Identity, Ostension and Hypostasis

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心理学名词——精选推荐

心理学名词1.从众（conformity）2.单纯曝光效果（mere exposure effect）3.模仿（modeling）4.跛足策略（self-handicapping）5.过度辩证效应（over justification effect）6.恋爱基模（love schema）7.习得无助（learned helplessness）关系8.睡眠效果（sleeper effect）9.破窗效（Broken Window Effect）10.联结与强化（linking vs. reinforcement）11.惩罚之前（before punishment）12.旁观者效应（bystander effect）13.消弱突现（extinction burst）14.自我实现预言（self-fulfilling prophecy）决定15.正义世界假说（a just world）16.自我评价维护理论（self-evaluation maintenance theory, SEM）17.自我中心偏误（egocentric bias）18.基本归因谬误（fundamental attribution error）19.印象的初始信息（primacy effect）20.虚假的一致（false consensus）21.服从（obedience）22.认知失调理论（cognitive dissonance theory）23.团体迷思（group thinking）心理学十大著名效应1.蝴蝶效应非线性，俗称“蝴蝶效应”。

什么是蝴蝶效应？先从美国麻省理工学院气象学家洛伦兹（Lorenz）的发现谈起。

为了预报天气，他用计算机求解仿真地球大气的13个方程式。

为了更细致地考察结果，他把一个中间解取出，提高精度再送回。

而当他喝了杯咖啡以后回来再看时竟大吃一惊：本来很小的差异，结果却偏离了十万八千里！计算机没有毛病，于是，洛伦兹（Lorenz）认定，他发现了新的现象：“对初始值的极端不稳定性”，即：“混沌”，又称“蝴蝶效应”，亚洲蝴蝶拍拍翅膀，将使美洲几个月后出现比狂风还厉害的龙卷风！蝴蝶效应是气象学家洛伦兹1963年提出来的。

reading and identity

Dialectic of sameness and difference The way to explain identity theme and variations
Holland would express it, not in terms from elsewhere (either diagnostic words like "hysteric" or structural words like "ego"), but in words as descriptive as possible of that person's behavior. Holland phrased an identity theme for a subject he will call Saul, who sought from the world balanced and defined exchanges, in which he would not be the one overpowered. Thus Saul's fear of me as an interviewer was variations on his.
Dialectic of sameness and difference How to comprehend that dialectic of sameness and difference? The easiest way to comprehend is Lichtenstein’s concept of identity as a theme and variations---like a musical -theme and variations. Think of the sameness as a theme, an "identity theme." Think of the difference as variations on that identity theme. According to Holland, he can arrive at an identity theme by sensing the recurring patterns in someone's life, just as he would arrive at the theme of a piece of music.

‘‘I Need You Too!’’ Corporate Identity Attractiveness for Consumers and The Role of Social Respo

