMSantecedent stimuli156aversive stimulus 149behavioral learning theories 138 classical conditioning 140 cognitive behavior modification 161 cognitive learning theories 138 conditioned stimulus 140 consequences 144cues 156discrimination 156extinction 151extinction burst 152extrinsic reinforcers 147fixed-interval schedule 154fixed-ratio(FR) schedule 153 generalization 157intrinsic reiforcers 147Law of Effect141Learning 138Maintenance155155modeling 159negative reinforcer144neutral stimuli 140observational learning 159operant conditioning 142positive reinforcer 144Premack Principle 146 Presentation punishment 149 Primary reinforcer 144 punishment 148reinforcer 144removal punishment 149schedule of reinforcement 153 secondary reinforcer 144self-regulation 161shaping 151Skinner box142social learning theory159stimuli (stimulus)139time out 149unconditioned response 140 unconditioned stimulus140variable-interval schedule 154variable-ratio(VR) schedule 153vicarious learning 160CHAPTER 6CHAPTER SUMMARYWHAT IS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL?The three major components of memory are the sensory register, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory. The sensory registers are very short-term memories linked to the senses. Information that is received by the senses but not attended to will be quickly forgotten. Once information is received, it is processed by the mind in accord with our experiences and mental states. This activity is called perception.Short-term or working memory is a storage system that holds five to nine bits of information at any one time. Information enters working memory from both the sensory register and the long-term memory. Rehearsal is the process of repeating information in order to hold it in working memory.Long-term memory is the part of the memory system in which a large amount of information is stored for an indefinite time period. Cognitive theories of learning stress the importance of helping students relate information being learned to existing information in long-term memory.The three parts of long-term memory are episodic memory, which stores our memories of personal experiences; semantic memory, which stores facts and generalized knowledge in the form of schemata; and procedural memory, which stores knowledge of how to do things. Schemata are networks of related ideas that guide our understanding and action. Information that fits into a well-developed schema is easier to learn than information that cannot be so accommodated. Level s-of-processing theory suggests that learners will remember only the things that they process. Students are processing information when they manipulate it, look at it from different perspectives, and analyze it. Dual code theory further suggests the importance of using both visual and verbal coding to learn bits of information. Other elaborations of the information-processing model are parallel distributed processing, and connectionist models.Technology that enables scientists to observe the brain in action has led to rapid advances in brain science. Finding have shown how specific parts of the brain sites. As individuals gain expertise, their brain function becomes more efficient. Early brain development is a process of adding neural connections and then sloughing off those that are not used.WHAT CAUSES PEOPLE TO REMEMBER OR FORGET?Interference theory helps explain why people forget. It suggests that students can forget information when it gets mixed up with, or pushed aside by, other information. Interference theory states that two situations cause forgetting: retroactive inhibition, when learning a second task makes a person forget something that was learnedpreviously, and proactive inhibition, when learning one thing interferes with the retention of things learned later. The primary and recency effects state that people best remember information that is presented first and last in a series. Automaticity is gained by practicing information or skills far beyond the amount needed to establish them in long-term memory so that using such skills requires little or no mental effort. Practice strengthens associations of newly learned information in memory. Distributed practice, which involves practicing parts of a task over a period of time, is usually more effective than massed practice. Enactment also helps students to remember information.HOW CAN MEMORY STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT?Teacher can help students remember facts by presenting lessons in an organized way and by teaching students to use memory strategies called mnemonics. Three types of verbal learning are paired-associate learning, serial learning, and free-recall learning. Paired-associate learning is to respond with one member of a pair when given the other member. Students can improve their learning or paired associates by using imagery techniques such as the keyword method. Serial learning involves recalling a list of items in a specified order. Free-call learning involves recalling the list in any order. Helpful strategies are the loci method, the pegword method, rhyming, and