‘‘I Need You Too!’’Corporate IdentityAttractiveness for Consumers and The Role of Social Responsibility Longinos Marin Salvador RuizABSTRACT.The extent to which people identify with an organization is dependent on the attractiveness of the organizational identity,which helps individuals satisfy one or more important self-definitional needs.However,little is known about the antecedents of company identity attractiveness(IA)in a consumer–company context. Drawing on theories of social identity and organizational identification,a model of the antecedents of IA is developed and tested.The findings provide empirical validation of the relationship between IA and corporate associations perceived by consumers.Our results dem-onstrate that the Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR) contribution to company IA is much stronger than that of Corporate Ability(CA).This may be linked to increasing competition and of decreasing CA-based variation in the marketplace.KEY WORDS:consumer behavior,corporate social responsibility,identiﬁcation,identity attractiveness,rela-tionship marketingIntroductionWhile the customer-oriented literature on company relationships has been growing(de Wulf et al.,2001; Sheth and Parvatiyar,1995),the consumerÕs view of these relationships remains unexplored(Barnes, 1997).The effective management of customer rela-tionships requires a previous consideration of why customers enter into relationships withﬁrms.While from theﬁrmÕs perspective it is fairly clear that engaging in a positive relationship with its customers would enhance their loyalty and retention,leading to greater company proﬁtability(Reichheld,1993; Stephens et al.,1996),customersÕmotivation to engage in a relationship with companies is not always panies,as organizations,con-stitute a social group(Dutton et al.,1994)and recent literature has found that one component of cus-tomersÕmotivation to engage in relationships with companies is to help companies provide to con-sumers in order to satisfy one or more key self-deﬁnitional needs through identiﬁcation(Ahearne et al.,2005;Bhattacharya and Sen,2003). Originally developed in the areas of social psy-chology and organizational behavior,the concept of identiﬁcation satisﬁes the need for social identity and self-deﬁnition,and in turn,has been demonstrated to positively impact member loyalty(Mael and Ashforth,1992)as well as employeesÕcitizenship behaviors(Bergami and Bagozzi,2000).Through organizational identiﬁcation,organizations contrib-ute to individualsÕsocial identity(Brewer,1991; Dutton et al.,1994),i.e.,the internalization of a group category as part of the self-concept and the acceptance of the values and behavioral norms of the collectivity.Researchers and theorists have shown that the extent to which people identify with an organization is dependent on the attractiveness of the organiza-tional identity(Dutton et al.,1994).Identity attractiveness(IA)in the consumer–company con-text is likely to be a necessary condition for identi-ﬁcation(Bhattacharya and Sen,2003).Nonetheless, despite the relevance of consumer–company iden-tiﬁcation in the marketplace,little is known about the antecedents of company IA for consumers. Furthermore,researchers(Maignan and Ferrell, 2004;Sen and Bhattacharya2001)have suggested that organizational identiﬁcation theory may provide a solid basis for understanding how positive corpo-rate social responsibility(CSR)generates the activeJournal of Business Ethics(2007)71:245–260ÓSpringer2006 DOI10.1007/s10551-006-9137-ysupport of consumers.CSR associations reﬂect the organizationÕs status and activities related to its per-ceived societal obligations(Brown and Dacin,1997). In most cases,it is the customer who is courted and who usually decides that a relationship is over,while socially responsible corporate behaviors may trigger consumer identiﬁcation(Lichtenstein et al.,2004). Building on this suggestion,it is of interest to analyze how consumersÕcorporate associations,both related to corporate ability(CA)and CSR(Brown and Dacin,1997)contribute to generate company IA. Based on the assumption that consumers will rewardﬁrms for their support of social programs, many organizations have adopted social causes (Levy,1999).CSR has emerged in recent years as both an important academic construct and a pressing corporate agenda item(Klein and Dawar,2004; Mele´et al.,2006;Waddock and Smith,2000), although it reveals itself among large companies not as a uniform concept but as a variety of conceptions (Whitehouse,2006).Firms have been found to engage in socially responsible behaviors not only to fulﬁll external obligations such as regulatory compliance and stakeholder demands,but also due to enlightened-self-interest considerations such as increased com-petitiveness and improved stock market performance (Drumwright,1994;Klein and Dawar,2004; Waddock and Smith,2000).ConsumersÕawareness of CSR practices positively inﬂuence attitudes toward theﬁrm(Brown and Dacin,1997;Creyer and Ross,1997),corporate reputation(Fombrun and Shanley,1990),and the evaluation of product attributes(Bigne´et al.,2005;Creyer and Ross, 1997).Consumers are demanding more out of organizations than simply a product of quality at low price(Handelman and Arnold,1999),they expect organizations to demonstrate congruence with some social values as contribution to the community. However,CSR is far from being the most dominant criteria in consumersÕpurchasing decisions (Boulstridge and Carrigan,2000),and traditional criteria such as price,quality,and brand familiarity seem to remain the most important choice criteria, i.e.,consumers continue buying for personal reasons rather than societal ones(Beckmann et al.,2001). These relatively contradictory results call for further investigation about CSRÕs consequences in con-sumer perceptions.The goal of this paper is to develop and test a conceptual framework of the antecedents of IA for consumers.Overall,our investigation contributes to the growing research on consumer–company iden-tiﬁcation relationships in several ways.First,drawing on literature on social identity(Tajfel and Turner, 1986),organizational identiﬁcation(Dutton et al., 1994;Mael and Ashforth,1992;Whetten and Godfrey,1998),and member identiﬁcation(Bhat-tacharya et al.,1995),we provide additional support to theﬁnding that consumers use not only products, but also the organizations that produce those prod-ucts,to satisfy their more important self-deﬁnitional needs.Second,we provide empirical validation of the relationship between IA and corporate associa-tions(both CSR and CA)perceived by consumers. Third,we explore a new perspective of relationship marketing from the consumerÕs point of view. Finally,our model also demonstrates that CSR may inﬂuence IA,a basic antecedent of consumer–com-pany relationships,through multiple paths.In addi-tion,our model recognizes an important distinction between company attractiveness and company evaluation(CE).In the following sections,we present a conceptual framework of IA.We draw on extant research in marketing,organizational behavior,and psychology to elaborate on the nature of social identity.We then articulate our customer-level conceptual framework that offers propositions regarding the key determi-nants for company IA in the marketplace.Next,we present an empirical study where we test our model and conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and managerial implications of ourﬁndings.Identity attractiveness:literature reviewand research hypothesesResearch on identity indicates that individuals need a relatively secure and stable sense of self-deﬁnition of who they are within a given situation to function effectively(Erez and Earley,1993;Schwalbe and Mason-Schrock,1996).According to social identity theory,self-deﬁnitions are an amalgam of the idio-syncratic attributes(e.g.,assertive,ambitious)and social identities(e.g.,gender,occupation)that are most relevant(Tajfel and Turner,1986).Self-deﬁ-nitions are important because they help to situate246Longinos Marin and Salvador Ruizindividuals in the context and,thereby,suggest what to do,think,and even feel(Ashforth,1998).Indi-viduals have a strong desire to view their self-deﬁ-nitions in positive terms and seek to enhance their self-esteem through their social identities(Hogg and Abrams,1990;Tajfel and Turner,1986). Organizational identity has been combined with social identity theory to shed light on the process whereby individuals identify with organizations (Pratt,1998).Organization identity is an individual-speciﬁc perception and it derives from the(per-ceived)central,distinctive,and enduring attributes of the organization(Albert and Whetten,1985). Research has shown perceived organizational iden-tity to be a powerful mental picture that inﬂuences the degree to which an organizational member identiﬁes with the organization(Bergami and Bagozzi,2000;Dutton et al.,1994).Organizational identiﬁcation can then be seen as essentially a sub-type of social identiﬁcation(Ashforth and Mael, 1989),or in other words,the‘‘degree to which a member deﬁnes himself or herself by the same attributes that he or she believes deﬁne the organi-zation"(Dutton et al.,1994;p.239).This strength of membersÕpsychological link to the organization is also related to the degree to which employees are motivated to fulﬁll organizational needs and goals, their willingness to display organizational citizenship and other cooperative behaviors,and their tendency to remain with the organization(Dutton et al., 1994;Kramer,1993;Mael and Ashforth,1995). Marketing research has shown that through brand preference,choice and consumption,consumers create meaning and try to deﬁne or strengthen their identity(Belk,1988;McCracken,1986).The strength of the customerÕs identiﬁcation with the organization depends,therefore,on the extent to which that company or brand is viewed by the customer as a partner(Fournier,1998)or as a ref-erence group(Escalas and Bettman,2005).One of the components leading to a customerÕs identiﬁcation with a company is the attractiveness of that company identity.Similarity-Attraction Theory (Berscheid and Walster,1969;Byrne,1971),Social Identity Theory(Tajfel and Turner,1979),and Self-categorization Theory(Turner,1985)combine to argue that people are attracted to,prefer,and support relationships with similar others,in order to rein-force their self-esteem and maintain balance of congruity in self-identity.Interaction is easier and less cognitively challenging with others who have similar attitudes,values,activities,or experiences (Kunda,1999).Identity attractiveness is the degree to which subjects prefer,are attracted to and support rela-tionships with a company given its enduring attri-butes(Ahearne et al.,2005).The attraction exerted by a company depends on its capacity to satisfy at least one of the three basic consumer self-deﬁnitional needs(Bhattacharya and Sen,2003):self-continuity (the need toﬁnd the companyÕs identity similar to their own),self-distinctiveness(the need to distin-guish themselves from others in social contexts identifying with a company that has a distinctive culture,strategy,structure,or some other conﬁgu-ration of distinctive characteristics),and self-enhancement(the need to feel associated with a company that has an attractive perceived identity to enhance their self-esteem through acquiring a more positive evaluation of themselves).The model depicting our proposed relationships is shown in Figure1.We predict that company IA is primarily determined by corporate associations and consumerÕs support of CSR activities carried out by the company.In addition to a direct effect of CRS associations,which may be due to the positive social image related to these associations,these effects are mediated by CE and consumer–company congru-ence.How consumers value the company and how similar to themselves they think it is constitute essential elements required for consumers to prefer, be attracted to and support relationships with that company.Corporate Identity Attractiveness for Consumers247Consumer–company congruenceResearch on social cognition and memory has established that people actively organize their per-ceptions of other persons in their memories,using abstract‘‘personality trait’’categories such as‘‘hon-est’’or‘‘intelligent’’(Srull and Wyer,1989).Such abstract categories may also be used to classify cor-porate associations.Similar to perceptions of persons, these categories may correspond to different per-sonality traits(Davies et al.,2001).In the context of organization attraction, SchneiderÕs(1987)‘‘Attraction-Selection-Attrition model’’posits that applicants will be attracted to organizations where they perceive similarity be-tween their attributes and those of the organization. Job seekers prefer organizations with whom they perceive congruence between their and the organi-zationÕs primary values(Chatman,1991).Finally,in the job search process,individuals tend to be more attracted to organizations with which they perceive a match(Judge and Bretz,1992).For consumers,consumer–company congruence is the overlap they perceive between the companyÕs character and their own(Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001).Scholars have demonstrated that people identify with organizations when they perceive an overlap between organizational attributes and their individual attributes(Ashforth and Mael,1989; Dutton et al.,1994;Tajfel and Turner,1986). Both classical identity consumption theory(e.g., Belk,1988)as well as the more recent consumer–company identiﬁcation model(Bhattacharya and Sen,2003)emphasizes the importance of identity similarity and attractiveness in shaping consumer attitudes,preferences,and choices.These two con-tributions are rooted in the similarity-attraction paradigm,which suggests that individuals are at-tracted to other individuals and groups that are similar to them(Berscheid and Walster,1969). People are attracted to,prefer,and support rela-tionships with similar others in order to reinforce their self-esteem and maintain balance of congruity in self-identity(Byrne,1971;Tesser et al.,1988). Therefore,when there is a match between cor-porate and consumer identity(C–C congruence), the relationship with the company should enable consumers to deﬁne more clearly and completely who they are or where they belong.Consumers will feel attracted to those companies they share common traits with,which in turn provides for a sense of self-enhancement(Asforth,1998).Thus,we propose the following hypothesis:H1:The stronger the consumer–company con-gruence perception,the greater the companyÕsidentity attractiveness for the consumer. CSR associationsOver the last decade,a number of academic studies have begun to look at the degree to which con-sumers are inﬂuenced by the associations they have regarding a companyÕs CA,on the one hand,and its CSR,on the other(Berens et al.,2005;Brown and Dacin,1997).CSR associations reﬂect the organi-zationÕs status and activities related to its perceived societal obligations(Brown and Dacin,1997).The companyÕs character revealed by its CSR actions is not only fundamental and relatively enduring,but also often more distinctive by virtue of its disparate and idiosyncratic bases than other CA-based facets of the company schema(Sen and Bhattacharya,2001). Consumers feel closer to some companies and brands than to others(Fournier,1998).When a corporation behaves in a manner that is perceived as socially responsible,consumers are likely to infer that it has certain desirable traits that resonate with their sense of self(Giacalone et al.,2005;Lichtenstein et al.,2004;Maignan,2001).Scott and Lane(2000) point out that some organizations portray themselves as exemplars of categories at higher levels of abstraction(e.g.,the Body Shop and animal rights activism or Saturn and teamwork),inviting con-sumers to cooperate(co-produce)with them in a speciﬁc social movement.These organizations seek to reinforce their legitimacy and to embody qualities they believe are particularly valued by stakeholders. If C–C congruence(CCC)is the overlap that con-sumers perceive between the companyÕs character, and their own,this CCC will be higher when a company undertakes CSR initiatives,to the extent that those initiatives signal to consumers that the company has traits that overlap with their self-con-cept(i.e.,civic minded,compassionate,and activist). In other words,it is easier toﬁnd a major congruity248Longinos Marin and Salvador Ruizin values for the companies considered as socially responsible(Balazs,1990).Therefore,we propose: H2:The greater the CSR associations perceived by the consumer,the stronger the consumerÕsperception of consumer–company congru-ence.One stream of extant research investigates orga-nizational characteristics and their effects on attrac-tion to the organization.Structural attributes,such as decentralized decision-making(Turban and Keon, 1993)and reward systems(Bretz et al.,1989),are shown to inﬂuence perceptions of attractiveness (Backhaus et al.,2002).Organizations with positive afﬁrmative action programs are more successful in attracting high-quality applicants(Wright et al., 1995).For example,Turban and GreeningÕs(1997) study has found a positive relationship between published ratings ofﬁrmsÕCSR and participantsÕratings ofﬁrmsÕattractiveness.Since they found a correlation between CSR and attractiveness,the study concluded that organizational attractiveness perceptions may be inﬂuenced by CSR.Similarly, Albinger and Freeman(2000)have also showed that CSR inﬂuences attractiveness ratings,but only for those job seekers with high levels of job choice. From a marketing perspective,theﬁrmÕs eco-nomic beneﬁts from CSR have been documented in the link to consumersÕpositive product and brand evaluations,brand choice,and brand recommenda-tions(Brown and Dacin,1997;Sen and Bhattach-arya,2001;Vitell,2003).In addition,‘‘CSR activities can affect consumersÕgeneral sense of well-being,without such well-being necessarily translat-ing to company-speciﬁc beneﬁts’’(Bhattacharya and Sen,2004,p.13).That well-being may be associated to the corporate IA as identiﬁcation with an orga-nization engaged in do-good CSR actions can contribute to consumersÕself-esteem(Sen and Bhattacharya,2001),as a result of a collaboration (association)with an organization that is socially responsible.In other words,even though the con-sumer may not perceived his/her character as overlapping with that of the company,he/she may aspire to participate in relationships with the com-pany that undertake CSR activities,indicating a high IA,as being associated with the company may result in beneﬁts to the consumer in terms of self-differ-ence and self-enhancement.‘‘When a corporation behaves in a manner that is perceived as socially responsible,consumers are likely to infer that it has certain desirable traits that resonate with their sense of self’’(Lichtenstein et al.,2004,p.17).We therefore propose:H3:The greater the CSR associations perceived by the consumer,the greater the companyÕsidentity attractiveness for the consumer. Company evaluationCompany evaluation refers to the degree of posi-tiveness or negativeness of the subjectÕs global judgment of the company.This global judgment is based on the companyÕs central,distinctive,and enduring characteristics,which are key components leading to the prestige of the organizationÕs identity (Bhattacharya et al.,1995).It means that the orga-nization is respected and admired by meaningful referents(Bergami and Bagozzi,2000;Dutton et al., 1994).By maintaining relationships with a company,the consumer satisﬁes his/her needs of self-esteem and security(Brewer,1991;Kunda,1999),one of the three basic self-deﬁnitional needs,through the in-crease of his/her social prestige(Mael and Ashforth, 1992),access to particular social opportunities (Smith and Mackie,2000),or simply the perception of him/herself as‘‘basking in reﬂected glory’’(Cialdini et al.,1976).The more prestigious an organization is,therefore,the better the opportunity for a consumer to enhance self-esteem through identiﬁcation with the organization(Mael and Ashforth,1992).Taking into account that evaluation leads to prestige(Bhattacharya et al.,1995)and that identity prestige has been related to customersÕidentiﬁcation with the company(Ahearne et al., 2005;Albert and Whetten,1985),a positive evalu-ation of the company will lead to high levels of that companyÕs IA.This leads us to formulate the fol-lowing hypothesis:Corporate Identity Attractiveness for Consumers249H4:The more favorable the consumerÕs evaluation of the company,the greater the companyÕsidentity attractiveness.Research on organizational identiﬁcation has yielded evidence of the positive effects of person–organization congruence on organizational prefer-ences,job satisfaction,organizational commitment, and turnover intentions(Kristof,1996).In the consumption context,research on the evaluation of brand extensions has generally found that parent brand associationsÕinﬂuence on customersÕevalua-tions of new products is stronger when customers perceive a highﬁt between the product and the brand(e.g.,Aaker and Keller,1990;Smith and Park, 1992).Perceivedﬁt refers to the similarity between the existing brand and the new product or service. On the contrary,consumers who perceive an incongruity have shown lower attitudes toward the ﬁrm and its initiatives(Forehand and Grier,2003; Menon and Kahn,2003).CCC will have a positive effect on consumersÕevaluations of a company because of consumersÕgreater commitment toward that company.As suggested by Sen and Bhattacharya(2001),the effect of CSR on consumersÕCEs is likely to be mediated by CCC.Sen and Bhattacharya(2001) proposed this relationship only for high CSR-support consumers and tested it through regression analysis.We propose that a more general(not only for high CSR-support consumers)effect exists be-cause CCC may be a consequence of overlapping between consumer and company character traits other than those speciﬁcally derived from CSR associations(such as persistence in reaching some goals or staying in a market).In addition to the CSR consumer support,a higher CCC will gen-erate an enhanced CE as the person–organizationﬁt always leads to a more positive global judgment of the company(Tesser et al.,1988).Indirectly,it will mean a more positive judgment of the consumer him/herself,due to the overlapping of character traits between him/her and the company.We then propose:H5:The stronger the consumerÕs perception of consumer–company congruence,the morefavorable the consumer evaluations of thecompany.Marketing literature has also demonstrated that consumers use both performance-related corporate associations and perceived social responsibility when forming an impression of a company(Winters, 1988).More speciﬁcally,a reputation based on a companyÕs abilities exerts a signiﬁcant impact on overall corporate evaluation(Brown and Dacin, 1997).Sen and Bhattacharya(2001)also showed this effect through the quality of a new product launched by the company(a variable that is a proxy for CA). Therefore,in order to facilitate the comparison of our model with those previously tested in the liter-ature(e.g.,Brown and Dacin,1997;Sen and Bhat-tacharya,2001),we include the following relationship in the model:R1:The greater the CA associations,the more favorable the consumerÕs evaluation of thecompany.CSR supportThe social side of the consumer leads him/her to avoid buying products from companies that harm society,and actively seek out products from com-panies that help society(Creyer and Ross,1997). According to Webster(1975),‘‘the socially con-scious consumer takes into account the public con-sequences of his or her private consumption or who attempts to use his or her purchasing power to bring about social change’’(Webster,1975,p.188).When buying,consumers take into account perceptions of ethical or unethical activities carried out by busi-nesses(Creyer and Ross,1997).Consumers expect businesses to behave ethically and are prepared to punish those businesses when they see them falling below the standards expected(Joyner and Payne, 2002;Vitell,2003;Vitell and Muncy,1992).The effect of this social side of the consumer can be in-cluded in our model through consumersÕpersonal support of the CSR domain(CSR support). When the support of the companyÕs CSR domain is high,consumers will perceive greater congruence between themselves and the company,either in terms of common attributes or a shared prototype, than will those whose support of that domain is low (Sen and Bhattacharya,2001).Consumers with high250Longinos Marin and Salvador RuizCSR support take into consideration the CSR activities undertaken by the company.They will check the companyÕs character attributes other than those strictly related to CA,which will lead them to ﬁnd attributes that overlap with their personality traits in those companies that carry out CSR activ-ities.The less the CSR support,the less aware will be the consumer of the common attributes he/she shares with the company.Based on this,we propose that:H6:The greater the consumerÕs CSR support,the stronger the consumerÕs perception of con-sumer–company congruence.MethodologySampleThe model is tested in the context ofﬁnancial ser-vices relationships,deﬁned as existing when there is an ongoing series of interactions between parties who know each other(Czepiel,1990).The respondents were customers of a largeﬁnancial ser-vices provider.All respondents were responsible for ﬁnancial matters in their families and were clients of the bank at the time of the pared to other industries,ﬁnancial services providers do have relationship marketing advantages because many consumers are willing to establish relationships.This fact is evidenced by a growing literature on rela-tionships betweenﬁnancial services providers and customers(Colgate and Alexander,1998;Ja¨rvinen and Lehtinen,2003;Roman and Ruiz,2005), relationship marketing efforts being implemented by ﬁnancial services providers in markets around the world(Johnson and Greyson,2005;Keltner,1995), and by the high effort developed concerning CSR in this sector(Decker,2004;Harvey,1995;Ogrizek, 2002).The banking industry in Spain has under-taken many CSR actions in the last years,spending in these activities a total of1300million euros in 2005(http://www.ceca.es).Data was collected from personal interviews. Twelve branches of a major retail bank in the region were chosen at random.The interviews were carried out in situ,at the main door of the branches,at different times of the day over a two-week period. One hundred and sixty-four consumers completed the survey.Of the entire sample,44%were female, 56%were male.Forty-two percent of the respon-dents were between26and45years old,and45% between46and64years old.Twenty-seven percent had a college degree,and21.5%were entrepreneurs. Twenty-seven percent reported being customers of the bank for at least two but less than six years,and 52.4%of respondents did business with three or more banks.MeasuresPreliminary versions of the questionnaire were administered to a convenience sample of18con-sumers,and pretest results were used to improve measures and design an appropriate structure for the questionnaire.Theﬁnal measures and reliabilities are provided in Table I.Measures consisted of11-point scales ranging from0(totally disagree)to10(totally agree)1,except for the CCC that was drawn from person–organi-zation-ﬁt research(Kristof,1996)and measured as the Euclidean distance between subjectsÕperceived personality proﬁle of the company and of them-selves.Personality proﬁles consisted of subjectsÕrat-ings of the extent to which they believed each of a set of personality trait adjectives described both them and the company(0=‘‘not at all’’,10=‘‘very much’’).The19adjectives(one was deleted after a pretest,as it was not well understood)were previ-ously used in a consumption context by Sen and Bhattacharya(2001).We measured corporate associations using aﬁve-item scale from Brown and Dacin(1997).CE was measured using a six-item scale from Boulding and Kirmani(1993).IA was measured using a four-item scale adapted from Kim et al.(2001),following the recommendations of Bhattacharya and Sen(2003). Finally,we measured CSR support using a scale from Mohr and Webb(2005).ResultsThe models(CFA and SEM)described below were run using LISREL8.54(Jo¨reskog and So¨rbo¨m,2001).Corporate Identity Attractiveness for Consumers251。

hypotheses

hypothesesHypothesesIntroductionIn the world of scientific research, hypotheses play a critical role in the formulation of experiments and studies. A hypothesis is a statement or assumption that is made based on limited evidence or observations and serves as a starting point for further investigation. This document aims to explore the concept of hypotheses, their importance, and how they are formulated and tested in various scientific disciplines.What is a Hypothesis?A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or a question that can be tested. It is an essential element of the scientific method and is used to guide research and experiments. Hypotheses are usually based on existing knowledge, previous observations, or theories, and serve as an attempt to explain or predict a particular phenomena.Formulating a HypothesisThe process of formulating a hypothesis requires careful consideration of the existing knowledge and evidence. To develop a hypothesis, researchers typically follow a few key steps:1. Identify the research question: The first step in formulatinga hypothesis is to clearly identify the research question or problem that needs to be addressed. This question should be specific and focused to provide a clear direction for the research.2. Review existing knowledge: Once the research question is identified, it is important to review the existing knowledge and literature related to the topic. This helps in understanding previous findings and theories that can inform the formulation of a hypothesis.3. Generate possible explanations: Based on the existing knowledge, researchers generate possible explanations or predictions for the research question. These explanations are known as hypotheses and should be testable and falsifiable.4. Refine the hypothesis: After generating the initial hypotheses, researchers refine and narrow down the options to develop a more focused and specific hypothesis. This is done by considering factors such as feasibility, relevance, and available resources.Testing a HypothesisOnce a hypothesis is formulated, it needs to be tested through experimentation or observation. The process of testing a hypothesis involves the following steps:1. Design the experiment: The researcher designs an experiment or study that will allow them to collect data and test the hypothesis. The design of the experiment should be carefully planned to ensure that it provides valid and reliable results.2. Collect and analyze data: During the experiment, data is collected and analyzed to determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis. Statistical analysis is often used to evaluate the significance of the findings and to draw meaningful conclusions.3. Draw conclusions: Based on the analysis of the data, the researcher draws conclusions about the hypothesis. If the results support the hypothesis, it is considered to be validated. On the other hand, if the results contradict the hypothesis, it may be necessary to revise the hypothesis or develop new ones for further investigation.Importance of Hypotheses in Scientific ResearchHypotheses are a fundamental aspect of scientific research for several reasons:1. Guiding research: Hypotheses provide a clear direction for research, allowing researchers to focus their efforts on specific questions or problems. They help in organizing the research process and ensuring that it is purposeful and systematic.2. Promoting objectivity: Hypotheses help in maintaining objectivity in scientific research by providing a framework for testing and evaluating ideas. They prevent bias and ensure that the research is based on evidence and logic rather than personal opinions or beliefs.3. Advancing knowledge: By formulating hypotheses and testing them through rigorous experimentation, researchers contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields. Hypotheses that are supported by evidence can lead to new discoveries and insights.4. Identifying limitations: Hypotheses allow researchers to identify and address the limitations of existing knowledge and theories. They highlight the gaps in understanding and provide opportunities for further investigation and refinement of theories.ConclusionHypotheses are a critical component of scientific research. They provide a starting point for investigation, guide research efforts, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge. By formulating and testing hypotheses, researchers can better understand the world around us and make meaningful contributions to their respective fields.。