initial-letter strategies.WHAT MAKES INFORMATION MEANINGFUL?Information that makes sense and has significance to students is more meaningful than inter knowledge and information learned by rote. According to schema theory, individuals’ meaningful knowledge is constructed of networks and hierarchies of schemata.HOW DO METACOGNITIVE SKILLS HELP STUDENTS LEARN? Metacognitive helps students learn by thinking about, controlling, and effectively using their own thinking processes.WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP STUDENTS LEARN?Note-taking, selective directed underlining, summarizing, writing to learn, outlining, and mapping can effectively promote learning. The PQ4R method is an example of a strategy that focuses on the meaningful organization of information.HOW DO COGNITIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES HELP STUDENTS LEARN?Advance organizers help students process new information by activating background knowledge. Analogies, information elaboration, organizational schemes, questioning techniques, and conceptual models are other examples of teaching strategies that are based on cognitive learning theories.*KEY TERMSadvance organizers 208analogies 209attention 175automaticity 192connectionist models 184distributed practice 194dual code theory memory 183 elaboration 209enactment 194episodic memory 179flashbulb memory 179free-recall learning 195imagery 195inert knowledge 200information-processing theory 173 initial-letter strategies 198 interference 189keyword method 196levels-of-processing theory 182loci method 197long-term memory 179mapping 205massed practice 194meaningful learning 199 metacognition 203metacognitive skills 203mnemonics 196note-taking 204outlining 205paired-associate learning 195parallel distributed processing model 183 pegword method 198perception 175PQ4R method 205primary effect 191proactive facilitation 190proactive inhibition 190procedural memory 179recency effect 191rehearsal 176retroactive facilitation 190 retroactive inhibition 189rote learning 199schemata 180schemata theory 200self-questioning strategies 203 semantic memory 179sensory register 173serial learning 195short-term memory 175 summarizing 205 verbal learning 195 working memory 175。
100-演示文稿-斯金纳的操作性条件作用理论3-3A
Chapter 3 Operant Conditioning
• 3.3.1 Burrhus Frederic Skinner:
• Korn and Davis conducted a survey in 1991. The question is who are the ten most eminent psychologists (all time and contemporary).The results showed that, in the eye of historians of psy. , Skinner was ranked the eighth on the all-time list but the first among contemporary psychologists. In the eye of department chairs, Skinner ranked first on both lists.
Chapter 3 Operant Conditioning
• ＊ respondent and operant behavior • Respondent behavior: behavior elicited by a
known stimulus ＊ e.g. UR and all reflexes. It depends on the stimulus that precedes it. • Operant behavior: behavior not elicited by a known stimulus but is simply emitted by the organism. It seems to appear spontaneously. e.g. whistling, standing up and walking about, a child abandoning one toy in favor of another, et al. It is controlled by its consequences.
AnIntroductiontoLinguistics
Self-Introduction
Hometown? Hobbies? Why go to college? Why learn English as a major? Your future occupation? Your plan for the four years in CAU?
Charles Francis Hockett (Jan. 17, 1916 –Nov. 3, 2000), an American linguist, represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism and is often referred to as “distributionalism” or “taxonomic structuralism”.
Peter Matthews (1991/2000). Morphology (形态学). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley & Michael B. Smith (2007). Semantics: A Coursebook (second edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
文秋芳等（2010出版），《《二二语语习习得得研重究点基问本题问研题究概》要》。北京：外 语教学与研究出版社。
G. Kennedy (1998/2000). An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. London: Longman/Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
安徽省六安第一中学2023-2024学年高二下学期7月期末英语试题
六安一中2024年春学期高二年级期末考试英语试卷时间：120分钟满分：150分第一部分听力(共两节，满分30分)做题时，先将答案标在试卷上。
录音内容结束后，你将有两分钟的时间将试卷上的答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节(共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分)听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1．How would the woman like her steak today?A．Rare. B．Medium. C．Well-done.2．What is the relationship between the speakers?A．Teacher and student.B．Librarian and library user.C．Shop assistant and customer.3．Why does the woman call the man?A．To ask for a favor. B．To say thanks. C．To make a complaint. 4．Where does the conversation take place?A．At the airport. B．On a plane. C．In a taxi.5．What seems to be the man’s problem?A．He gets bored of reading.B．He is disturbed by the noise.C．He hates the hot weather today.第二节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面5段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听每段对话或独白前，你将有时间阅读各个小题，每小题5秒钟；听完后，各小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。
新视野大学英语第三版读写教程3课后翻译
NNCE Book3课后翻译参考答案Unit1英译中原文：Global citizen is someone who identifies with being part of an emerging world community and whose actions contribute to building this community's values and practices. Global citizenship believes that humankind is essentially on and each individual has the power to change things.In our interdependent world, global citizenship encourages usto recognize our responsibilities toward each other and learn from each other. Global citizens care about education, disease, poverty, and environmental issues around the world. Today, the forces of global engagement are helping some people identify themselves as global citizens who have a sense of belonging to a world community. This growing global identity in large part is made possible by the forces of modern information, communications and transportation technologies. Global citizenship aims to empower people to lead their own action. Along with the knowledge and values that they have gained from learning about global issues, people need to be equipped with the necessary skills to give themselves the ability and confidence to be pro-active in making a positive difference in the world. Keys：世界公民是指一个人承认自己是新兴的全球社区的一分子，而且其行动对全球社区的价值打造和实践活动有所贡献。
综合英语教程3原文翻译及期末复习
Text B
TRANSLATION 1.这一和平的不服从行为在蒙哥马利引发了抗议， 最终使少
数民族权利在法律上发生了变化，开创了美国民权运动 的新时代。 2.后来她解释说，这儿似乎是她结束受人摆布，弄清如果有 的话她究竟有何人权的地方。 3.但是，蒙哥马利的黑人团体认为应该团结在她周围组织抗 议活动，她是适合担此重任的公民，因为她是该市最优 秀的公民之一。 他说：“只有极少人能说自己的行动和行为改变了国家的面 貌。 罗莎帕克斯就是那些人中的一个。”
4.Having spotted a truck driver dumping contaminated waste alongside the river, the old man reported to the police at once.
5.Some scientists hold to the firm conviction that people will come to like genetically modified crops someday since they can increase yields and help combat hunger and disease in the developing world.
A decade ago, Nancy did what so many Americans dream about. She quit an executive position and opened a household device store in her neighborhood. People like Nancy made the decision primarily for the improvement in the quality of their lives.
第二语言习得研究与外语学习 Major Theories of SLA
课程名称：第二语言习得研究与外语学习Major Theories of SLAI Behaviourism●Skinner,proposed this theory in 1957 in Vebal Behaviourism.●The central claim:There is no distinctive innate language learningcapacity,language acquisition is the result of a series of behaviourism responses.It is initially proposed for FLA.●Skinner’s claim for Vebal Behaviourism:nguage is behavoir.b.The principles for language bahaviour are the same as apply to thebehaviour of lab rats.nguage behaviour can be explained in terms of pbservable events.d.Any description of language is open to experimental verification.●Skinner’s account of language acquisition:nguage learning,like all learning ,is seen as reinforced behavior.b.The mind of the child is a “blank slate”on which will be when the lessonslearned from the environment.c.Fundamental principles of learning:imitation and reinforcement.nguage acquisition is a “stimulus---response---reinforcement”paradigm.●Limitation of Behaviourisma.Children utterance shows on sign of imitating adult language.b.There is no evidence that adult reinforce correct grammaticalutterances.Parents respond to the “truth value” of a child’s utterance,but notits grammatical form.c.The vast majoring of children go through the same stages of languageacquisition.Ⅱ Nativism (Mentalism)●Chomsky’s theories of language acquisition are the best known nativistclaims among others.●Central claim：Human language acquisition is because of an innate,distinctive and human-only biological endowment. In other words, human beings are genetically endowed with special ability to language acquisition which is unconnected to other learning capacities.●The core of Chomskyan approach: Young children must have some specialability, some special endowment, something which is present in the mind of the baby already at birth and which enables them to tackle the huge task of learning the mother tongue. It is what we call a “domain specific” faculty.●UG is genetically determined “mental organ” , as Chomsky calls, thatgrows by itself.According to UG approach, all human languages inherita universal set of principles and parameters.●principles: refer to the highly abstract set of grammatical rules andstructures which apply to all human languages.●parameters: refer to principles that are vary in certain restrictedways from one language to another.●Evidence to support the innate theory:1. Neuro-science evidence2. Attempts to Teach Non-human Animals Languages3. language capacity is largely separate from general intelligence.4. Critical Period Hypothesis:Central claims: the capacity to learna language is limited to the years before puberty and after whichhumans lose this innate language ability as a result of hemisphericlateralization and the loss of brain plasticity.5. The formation of Creoles:The formation of creoles varieties ofEnglish seems to be the result of UG at work.●Universal Grammar and SLA :Language acquisition( first and second)would be impossible without such endowment because the input data are insufficient to allow acquisition occur. In principle, the UG model could be extended to take in other languages, that is, a second set of primary linguistic data go into the black box, a send grammar comes out.