QueerTheory,AnIntroduction（AnnamarieJagose）

Queer Theory, An IntroductionAnnamarie JagoseIndeed, as an intellectual model, queer has not been produced solely by lesbian and gay politics and theory, but rather informed by historically specific knowledges which constitute late twentieth-century western thought. Similar shifts can be seen in both feminist and post-colonial theory and practice when, for example, Denise Riley (1988) problematises feminism‟s insistence on “women” as a unified, stable and coherent category, and Henry Louis Gates (1985) d enaturalises “race.” Such conceptual shifts have had great impact within lesbian and gay scholarship and activism and are the historical context for any analysis of queer.Both the lesbian and gay movements were committed fundamentally to the notion of identity politics in assuming identity as the necessary prerequisite for effective political intervention. Queer, on the other hand, exemplifies a more mediated relation to categories of identification. Access to the post-structuralist theorisation of identity as provisional and contingent, coupled with a growing awareness of the limitations of identity categories in terms of political representation, enabled queer to emerge as a new form of personal identification and political organisation. “Identity” is pro bably one of the most naturalised cultural categories each of us inhabits: one always thinks of one‟s self as existing outside all representational frames, and as somehow marking a point of undeniable realness. In the second half of the twentieth century, however, such seemingly self-evident or logical claims to identity have been problematised radically on a number of fronts by such theorists as Louis Althusser, Sigmund Freud, Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacques Lacan and Michel Foucault. Collectively, their work has made possible certain advances in social theory and the human sciences which, in the words of Stuart Hall, have effected “the final de-centring of the Cartesian subject.” Consequently, identity has been reconceptualised as a sustaining and persisten t cultural fantasy or myth. To think of identity as a “mythological” construction is not to say that categories of identity have no material effect. Rather it is to realise--as Roland Barthes does in his Mythologies (1978)--that our understanding of ourselves as coherent, unified, and self-determining subjects is an effect of those representational codes commonly used to describe the self and through which, consequently, identity comes to be understood. Barthes‟s understanding of subjectivity questions that seemingly natural or self-evident “truth” of identity which derives historically from RenèDescartes‟ notion of the self as something that is self-determining, rational and coherent.Reconsidering Karl Marx‟s emphasis on the framework of constraints or hi storical conditions which determine an individual‟s actions, Louis Althusser has argued that we do not pre-exist as free subjects: on the contrary, we are constituted as such by ideology. His central thesis is that individuals are “interpellated” or “called forth” as subjects by ideology, and that interpellation is achieved through a compelling mixture of recognition and identification. This notion is important for any thorough examination of identity politics, because it demonstrates how ideology not only positions individuals in society but also confers on them their sense of identity. In other words, it shows how one‟s identity is already constituted by ideology itself rather than simply by resistance to it.Like the Marxist structuralist approach to subjectivity, psychoanalysis makes culturally available a narrative that complicates the assumption that an identity is the natural property of any individual. Sigmund Freud‟s theorisation of the unconscious further challenges the notion that subjectivity is s table and coherent. In establishing the formative influence of important mental and psychic processes of which an individual is unaware, the theory of the unconscious has radical implications for the common-sense assumption that the subject is both whole and self-knowing. Furthermore, interpretations of Friud‟swork--particularly by the French psychoanalyst, Jacques Lacan-- establish subjectivity as something which must be learned, rather than as something which is always already there. Subjectivity is not an essential property of the self, but something which originates outside it. Identity, then, is an effect of identification with and against others: being ongoing, and always incomplete, it is a process rather than a property.In some influential lectures on structural linguistics which he delivered in 1906-11, Ferdinand de Saussure argues that language does not so much reflect as construct social reality. For Saussure, language is not some second-order system whose function is simply to describe what is already there. Rather, language constitutes and makes significant that which it seems only to describe. Moreover, Saussure defines language as a system of signification that precedes any individual speaker. Language is commonly misunderstood as the medium b y which we express our “authentic” selves, and our private thoughts and emotions. Saussure, however, asks us to consider that our notions of a private, personal and interior self is something constituted through language.The theories of Althusser, Freud, Lacan and Saussure provide the post-structrualist context in which queer emerges. The French historian Michel Foucault has been more explicitly engaged in denaturalising dominant understandings of sexual identity. In emphasising that sexuality is not an essentially personal attribute but an available cultural category--and that it is the effect of power rather than simply its object--Foucault‟s writings have been crucially significant for the development of lesbian and gay and, subsequently, queer activism and scholarship. To say this is not to claim that there is literally a causal connection between Foucault‟s work and queer practice and theory. Yet, as Diana Fuss observes, Foucault‟s work on sexuality resonates with “current disputes amongst gay theorists and activists over the meaning and applicability of such categories as …gay‟, …lesbian‟, and …homosexual‟ in a post-structuralist climate which renders all such assertions of identity problematic”.Foucault‟s argument that sexuality is a discursive produc tion rather than a natural condition is part of his larger contention that modern subjectivity is an effect of networks of power. Not only negative or repressive but also productive and enabling, power is “exercised from innumerable points” to no predetermined effect (Foucault, 1981). Against the popular concept that sex both exists beyond power relations and yet is repressed by them, Foucault (1979) argues that power is not primarily a repressive force:In defining the effects of power by repression, one accepts a purely juridical conception of the power; one identifies power with a law that says no; it has above all the force of an interdict. Now, I believe that this is a wholly negative, narrow and skeletal conception of power which has been curiously shared. If power was never anything but repressive, if it never did anything but say no, do you really believe that we should manage to obey it? What gives power its hold, what makes it accepted, is quite simply the fact that it does not simply weigh like a force which says no, but that it runs through, and it produces things, it induces pleasure, it forms knowledge, it produces discourse; it must be considered as a productive network which runs through the entire social body much more than as a negative instance whose function is repression.In Foucault‟s analysis, marginalised sexual identities are not simply victims of the operations of power. On the contrary, they are produced by those same operations: “For two centuries now, the discourse on sex has been multiplied rather than rarefied; and if it has carried with it taboos and prohibitions, it has also, in a more fundamental way, ensured the solidification and implantation of an entire sexual mosaic” (Foucault, 1981). This emphasis on the productive and enabling aspects of power profoundly alters the models by which traditionally it has been understood. Consequently, Foucault‟s revaluation of power has significantly affected much lesbian and gay analysis.Since he does not think that power is a fundamentally repressive force, Foucault does not endorse such liberationist strategies as breaking prohibitions and speaking out. Indeed, because the idea of modern sexual repression is widely accepted, Foucault speculates that the discursive critique of oppression, far from correctly identifying the mechanisms of power, “is …in fact part of the same historical network as the thing it denounces (and doubtless misrepresents) by calling it …repression.‟” Foucault questions the liberationist confidence that to voice previously denied and silenced lesbian and gay identities and sexualities is to defy power, and hence induce a transformative effect. As Foucault takes a resolutely anti-liberatory position on this matter he is sometimes read--perhaps unsurprisingly given the common currency of what he critiques as “the repressive hypothesis”--as advocating political defeatism.Yet Foucault also argues that “where there is power, there is resistance,” a resistance “coextensive with [power] and absolutely its contemporary” (Fouca ult, 1988). Like power, resistance is multiple and unstable; it coagulates at certain points, is dispersed across others, and circulates in discourse. “Discourse” is the heterogeneous collection of utterances that relate to a particular concept, and thereby constitute and contest its meaning--that “series of discontinuous segments whose tactical function is neither uniform nor stable.” Just as he cautions against thinking that power demarcates only hierarchical relations, so Foucault insists that discourse is not simply for or against anything, but endlessly prolific and multivalent: “we must not imagine a world of discourse divided between accepted discourse and excluded discourse, or between the dominant discourse and the dominated one; but as a multiplicity of discursive elements that can come into play in various strategies.”When describing the relation between discourses and strategies, and demonstrating how a single discourse can be used strategically for oppositional purposes, Foucault specifically instances how the category of homosexuality was formed in relation to structures of power and resistance. The rise of the homosexual as a “species” exemplifies the polyvalent capacities of discourse:There is no question that the appearance in nineteenth-century psychiatry, jurisprudence, and literature of a whole series of discourses on the species and subspecies of homosexuality, inversion, pederasty, and “psychic hermaphrodism” made possible a strong advance of social controls into this area of “perversity;” but it also made possible the formation of a “reverse” discourse: homosexuality began to speak in its own behalf, to demand that its legitimacy or “naturality” be acknowledged, often in the same vocabulary, using the same categories by which it was medically disqualified.Discourse, then, is entirely within (yet not necessarily in the service of) the mechanisms of power. Foucault‟s analysis focuses on discourse as a mode of resistance, not to contest its content but in order to particularise its strategic operations. In so far as homosexuality is one of his key examples, Foucault regards sexual identities as the discursive effects of available cultural categories. Challenging commonly held understandings of power and resistance, his work has obvious appeal for lesbian and gay--and subsequently queer--theory and practice. Although Foucault treats the “author” as a textual effect rather than a real presence, his public identity as a gay man may well have facilitated the gay studies inspired by his work..。

修辞学Burke同的一论戏剧五位一体论

2016/3/22
ldentification by antithesis
· Identification can be established on the condition that we have shared the same "enemy",which can be seen as the behavior of joining together to fight against the common enemy.
dentification &Dramatistic Pentad
Identification
"同一"(identification)的概念是伯克对修辞学定义的主要延伸，"同一"来自于"实质"这一概念，自我由各种实质或特性构成，包括物质、职业、朋友、行为、信念和价值观等等。当我们与他人享有某些共同特质时，我们就取得了与他人的同一。同一离不开"同体"(consubstantial),当两个实体在实质上通过共同观点、态度、物质拥有或其它特性相联系时，他们就是同体的。
· 正是通过修辞，我们能消除分离，实现同一与同体。在分离中，我们可以发现修辞的基本动机，即人们进行交际以消除分离与隔阂，正是因为有隔阂的存在，同一才有意义。
Dramatistic pentad
·The dramatistic pentad forms the core structure of dramatism,a method for examining motivations that the renowned literary critic Kenneth Burke developed.

thesis的英文名词解释

thesis的英文名词解释Thesis: Unveiling the Epitome of Academic InquiryIntroductionIn the realm of academia, the term "thesis" holds an esteemed position, symbolizing the culmination of scholarly rigor, in-depth research, and critical analysis. Universally acknowledged as a prerequisite for the successful completion of undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral degrees, the thesis represents the pinnacle of academic achievement. This article delves into the various dimensions of the thesis, shedding light on its multifaceted nature and emphasizing its significance within the academic community.1. Defining the ThesisAt its core, a thesis is an extended written discourse that serves as a comprehensive exploration of a specific research question or hypothesis. It embodies the culmination of a student's academic journey, allowing individuals to showcase their mastery of a subject matter within a particular field of study. A thesis encompasses numerous elements, such as literature review, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion; often accompanied by substantiating evidence and scholarly references.2. Research and AnalysisThe research process is the foundation upon which a thesis is built. Students engage in an extensive literature review, scouring academic databases, journals, and books to identify gaps in knowledge and contribute novel insights to the chosen field. With gathered information, researchers employ critical and analytical thinking skills to examine the existing body of knowledge and formulate research questions. These questions guide the data collection process, helping to refine and answer the central thesis question.3. Data Collection and Analysis TechniquesThe chosen methodology determines the data collection techniques employed within a thesis. Whether quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of both, researchers adopt methodologies that best suit their research aims and objectives. Surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, and content analysis are just a few examples of the strategies employed to acquire pertinent data. Thorough data analysis techniques, such as statistical analysis or thematic coding, allow for the identification of trends, patterns, and correlations, enabling researchers to draw meaningful inferences and conclusions.4. Structure and OrganizationA well-crafted thesis adheres to a logical structure and organization, facilitating the reader's comprehension and engagement. Typically, a thesis comprises the following sections: introduction, literature review, methodology, results/findings, discussion, and conclusion. Each section serves a distinct purpose, guiding the reader through a coherent and systematic exploration of the research question. Furthermore, within each section, clear and concise subheadings help delineate the flow of ideas and arguments, ensuring clarity and coherence.5. Intellectual Contribution and OriginalityOne of the primary objectives of a thesis is to provide an intellectual contribution to the chosen field of study. Students are encouraged to identify gaps in existing knowledge and devise novel approaches to solving complex problems. Originality, creativity, and critical thinking are highly valued, as students are expected to go beyond mere regurgitation of established theories and instead present fresh perspectives and innovative ideas. By doing so, students contribute to the expanding body of knowledge in their respective fields.6. Demonstrating Proficiency in Academic WritingAn important aspect of a thesis is the demonstration of proficiency in academic writing. Students are expected to uphold high standards of scholarly writing by employing appropriate language, adhering to referencing conventions, and demonstrating clarity of thought. An effective thesis showcases the ability to communicate complexconcepts and findings concisely, engaging the reader and conveying the essence of the research.ConclusionThe thesis represents a significant milestone in one's academic journey, encapsulating the challenging endeavor of conducting extensive research, analyzing data, and making original contributions to a given field of study. It embodies the culmination of years of academic training, critical thinking, and intellectual exploration. The thesis goes beyond being a mere requirement for academic degrees; rather, it stands as a testament to an individual's determination, knowledge acquisition, and passion for knowledge dissemination.。