Ⅲ Monitor Theory●It was proposed by American linguist Stephen Krashen.●Central claim: SLA is an unconscious process entirely controlled byUG and LAD. In order to activate UG and trigger the acquisition process, language learners need to expose to suitable target language input.●The five major hypothesis in MT:a.Acquisition-Learning Hypothesisb.Natural Order Hypothesisc.Monitor Hypothesisd.Input Hypothesise.Affective Filter Hypothesis●Limitation of Krashen’s Monitor Theory:a.The Affective Filter is a metaphor rather than a precisetheoretical construct.b.The notion of CI is equally unsatisfactory from a theoretical pointof view. Should the notion ‘current level of TL knowledge’ beseen as covering all aspects of language (phonology, syntax, lexis, pragmatics)? How do we measure the learner’s current level i andhow do we determine what constitutes “i+1”?●Teaching methodology influenced by MTThe Natural Method:claims to provide the learner with comprehensible input and with learner-friendly and supportingclassroom conditions which will ensure that the negative effects of the affective filter are minimized. This approach gives priority to listening and reading as they are the natural media of comprehensible input. Formal instruction in the grammatical rules of the target language is excluded. Explicit correction of learner error is avoided, since it may raise the level of the affective filter and hinder the process of acquisition.Ⅳ Pidginization Hypothesis and Acculturation Model●Schumann is a representative of the environmentalist approach to SLA.●Environmentalist approach:a.denies the contribution of innate abilities.b.attempts to account for the learning process in terms of theexternal factors, such as the context in which learning takesplace, the learner’s experience, etc.●This Model popularized the two linked concepts of pidginization andacculturation, which served as the main representatives of sociolinguistic thinking in the field of SLA.Pidginization is inspired by the branch of sociolinguistics which concerns itself with the study of contact languages (pidgins).●Schumann’s Pidginization Hypothesis and Acculturation Model has beenproposed on the basis of his case study of the adult second language learner Alberto, a Spanish-speaking learners of English, in 1975.Schumann’s conclusion is that Alberto’s social distance and psychological distance from speakers of the target language might be the cause of Alberto’s slowness in SLA. Social distance refers to the lack of social integration with target language community.Psychological distance is the lack of interest in using the target language for anything but the essential needs of communication.●The social and psychological factors can create good or bad L2 learningsituations.Ⅴ Multidimensional Model●It was Pienemann introduced this model to the English-speaking worldand applied it to the research on the learning of English as a second language (ESL).●This model has been regarded as a representative of the interactionist approach toSLA .Interactionist approach: language learning is through both innate and environmental factors.●The general claims:In the process of acquiring the grammatical structures of an L2, learners manifest1) developmental sequences; 2) individual variation between learners.●Teachability Hypothesis:According to this theory, teaching can only be effective if learners havesuccessfully passed through the preceding stages on the development route. When a learner shows signs of having reached a developmental stages, teaching can then speed up the acquisition process.Conlusion:Despite their limitations, all of the theories have enhanced our knowledge and have contributed to our understanding of the complex phenomenon of language acquisition.。
二语习得理论
二语习得过程中的错误分析摘要：在语言学习过程中错误的出现是不可避免的现象，研究错误的产生及其特点对二语习得能起到积极的作用，作为研究者研究第二语言习得的首要途径之一，错误分析也就成为了外语学习过程中不可缺少的重要环节。
本文以错误分析理论为基础，探讨了引起二语习得错误的根源。
本文发现，引起错误的根源除了常见的语际迁移和语内迁移外，还有交际策略的误用和环境文化等因素的影响。
本文在探讨这些错误根源时，力图揭示这些根源是如何引起错误产生的。
紧接着阐释了错误分析的过程及错误分析对于外语教学的重大作用。
希望借此文能让大家对错误分析有更加全面的认识，期望能对大家的二语习得有所帮助。
Abstract：It is inevitable that errors occur in language learning,so the study of errors is good for second language acquisition and as one of the major method to study second language , error analysis play a very important role in language study . This article discusses the reasons of errors and reveal how they affect according to the theories of error analysis , including interlingual-transfer , intralingual-transfer,the improper use of communication strategies and the influence of environment . Then it explains the processes of error analysis and evaluate the significance of it . By writing this paper , I want to give a clear explanation of error analysis and hope it helpful in second language learning . 关键词：错误，错误分析，二语习得，错误根源，外语教学一、引言错误分析是二语习得中的一个重要课题，也是近年来研究的一个热点问题。
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Some consequences (reinforcing stimuli/reinforces) of operant behavior increase the frequency of the behavior. Controlling the reinforces would bring about changes in operant behavior.