2024年江苏地区中考英语真题分类汇编-阅读理解(4)(含解析)

2024年江苏地区中考英语真题分类汇编-阅读理解（4）学校:___________姓名：___________班级：___________考号：___________一、阅读理解（A）（2023·江苏连云港·统考中考真题）The next day, Peter held up a notice as The Green Dragon came out of the tunnel towards the cottage (a small house in the country). The notice said, “LOOK OUT AT THIS STATION.”The old gentleman saw the notice. He looked out at the station as the train came in. He saw a little girl—it was Phyllis—running towards his carriage. He stood up and leaned out of the window of his carriage.“Please read this,” Phyllis said, and put a letter into his hand.The train left the station. The old gentleman sat down and read the letter. It was from Peter. The letter said:Dear Mr. We do not know your name.Mother is ill, and the doctor says we must give her some special things. But Mother can’t afford them. We do not know anyone here because Father is away, and we do not know where he lives. Father will pay you, or if he has lost all his money, I will pay you when I am a man. I promise you. Please get all the things on this list, and give them to the station master tomorrow.The letter was signed by Peter, Roberta, and Phyllis.The old gentleman read the letter and smiled. Then he put it in his pocket and started to read his newspaper again.That night there was a knock on the door of the cottage. The porter from the railway station was there.“An old gentleman gave this parcel (包裹) to the station master,” he said. “It’s for you.”The parcel was full of everything on the list of special things to make Mother well again. There was a letter from the old gentleman. It said:Dear Peter, Roberta, and Phyllis,Here are the things on your list. I am very happy to give them to you, and I hope your mother is soon better. When she asks where the things come from, tell her they are from a friend. When she is well, you can tell her the truth. She may say that you were wrong to ask a stranger for these things.I think you were right.The letter was signed “G.P.” and something that the children could not read.“I think we were right to ask the old gentleman for his help,” Peter said. “The important thing is for Mother to feel better.”1．When Mother was ill, Peter, Roberta, and Phyllis tried to get help by ________.（）A．meeting the station master B．looking for a greater doctorC．waiting for Father at the station D．writing a letter to the old gentleman2．What does the underlined word “it” in paragraph 6 refer to?（）A．The notice.B．The letter.C．The money.D．The newspaper. 3．Which is the right order of the following events?（）a. The old gentleman read the letter from Peter.b. Phyllis put a letter into the old gentleman’s hand.c. The old gentleman gave a parcel to the station master.d. The porter gave the parcel to Peter, Roberta, and Phyllis.e. Peter, Roberta, and Phyllis read the letter from the old gentleman.A．a-b-d-e-c B．a-e-d-b-c C．b-a-c-d-e D．b-c-d-a-e4．Which of the following best describes the old gentleman?（）A．Helpful.B．Funny.C．Brave.D．Clever.（B）（2023·江苏苏州·统考中考真题）Teenagers need eight to ten hours of sleep per night. However, in adolescence (青春期) changes to the body’s sleep cycle make it difficult for teens to fall asleep early. Many cannot fall asleep until 10:30 p.m. or even later and most of them will feel sleepy if they have to get up too early.Scientists recommend that both middle and high schools begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. Later school start times support the natural needs of teenagers and increase their sleeping time.Here are some other benefits of later school start times:More time for a healthy breakfastWhen running late in the mornings, students are likely to go without breakfast. With an empty stomach, one finds it difficult to focus (集中) in class. When they are always in a hurry, students may form unhealthy eating habits.With extra time before going to school, students can eat a well-balanced breakfast andfocus more on learning.Fewer behavioral (行为的) problemsTeens experience mood changes as a common result of this special period of life. Less sleep may cause worries, stress and unhappiness.When they get enough sleep, students are calm and peaceful and their moods do not change suddenly. They’re less likely to feel worried, unhappy or get angry. For parents, children with more sleep are easier to live with.Better performance (表现) in studySleep loss hurts attention, memory and brain development. Students with less sleep have difficulty paying attention in class and are likely to have lower grades. Students with enough sleep can be more energetic during the day and more willing to learn. They are also less likely to fall asleep in class and more able to understand what they learn.In conclusion, starting school later helps students get a better night’s sleep. It improves their chances of eating, behaving and performing better.1．According to the passage, what may cause teenagers to stay up?（）A．Their low grades.B．Their empty stomachs.C．Their body’s sleep cycle.D．Their heavy homework.2．How can sleep loss influence students’ study?（）A．It gives them much energy.B．It does harm to the brain.C．It saves more time for study.D．It improves their memory.3．What’s the writer’s main purpose in writing this passage?（）A．To explain reasons for students’ stress.B．To describe bad habits caused by sleep loss.C．To discuss scientists’ research on healthy food.D．To introduce benefits of later school start times.4．In which part of the website can you probably find this passage?（）A．Education.B．Fashion.C．Sports.D．Technology.（C）（2023·江苏苏州·统考中考真题）Confucianism (儒家思想) has been followed by Chinese people for more than two thousand years.To help people understand how to behave towards others, Confucianism teaches the Five Constants (五常). These are ren, yi, li, zhi and xin. They are general virtues (美德) around the world. The most important two are ren and li.Ren is the feeling of care and love we should have for others. Confucius explained ren could best be understood as loving others. He is famous for teaching people “What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others”. It is quite similar to what is known in the West as the Golden Rule (treat others as you wish to be treated).While the meaning of ren is easy to understand, li is a little harder to express. It can be thought of as duty or even respect. Generally, li is the way we should connect with people in our everyday life. In Confucian writings, discussions about li include the proper way to drink tea and how to remember ancestors (祖先). While ren is mostly about our opinions and feelings, li is about how we express our opinions and feelings towards others and towards the world around us.Perhaps the most well-known Confucian virtue is xiao. This is the duty children have to their parents. Xiao means loving, respecting, obeying and taking care of one’s parents in their old age. In Confucianism, xiao is important for a harmonious (和谐的) society: Without it, the whole world would fall into a mess.1．Which are the most important of the Five Constants?（）A．Ren and yi.B．Ren and li.C．Li and xin.D．Yi and zhi.2．What is the best Chinese for the underlined sentence in Paragraph 3?（）A．博学于文，约之以礼。

发展心理学常考名词解释

发展心理学常考名词解释
1. 自我认同（self-identity）：个体对自己的认同感，包括自我意识、价值观、兴趣和角色认同等。

2. 发展任务（developmental tasks）：个体在不同阶段必须完成的心理和社会发展任务，例如婴儿学会爬行、幼儿学会说话等。

3. 心理冲突（psychological conflict）：个体在发展过程中遇到的内心的矛盾和紧张，例如青少年时期的身份与角色的冲突。

4. 特质（trait）：稳定的个体特征，影响个体的行为和情绪反应，例如外向性、神经质等。

5. 社会认知理论（social cognitive theory）：认为人们的认知、行为和环境相互作用，互为影响的理论，强调个体通过观察和模仿他人来学习。

6. 文化相对论（cultural relativism）：强调文化对个体发展的影响，认为文化背景是理解个体行为和心理过程的关键。

7. 分离焦虑（separation anxiety）：婴儿和幼儿面对与主要照顾者分离时出现的焦虑和不安情绪。

8. 认知发展（cognitive development）：个体对于知识、思维和问题解决能力的逐渐发展和变化。

9. 社会发展（social development）：个体与他人之间的关系和社会交往的发展过程，包括情绪、友谊和社交技巧的发展等。

10. 青春期（adolescence）：从儿童进入成年的转折期，身体、心理和社会各方面都发生重大变化的阶段。

GRE阅读高频词汇

GRE阅读高频词汇GRE阅读高频词汇分享Historian 历史学家Hypothesis 假设，假说Cultural || culturally 文化的|| 文化意义上的Discrimination 歧视，辨别Dioxide 二氧化物Assumption 假设Narrative 记叙文;故事Photographer 摄影师Amendment 修正案Hormone 激素Thesis 假设理论Feminist 女权主义者Photography 摄影艺术Quantum 量子Labor 劳动;劳动力Predator 食肉动物;捕食者Aggression 攻击，攻击性Glucose 葡萄糖Underlie 在。

下面;成为。

的基础Impulse 冲动Juvenile 幼崽Theme 主题Colonial 殖民地的;殖民地居民Mechanism 机制;机械系统Biological 生物的，生物学的Fusion 核聚变，融合Oxygen 氧，氧气Crusher 压碎器Technological 技术的Heritage 遗产Analyze 分析Whereas 但是，尽管Molecule 分子的Theater 戏剧Synthesis 合成Vent 大洋底部涌出热水并溶解矿物质的开口Awareness 了解，意识Calcium 钙Polar 极地的GRE阅读高频词汇分享Similarity 类似性，相似点Astronomer 天文学家Characterize 具有。

的特征;描绘。

的特征Lobster 龙虾Anaerobic 无氧的Gene 基因，遗传信息Genetic 遗传的Transplant 被移植的事物;移植Brachiopod 腕足类动物Caterpillar 毛虫Ozone 臭氧Pollen 花粉Mammal 哺乳动物Plateau 高原Environmental 环境的Geologic 地址的Peptide 肽Rift 裂口Anemone 海葵Graze 食草Homework 在家完成工作Puritan 清教徒的Zooplankton 浮游动物Criteria 标准Phytoplankton 浮游植物Vertebrate 脊柱动物Comic 喜剧的;喜剧演员Decline 降低Judgment 判断Neutrino 中微子Vapor 水蒸气Interstellar 星际的Medieval 中世纪的Novelist 小说家Receptor 受体Fossil 化石Habitat 生存环境，栖息地Accurately 准确地，精确地Assert 宣称，声明Assertion 主张，坚持Geologist 地质学家Inherent 内在的Salon 沙龙，社交聚会Sovereignty 主权GRE阅读高频词汇分享Survival 生存Complexity 复杂性Isotope 同位素Perception 感知，认识，看法Snail 蜗牛Suture 缝合处Advocate 提倡，鼓励Context 背景，环境Crucial 至关重要的，关键的Discriminate 区分Favor 偏爱;支持，喜爱Feminism 女权主义运动;女权主义Galaxy 星系Generalization 归纳Scholarly 学术的Virus 病毒Analogous 类似的Analogy 类似;比喻Campesino 农场主人，农夫Census 人口普查，户口普查，人口统计Conceptual 概念的Contaminant 污染物Evolutionary 进化的Framer 制定者，设计者Landscape 风景，景观Literacy 认识能力，文化水平Neuron 神经细胞Pleistocene 更新世Suffrage 选举权Tribal 部落的Aesthetic 审美的;美学，美学标准Aquifer 蓄水层Biologist 生物学家Entirely 完全地Glacial 冰期的，冰川的Homeworker 在家工作的人Metabolic 新陈代谢的Prey 猎物，被捕食者;捕食Random 随机的Antibody 抗体Canon 教规Contradict 与。