Behavior is controlled by its consequences. We learn to do things that produce pleasant effects and to avoid those with unpleasant effects
Law of exercise
Hedonistic view
– Selfishly pursue pleasure & avoid pain – Education: enjoyable, rewarding (intrinsically)
Blank Slate view
– Blank slate: little natural predisposition/tendency at birth – Development:determined by the environment, experience – Environmental manipulation is important. View: learner as passive & reactive.
Major Learning Theories
(3)
Outline
Philosophic bases of learning theories learning theories
– Behavioral perspective – Cognitive perspective – Constructive perspective
Optimistic View
– Human beings:naturally altruistic, humanistic, curious, thirst for knowledge – Education:stresses the internal readiness of the learner (internally motivated to learn)
Thorndike‟s view
To Thorndike, animals and humans solves problems in the same way, namely, through a process of trial and error The reward or satisfying state that follows a desired response is the most important factor for strengthening the connection or bonds between stimuli & responses. Learning, in his view, is an essentially reactive process, and the learner, a passive receiver.
E.g., kid‟s crying may be
– respondent behavior (to a hurt) or – operant behavior (to get fed/cuddled)
Operant crying
– depends on its effect on the caretaker or parent & – is maintained or changed accordingly.
Cognitive tradition
– Gestalt psychology – Piaget‟s development psychology – Ausubel‟s meaningful learning
Behavoristic tradition – Arose in the earliest twentieth century & dominated the study of human learning for the first half of the century. – Popular in the 1940s & 1950s – Sees learning as a human behavior. – It‟s closely associated with Skinner‟s theory – It believes that learning is the change of behavior through a chain of S—R reinforcement.
Learning is believed to occur when a desired behavior is consistently reinforced. Behaviorists are concerned with behaviors & the influence of the external environment so as to predict & control behaviors.
Theories of Learning
Behavioral perspective Cognitive perspective Constructive perspective
Behavoristic tradition
– Pavlov‟s classical C – Thorndike‟s instrumental C – Skinner‟s operant C
The basic principle of the theory is that some neutral stimulus may elicit desired response after many repetitions, which is called classical conditioning. E.g., on hearing the sound of a turning-fork, the dog produces salivation even without food serving. It‟s a highly specialized learning mainly by animals.
Thorndike‟s Instrumental Conditioning
Thorndike believed that several principles or laws could summarize most learning processes. He summed up the findings of his animal experimentation into laws or principles. At the core of these is
Responses: operant & respondent Operants are responses produced & governed by the consequences. Respondent behaviors: automatic reflexes under the control of stimuli
Repeating a conditioned response would strengthen the bond between the stimulus situation and response.
Skinner‟s Operaቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱt conditioning
It attempts to account for most of human learning & behavior. Operant behavior is behavior in which the individual operates on the environment.
It is generally agreed that most conditioning learning theories have been derived from two main traditions:
– Classical conditioning – Instrumental conditioning
The experimenter carefully observed
– the way the animal tried to escape – and the number of tries as well as – the total time required to escape
Following each escape, the subject was allowed to access to the food for a brief period (as positive reward). The procedure was repeated many times until the subject learned to escape quickly.
– Law of Effect – Law of Exercise
the Law of Effect
The principles of reinforcement & punishment Response:
– pleasant (reinforced) – Unpleasant (weakened)