医学英语词根词缀记忆

neonate: n, 新生儿, neonatal: adj，新生期的neo: 新neomycin, 新霉素，neoplasm, 新生物，natus: 出生, prenatal: 产前的，出生前的Gastrointestinal: 胃肠道的gastro : 胃，intesto : 肠，Gastrointestinal system:胃肠系统，或消化系统Antibody: 抗体anti-: 对抗，antigen: 抗原antibiotics: 抗生素Psychosexual: 性心理Psycho: 心理，精神，psychology: 心理学Carbohydrate: 碳水化合物Carbo: 碳carbonate: 碳酸盐hydrate: 水化物，含水物hydratase: 水和酶ase 酶，lipase：脂肪酶Auditory: adj. 听觉的audi-: 听如：audiometer: 听力计meter: 测量kinetic: 运动的kine-: 运动kinesimeter: 运动测量计akinesia：运动不能Congenital: 先天性的con- 和genitor-: 生殖，生殖器genitourinary：泌尿生殖的Defect：缺点，瑕疵de：否定，脱离，缺乏，不足degeneration：恶化fect：做infect：感染，影响Oxygenated: 含氧的，氧合的oxygen：氧气-ate：词尾，表示某种行为，状态Deoxygenate：去氧，脱氧de- 前缀，去离脱Unoxygenated：不含氧的，含氧低un-前缀，用于形容词之前，不Pulmonary：肺的pulmo-：肺pulmometer：肺量计Tachycardia: 心动过速tachy：快，迅速tachypnea：呼吸过快cardio-心脏Cardiovascular：心血管的Stenosis：狭窄steno-：狭窄stenocephaly：头狭窄，小头Hypertrophy：肥大，增生hyper：高于，超越，多于hypercardia：心肥大trophy：战利品，促，增加gonadotrophin：促性腺激素Hypotrophy：不足生长，萎hypo-：低于，少于，不足Cyanosis：发绀Acyanotic：不发绀的a-：不，没有anemia：贫血（-emia是血症）cyanotic：发绀的Hypoxia：低氧血症hypo（少）+ox（ygen）（氧气）+ia（血症）Dyspnea：呼吸困难dys-：前缀，困难dyskinesia：运动障碍pnea：气体，呼吸apnea：呼吸停止Leukemia: 白血病leuk- 同leuc-，白leucocyte：白细胞-emia-：同-hemia，血，血液Leukopenia：白细胞减少症-penia：血细胞减少thrombocytopenia：血小板减少症neutropenia：中性粒细胞减少症-neutro-：中，中间，中性neutrocyte：中性粒细胞Thrombocytopenia：血小板减少症-thrombo-：血小板，血栓thrombosis：血栓症thrombocyte：血小板-cyte：细胞erythrocyte：红细胞Infiltration: 渗透-in：向里filtrate：过滤，滤出Reticuloendothelia: 网状内皮reticulo-：网状的reticular：网状组织-endo-：内，内部endotrachea：气管内-theli-：乳头，皮瓣Chemotherapy：化疗chemo-: 化学的chemoanalysis：化学分析therapy：治疗Anesthetics：麻醉剂an-：前缀，否定的，相反的（同a-）-esthe-：感觉esthesia：感觉，感知Cystitis：膀胱炎cyst-囊，胞，膀胱cystalgia：膀胱痛-itis：炎gastritis：胃炎hemophilia 血友病hemo- 血，血液hemoglobin: 血红蛋白-phil: 亲，嗜neutrophil: 嗜中性白细胞neutron-: 中-ia: 词尾，表示—血症，petechia：淤血，淤点hemolyze: 溶血hemo-血-ly-：溶解fibrolysin: 纤维溶解素hemorrhage: 出血hemo- 血，血液-rrha-: 大量的流出diarrhea: 腹泻umbilical cord: 脐带umbil- 脐umbilectomy: 脐切除术cord 绳索，带子circumcision: 包皮环切术circum- 周围，环circumcorneal: 角膜周围（corneal 是角膜的意思）-cision 切开，切口incision：切割, 切开, 切口intracranial: adj 颅内的intra-: 内，内部intracellular: 细胞内的-cranio-: 颅的，颅骨的craniofacial: 颅面的laceration: 伤口，裂口lacer-: 撕裂lacerant：折磨人的，令人痛苦的hemarthrosis: 关节积血arthro-: 关节arthritis: 关节炎（-it is: 是炎症）-osis：词尾，疾病的状态petechia 瘀点，瘀斑peti：皮肤上的斑点impetigo：（皮肤）脓疱病-ia：词尾，血症anemia: 贫血an- 无，不，缺乏-emia：血症leukemia：白血病follow-up: 随诊，复诊immobilize: v 制动，不活动im-是前缀，同in，不，相反，没有mobile: 移动比如大家都熟悉的mobile phone: 移动电话antihemophili：抗血友病的anti- 对抗antiembolic：抗栓hemophilia 血友病degeneration 退化，变性de- 去，离，脱，除degrowth: 降低生长gene：基因，generation: 产生，发生, 生殖disability: 无能力，残疾dis-:分开，分离，否定，不disadjust：失调的able: 能，可以，ability: 能力，才干disable: 不能，disability: 残疾genetic: 遗传的gene: 基因hemolytic: 溶血性的hemo- 血，血液hemoglobin：血红蛋白-lyse-：溶解cytolysis: 细胞溶解precipitate：促成，使…陷入pre-：先于，…之前preplan：预先计划cipit：头dehydration：脱水de- 去，离，脱hydro-：水，含氢的hydrogen：氢Hematocrit：红细胞压积，红细胞比容hemato-：血液，血crit：同krites，判断Lethargy：无精打采，嗜睡les-：健忘的-argos-：懒散的Malaise：身体不适，不舒服，疲倦mal- 坏的，错误的malformation：畸形，难看-aise：同ease，悠闲，轻松，安逸Vaso-occlusion 血管堵塞vaso-：血管，输精管vasodilation：血管扩张occlusion：闭塞，阻塞Perfusion：灌注per-：通，穿透，支持，携带，向前fuse：熔化，合并，注入 infusion：灌输，输液Overheating：过热的over- 超过，高过，过分Pneumococcus：肺炎球菌pneumo-: 肺，气pneumonia：肺炎-coccus：球菌diplococcus：双球菌transfusion：输血trans-：转移transfer：转移，转让，传递fuse：合并，注入infusion：灌输，输液electrolyte：电解质electro-：电，电子的electroconvulsion：电击lyte：溶解Apnea: 无呼吸的，呼吸停止的a-：否定，相反的, 不，没有absent：缺席，不在-pnea-: 呼吸dyspnea：呼吸困难Bradycardia：心动过缓brady-：缓慢的bradypnea：呼吸过慢-cardio-：心脏cardigram：心电图Hypotonic：张力下降hypo-：少于，低于hypotension：低血压tonic：紧张的，张力的Autopsy：尸检auto-自己，自体autograft：自体移植物-opsis-：检查，看Bronchiolitis: 细支气管炎bronchio- 细支气管bronchiole: 细支气管-itis: 炎症meningitis: 脑膜炎Laryngitis: 喉炎laryngo- 喉laryngoscopy: 喉镜检查Laryngotracheobronchitis: 喉气管支气管炎-tracheo-: 气管tracheotomy: 气管切开术-broncho-: 支气管bronchitis: 气管炎Epiglottitis: 会厌炎epiglott-：会厌Syncytial: 合胞病毒的syn-: 共同，联合，相似synkinesia: 协同性运动, 辅助运动-cyto-: 细胞Hyperinflation: 过度膨胀hyper：高，过多hypertension：高血压-in-：相反的，否定的flat: 平坦的，扁的，漏气的Inspiratory: 吸气的in: 向内，进入insight：内在，见识-spirate-: 通气respiration: 呼吸Dysphagia: 吞咽困难dys- : 困难的-phago-: 吞咽，吞噬Phagocyte: 吞噬细胞Trecheostomy: 气管切开术-ostomy-: 切开术，造瘘术colostomy: 结肠造瘘术Epinephrine: 肾上腺素-epi-: 在…之上，在…之外epigastric：上腹部-nephro-: 肾脏的nephrosis: 肾病-ine: 素Corticosteroid: 皮质激素cortico-：皮，皮质corticose: 外皮的，皮层的steroid: 激素Endotracheal: 气管内的-endo-: 内，内部endocrine：内分泌Cystic 囊性的cyst-: 前缀表示“囊, 胞”之义cystectomy: 胆囊切除术Fibrosis: 纤维化，纤维变性fibr(o)- 纤维fibrocyte: 纤维细胞-cyte: 细胞-sis: --词尾，…化, …状态Dysfunction: 功能紊乱，机能不良dys: 困难dysphagia：吞咽困难Function: 功能Autosome: 常染色体，正染色体auto-自体，身体，自动-soma-: 体s omatic：肉体的Exocrine: 外分泌exo- 外部的exotoxin: 外毒素crinein: 分离Endocrine: 内分泌endo-: 内，内部endotoxin: 内毒素malabsorption: (营养）吸收不良mal-: 坏，错误，疾病malignant: 恶性的absorb: 吸收steatorrhea: 脂肪泻steato- 脂肪steatoma: 脂肪瘤-rrhea：大量流出diarrhea：腹泻expectorant：adj 化痰的，n 化痰剂ex-: 自…出来, 排出excrete: 排泄pector: 胸，胸腔mucolytics: 粘液溶解剂muco- 粘液mucoid: 粘液样的-lyte-: 溶解hemolysis: 溶血bronchodilator: 气管扩张剂broncho- 气管bronchitis: 气管炎dilate: 扩张dehydration: 脱水de- 前缀，去、脱hydro- 水，氢Prodromal ：前驱的,有前驱症状的pro：居前，领先proenzyme：酶原dromos：跑，进行maculopapular：斑丘疹macule：斑疹papule：丘疹Centripetal: 向心的centro-：中心Antihistamine: 抗组胺药anti-：对抗antibody：抗体-histo-：组织histocyte：组织细胞-amine：胺Globulin：球蛋白globule：球，-in：素，酶，蛋白encephalitis：脑炎-encepho-：脑encephalopathy：脑病-itis：炎Paramyxovirus：副粘病毒para-: 副，旁，侧面parablast：副胚层-myxo-：粘，粘液myxocyte：粘液细胞virus：病毒Parotitis：腮腺炎，腮腺肿大Paroti-：腮腺，耳旁的parotin：腮腺激素Submaxillary：下颌的sub：下，亚，次subcutenous：皮下-maxill-: 颌Orchitis：睾丸炎-orcho-：睾丸orchotomy：睾丸切开术Epididymo-orchitis：附睾炎epididymo-：附睾teratogenic：产生畸形的-terato-：畸形teratosis：畸胎，怪胎Hydrogen peroxiede：过氧化氢，双氧水hydrogen：氢per-：携带，支持-oxide：氧化物dioxide：二氧化物Desquamation：脱皮，脱屑de-：去，脱，离squama：鳞片Arthralgia：关节痛-arthro-：关节arthritis：关节炎-gia：疼痛neuralgia：神经痛vasculitis：脉管炎，血管炎-vascul-：血管Hyperthermia：高热-thermo-：体温，热度thermometer：体温计Unremitting：不间断的un-：前缀，没有，不remit：宽恕，赦免Lymphadenopathy：淋巴腺疾病-lymph-：淋巴-adeno-：腺体adenoma：腺瘤Erythematous：红斑的-erythro-：红，红色Erythromycin：红霉素-ma：斑，瘤myoma：肌瘤Febrile：热性的febri-：发烧febricide：退热剂Conjunctivitis：结膜炎conjunctiva：结膜Oropharyngeal：口咽的-oro-：口Oral：口头的-pharyngo-：咽 Pharyngitis：咽炎Mucocutaneous：粘膜皮肤的-muco-：粘膜mucosa：黏膜-cutaneo-：皮肤subcutaneous：皮下的医学英语词根词缀记忆10Rheumatic: 风湿性的rheumato-:风湿rheumatoid: 类风湿的rheumatic fever: 风湿热Autoimmune: 自身免疫的auto-: 自身，自体autoantibody：自身抗体immune：免疫immune globulin：免疫球蛋白Streptococcus: 链球菌strepto-：链状的streptolysin: 链球菌溶血素streptomycin：链霉素-coccus: 球菌diplococcus:双球菌Peumococcus：肺炎双球菌Carditis: 心脏炎，心肌炎cardio-:心脏cardiovascular：心血管的myocardial：心肌的-itis：炎myocarditis：心肌炎Polyarthritis:多发性关节炎poly-: 多，多个，多种polycyte: 多型核细胞polyphagia：多食-arthro-: 关节arthrology: 关节学Erythema:红斑erythe: 红，红色erythromycin: 红霉素-ma: 肿物，斑myoma：肌瘤Subcutaneous: 皮下的Sub-: 在下；低于，次于，副，次Subadult:接近成年的人-cutan-: 皮肤percutaneous：经皮的ROM: Range Of Motion 环绕关节地运动，全关节运动Prophylactic:预防疾病的；预防性的pro-：在…之前-phylax-: 保卫phylaxin：抵抗素Glomerulonephritis:肾小球肾炎glomerulus ：肾小球glomerulitis：肾小球炎glomerulopathy：肾小球病-nephro-：肾nephrocyte：肾原细胞nephrotoxicity: 肾毒性Bilateral：双侧的，有两面的bi-：两，双bipolar：双极的，两极的lateral：侧边unilateral：单侧的Noninfectious：非传染的non-：非，不，无nonabsorbable：不能被吸收的infectious：传染性的Streptococcus：链球菌strepto-：链状streptomycin：链霉素-coccus: 球菌diplococcus：双球菌Hypertension：高血压hyper：高于，多于h yperthermia：高温，发热tension：压力，张力Antihypertensive：抗高血压药anti：抗，对抗antibiotics：抗生素Retention：保留，储留Hematuria: 血尿Hemato-：血hematogenous：血源性的-uria：尿oliguria：少尿Integrity：完整，完全Specific gravity：比重Recurrence：复发，重现re-：再次retake：重摄reread：再读rewrite：再写-cur-：发生occur：发生，出现 concur:同时发生（con：共同）Otitis media: 中耳炎Otitis: 耳炎-oto-: 耳otophone: 助听器otolith：耳石-itis：炎Meningitis: 脑膜炎-meningo-: 脑膜meningocele: 脑膜膨出meningioma：脑（脊）膜瘤Eradicate: 根治，根除e-: 免，除去erase：抹去，擦掉-radic-: 根polyradiculitis：多神经根炎Decongestant:解充血药de-：去除，剥夺，脱离dehydration：脱水congest: 充血，充塞congestive heart failure：充血性心力衰竭-ant：药，剂absorbant：吸收剂Analgesic: 止痛的；镇痛剂an- : 无，没有，缺乏anacid：酸缺乏，无酸的anemia：贫血-algea-: 同algia，痛苦，感到痛苦neuralgia：神经痛Antipyretic:退热药anti-：抗antacid：抗酸剂antibacterial：抗菌的-pyreto-: 热pyretology: 热病学Myringotomy:鼓膜切开术-myringo-: 鼓膜myringitis: 鼓膜炎-otomy：切开术atriotomy：心房切开术Photophobia: 畏光-photo-: 光，相片phobia: 恐惧症acrophobia：恐高症basophobia：步行恐惧症Opisthotonos：角弓反张opistho-：后，体后 opisthion：颅后点，枕骨tonic：紧张，强直Multisystem：多系统的multi-：多，多种，多个 multiple：多样的，多重的Encephalopathy：脑病encephal-：脑encephalitis：脑炎-pathy：疾病neuropathy：神经病nephropathy：肾病持续更新，所需资料请私信，必尽最大努力尽快提供。

hypothesis词根词缀

hypothesis词根词缀摘要：1.概述：什么是hypothesis？2.hypothesis 的词根和词缀3.hypothesis 的词源和含义4.hypothesis 在科学研究中的应用5.hypothesis 的延伸意义和用法正文：1.概述：什么是hypothesis？“Hypothesis”是一个英语单词，其词源来自古希腊语“πθεσι”，意为“假设”或“设定”。

在现代科学研究中，这个词常用来指研究者对某一现象或问题的解释或猜测，通常需要通过实验或观察来验证或证伪。

2.hypothesis 的词根和词缀“Hypothesis”这个词的词根是“πθεσι”，来自于古希腊语。

而它的词缀包括：- hypo-：表示“在...之下”，“低于”，“次于”- the-：表示“这个”，“那个”，用于特指- sis：表示“行为”，“状态”，“结果”3.hypothesis 的词源和含义“Hypothesis”的词源可以追溯到古希腊语“πθεσι”，由“π”（hypo-）和“θσι”（thesis）两部分组成，意为“放在下面的东西”，在科学研究中，这个词被用来指代对某一现象或问题的解释或猜测，需要通过实验或观察来验证或证伪。

4.hypothesis 在科学研究中的应用在科学研究中，研究者通常会根据自己对现象或问题的理解，提出一个或多个hypothesis，然后通过实验或观察来验证或证伪这些假设。

如果实验或观察的结果支持研究者的假设，那么这个假设就可能被接受为科学事实；如果实验或观察的结果与假设不符，那么研究者可能需要修改或放弃这个假设，重新提出新的假设。

5.hypothesis 的延伸意义和用法除了在科学研究中的应用外，hypothesis 也可以用来指代对未知事物的猜测或假设，比如在历史研究中，研究者可能会根据现有的证据，提出关于历史事件的hypothesis，然后通过进一步的研究和发掘来验证或证伪这些假设。

文化的重要性英语作文

Culture is an integral part of human society,shaping our identities,values,and ways of life.It encompasses a wide array of elements,including language,religion,traditions, art,music,and customs.Heres a detailed look at why culture is so important:1.Identity and Belonging:Culture provides a sense of identity and belonging to individuals.It helps people understand where they come from and what they stand for. This sense of identity is crucial for personal development and social cohesion.2.Preservation of Heritage:Culture is a repository of a communitys history and heritage. It helps preserve the knowledge,traditions,and values of past generations,ensuring that they are not lost over time.3.Diversity and Tolerance:Exposure to different cultures fosters an understanding and appreciation of diversity.This can lead to greater tolerance and acceptance of different ways of life,which is essential in a globalized world.4.Economic Benefits:Cultural industries,such as tourism,arts,and entertainment, contribute significantly to the economy.Cultural heritage sites attract visitors,promoting international exchange and boosting local economies.5.Cultural Exchange:The sharing of cultural practices and ideas can lead to innovation and creativity.When people from different cultures interact,they can learn from each other,leading to the development of new ideas and practices.cation and Learning:Culture is a vital part of education.It provides a context for learning about history,sociology,and the arts.Understanding culture can also help students develop critical thinking skills and a broader worldview.7.Social Cohesion:Culture can bring people together,creating a sense of community and shared values.This is particularly important in diverse societies where people from different backgrounds need to find common ground.8.Conflict Resolution:Understanding and respecting cultural differences can help prevent and resolve conflicts.When people appreciate the value of different cultures,they are less likely to engage in discrimination or violence based on cultural differences.9.Mental Health:Cultural practices and traditions can provide a source of comfort and stability,contributing to mental health and wellbeing.They can also offer a framework for coping with lifes challenges.10.Cultural Continuity:Culture ensures the continuity of a societys values and norms from one generation to the next.This continuity is essential for maintaining social order and stability.In conclusion,culture is not just a collection of customs and traditions it is the very fabric that holds societies together.It is a living,evolving entity that enriches our lives and shapes our interactions with the world.Recognizing and valuing cultural diversity is key to building a more inclusive and harmonious global community.。

hypothesis词根词缀

hypothesis词根词缀【原创实用版】目录1.Hypothesis 的词根和词缀含义2.Hypothesis 的词源历史3.Hypothesis 在科学研究中的应用4.Hypothesis 的延伸意义和用法正文【1】Hypothesis 的词根和词缀含义"Hypothesis"是一个来自希腊语的英文词汇，其词根和词缀具有深厚的哲学和科学传统。

在希腊语中，"πθεσι"（hypothesis）意为“假设”或“设定”，是科学研究和哲学思考的重要基础。

这个词汇的构成包括前缀"π"（hypó），意为“在…之下”或“从…出发”，以及词根"θσι"（thesis），意为“设定”或“主张”。

【2】Hypothesis 的词源历史"Hypothesis"这个词汇最早出现在公元前的古希腊哲学著作中，哲学家们用它来描述对自然现象或道德原则的猜测或推测。

随着科学的发展，"hypothesis"逐渐成为科学研究中的一个重要概念，表示在观察和实验基础上提出的关于现象原因或规律的暂时性解释。

在中世纪，这个词汇被翻译成拉丁文"hypothesis"，并进入欧洲语言体系。

【3】Hypothesis 在科学研究中的应用在现代科学研究中，"hypothesis"是研究过程的重要组成部分。

科学家们通常会基于观察和实验结果提出一个或多个假设，然后通过进一步的实验和数据分析来检验这些假设的正确性。

如果一个假设被证实是正确的，它可能会被提升为科学理论；如果被证伪，那么科学家们就需要重新考虑他们的假设或重新设计实验。

【4】Hypothesis 的延伸意义和用法除了在科学研究中的应用，"hypothesis"这个词汇在日常生活中也有广泛的用法。

它常常用来表示对某个问题或现象的猜测或推测，不一定需要严格的科学依据。

hypothesis词根词缀

hypothesis词根词缀摘要：1.词根词缀的含义与作用2.假设（hypothesis）词根的起源与演变3.假设（hypothesis）词缀在英语词汇中的应用实例4.如何在学术研究和日常生活中运用假设（hypothesis）词根词缀5.总结正文：在我们日常使用的英语词汇中，词根和词缀起着至关重要的作用。

它们可以帮助我们理解单词的意义，同时也能让我们更好地掌握新词汇。

今天，我们将探讨一个具有启发性的词根词缀组合——假设（hypothesis）。

1.词根词缀的含义与作用词根是单词的基本部分，代表着单词的意义。

而词缀则是用来表示词性的部分，如前缀、后缀等。

在这个例子中，假设（hypothesis）这个词的词根是“hypo”，意为“在……之下”；词缀是“thesis”，源于希腊语，表示“放置”。

结合起来，假设（hypothesis）意味着“放在下面的东西”。

2.假设（hypothesis）词根的起源与演变“Hypo”这个词根可以追溯到古希腊语，最初的意思是“低于”或“在……之下”。

随着语言的发展，这个词根进入拉丁语，并演变成了“hypothesis”。

在现代英语中，假设（hypothesis）一词通常用于表示一种推测、设想或猜想。

3.假设（hypothesis）词缀在英语词汇中的应用实例在英语中，有许多基于假设（hypothesis）词根的词汇，例如：- hypothetical：假设的，理论上的- hypothesis testing：假设检验- hypothetical situation：假设情境这些词汇均采用了假设（hypothesis）词根，并将其应用于不同场景，以表达相关意义。

4.如何在学术研究和日常生活中运用假设（hypothesis）词根词缀在学术研究中，假设（hypothesis）是一个重要的概念。

研究者们会提出假设，并通过实证研究来检验其真伪。

在这个过程中，假设（hypothesis）词根词缀可以帮助我们更准确地表达研究目的和结果。

hypothesis和实证的内容

hypothesis和实证的内容题目：理论和实证：解读Hypothesis和实证研究的重要性引言在社会科学研究中，理论和实证是不可或缺的两个组成部分。

理论提供了研究的基本框架，指导我们进行探索和解释现象的思考；而实证则通过收集和分析数据，验证或否定理论的假设。

本文将从理论和实证的定义、功能以及在研究中的重要性等方面一步步解读，以帮助读者更好地理解这两个重要概念。

1. 理论的定义和功能理论可被视为一种解释现象的框架或模型。

它是基于已有知识和观察所提出的一种推测或假设。

理论的目标是揭示事件、行为或社会现象背后的原因和规律。

通过理论的构建，研究者可以对特定领域进行系统性研究，为社会科学领域提供更多的见解和知识。

理论在研究中起到多个重要功能：首先，它提供了一个研究的起点，帮助研究者确定研究对象和问题；其次，理论可以给出推断或预测，指导研究者选择合适的方法和工具；最后，理论还可以促进对已有知识的发现、批判和拓展。

2. 实证的定义和功能实证研究是一种基于观察和数据收集来验证或证伪理论假设的方法。

它通过收集经验数据，通过统计分析和实证推断来检验理论的假设。

实证研究的目标是通过可观察的证据来评估理论的有效性。

实证在研究中起到多个重要功能：首先，它提供了对理论的启发和检验，通过实证研究，研究者可以得到对假设的验证或否定，以增强或推翻理论的合理性；其次，实证可以提供详实的证据，使我们对特定领域有更全面的了解；最后，实证还可以帮助研究者进行预测和决策，并提供政策制定的指导。

3. 理论和实证的相互关系理论和实证是相互依存、相互补充的关系。

理论提供了对现象的推测和解释，而实证则用数据验证或推翻理论的假设。

理论指导实证的研究，而实证反过来可以进一步发展、完善理论。

两者之间的相互作用，推动了社会科学的发展。

在进行研究时，理论和实证之间的关系是紧密联系的。

首先，研究者需基于已有的理论构建自己的研究框架和假设。

其次，通过收集和分析数据，进行实证研究来验证或反驳理论的假设。

hypothesis的词根

hypothesis的词根（原创实用版）目录1.概述：本文将探讨 hypothesis 这个词的词根及其含义。

2.hypothesis 的词根：hypo-和-thesis。

3.hypo-的含义：表示“在…之下”，“次要的”。

4.-thesis 的含义：表示“观点”，“命题”。

5.hypothesis 的含义：次要的观点，假设。

6.hypothesis 在科学研究中的应用。

7.结论：hypothesis 作为科学研究的基础，其词根含义揭示了其在学术领域的重要性。

正文在英语中，hypothesis 是一个常用的词汇，特别是在科学研究和学术领域。

然而，对于这个词的词根，我们却并不熟悉。

本文将从词根的角度，解读 hypothesis 这个词的含义及其在科学研究中的应用。

首先，我们来看 hypothesis 的词根。

它由两部分组成：hypo-和-thesis。

其中，hypo-是一个表示“在…之下”的前缀，也可以表示“次要的”。

而-thesis 则是一个表示“观点”或“命题”的后缀。

因此，hypothesis 的词根含义就是“次要的观点”或“假设”。

那么，hypothesis 在具体语境中的含义又是什么呢？在科学研究中，hypothesis 通常指的是一种假设，也就是在研究开始之前，研究者对研究对象可能存在的关系或规律的猜测。

这种假设需要通过实验或观察来验证，从而确定其是否成立。

因此，hypothesis 在科学研究中的作用非常重要，它是研究的基础和出发点。

总的来说，hypothesis 作为一个科学研究中的基础词汇，其词根的含义揭示了其在学术领域的重要性。

Culture and Identity notes

Forms and Components

Forms

Individual Relational Communal
Components
Affective Cognitive Behavioral

How might you study identities?
Think of how these are displayed in BILB
10/16/2013
Identity Culture and Identity

Begins with your family where you learn culturally appropriate beliefs, values, and social roles. Strongly associated with group membership. Influenced by media. Enacted and reinforced through cultural rituals. Through interaction with others you create, display, and recreate your identity.
Minority Members
Majority Members

Unexamined identity Conformity

Resistance and separation Integration

Buy into your minority status and try to fit in
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The Blind Men and the Elephant
• Different parts of the same elephant • The elephant, provides rules for tracing by elephantkinship.
Different sortals, different rules
We identify here-now objects by ostension
• But ostensive reference by itself is ambiguous: that what? • That brick? That wall? That building of which the wall is a part?
Temporal River-Kinship
River-stage at t3
River-stage at t2
time
River-stage at t1
space
We can also think of the Caÿ ster, and its spatial parts, as having temporal parts or stages
– Endurantism: things are 3-dimensional and endure through change
– Perdurantism: things are 4-dimensional and have temporal parts. Change is a matter of having temporal parts that are different in character. • The Problem of Universals: should we commitment to abstracta? – Platonism: general terms designate abstract objects – Conceptualism: general terms designate ideas – Nominalism: general terms are, in effect, instructions for grouping within a given conceptual scheme
River-Kinship and Water-Kinship overlap
100 cubic feet of the Caÿ ster from t1 to t2
Tracing by waterkinship this is connected to your toilet
Tracing by riverkinship this is connected to the Agean
Sortals & Identity Criteria
• To disambiguate reference we introduce sortals: count nouns that convey criteria of identity.
• Count nouns vs. mass terms
Republican
Democrat Green
Same family, different political parties
Objects can be gappy
• Families and flocks of sheep are gappy • So are ordinary objects at the micro level--like Eddington’s table that’s mostly empty space
Another gappy object
Objects can overlap
• 2 families
• 3 political parties
Spatial River-Kinship
• These places are spatially river-kin • We say they’re spatial parts of the same river
What Quine is going to do
• Consider the problem of ―identity through time‖: the River Caÿster example
•
Note that we can, if we choose, consider some general terms, e.g. ―red‖ as designating concrete universals analogous to ordinary extended particulars
We can trace water-wise or river-wise
Stepping twice in the same what?
• Stepping in the same place at different times we step twice in the same river – but not the same water. • Stepping in the same place at different times we step twice in the different water – but the same river • But we can step twice in the same water and the same river if…
But that appeal to concrete universals is not a general solution: it fails for general terms designating shapes So we either commit to abstract universals named by abstract singular terms, e.g. ―redness‖ or tell another story about how general terms can be learnt and understood without commitment to abstracta We can tell another story—suggested by reflecting on how singular terms for extended physical objects like the Caÿ ster are introduced And should because for pragmatic purposes we don’t need these abstracta and should avoid them.
– Intuitively, thing-words vs. stuff words – Syntactically, sortals take plural and it makes sense to precede them with a number (e.g. ―one potato, two potatoes…‖) • Sortals introduce the language of identity • Identity criteria for spatio-temporal objects tell us how to ―trace‖ object through space and time: different for different sortals.
I. The River Caÿster & The Problem of Change
You can’t step twice in the same river… Or can you???
Reference to Particulars
―I contributed that to my old school!‖
• Trading same river and same water yield different results—just as tracing by family and tracing by political party do.
Water-Kinship
Tracing the same water yields a different result from tracing by river
…we run downstream!
“Hypostasizing” objects
• Sortals convey identity criteria—rules for various ways of grouping
• We learn to group objects indicated by ostension according to various spatial and temporal unity relations (―kinship‖ relations) conveyed by various sortals. – x and y bear the spatial unity relation for a sortal term, F, if x and y are spatial parts of the same F
Identity, Ostension and Hypostasis
W. v. O. Quine
Two Philosophical Problems
• The Problem of Identity-Through-Time: Endurantism (3d-ism) or Perdurantism (4d-ism)
•
•
•
•
Quine’s Pragmatism

Identity, Ostension and Hypostasis

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hypothesis词根词缀

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hypothesis词根词缀

hypothesis词根词缀

hypothesis和实证的内容

hypothesis的词根

Culture and Identity notes

修辞学Burke同的一论戏剧五位一体论