a history of genetics-A
遗传学Genetics
现代定义：
（1）在生物的群体、个体、细胞和基因等层次上研究生命信息 （基因）的结构、组成、功能、变异、传递（复制）和表达规 律与调控机制的一门科学－－基因学。 （2）研究基因和基因组的结构与功能的学科。
Charles Darwin与进化论：
Charles Darwin （1809-1882） 1859年出版The Origin of Species 认为现存的物种是由古老的物种 渐变（modification ）来的。 生存斗争与自然选择的进化理论。 用以解释他的进化原因的理论 支柱是natural selection
可观察到或检测到的生物的形态结构、生理或行为特征。
什么是生命的本质特征？繁殖与自身相似的同类（无 性生殖、有性生殖）
（自我繁殖＝传递性状：种群的、群体的、家族的、个体的）
遗传与变异是生命自我繁殖过程中产生的两个现象。
What is Genetics/Genics
heredity, inheritance 遗传
Mendel以前的遗传学说
泛生论 （theory of pangenesis）：
公元前5世纪希波克拉底Hippocrates提出。
希波克拉底学派认为子代之所以具有亲代的特性，是因 为在精液或胚胎里集中了来自身体各部分的微小代表元 素（active humors, element ）。相信后天获得 （acquired）的性状是能遗传（inherit）的。
遗传使物种得以延续，使物种相对稳定； 变异使物种得以发展和进化，使世界丰富多彩，充满活力与希望。 变异是物种进化、新物种形成的基础和资本。
英汉句子对比
• That region was the most identifiable trouble spot.
• 2．The station chief would have to be close to the director, a member of the inner circle.
A. 英语简单句可转换成汉语复合句
B. 英语并列句、复合句可转换成汉语简单句
A. 英语简单句可转换成汉语复合句
例1：His superior grades at high school enabled him to enroll at the tuition-free Beijing University.
B. 英语并列句、复合句可转换成汉语简单句 例1：He doesn’t know what life means to him.
【译文】他不知道人生的意义。
例2：What troubles me is that I don’t have much experience in this kind of work.
按照逻辑顺序译译文如果一位读者读过18世纪作家的作品体会到其刻意追求典雅的语言风格又读过维多利亚女王时代的人在演讲大厅上所作的庄严的发言他定能更深刻地理解很多现代散文作品那种结构松散口语色彩浓好用俚语不拘形式的语言风格
• 句法的理解与翻译
• Syntactic understanding and translation
【译文】遗传和行为的继承一直是支配环境的惟一方 式， 当这种继承第一次被有意识的选择打破时， 人类历史便开始了。
遗传学英语文献
遗传学英语文献Genetics has been a field of study that has captivated the minds of scientists and laypeople alike for centuries. The intricacies of the genetic code and its influence on the development and behavior of living organisms have been the subject of extensive research and literature. In the realm of English literature, the topic of genetics has been explored in various forms, from scientific treatises to fictional narratives.One of the seminal works in the field of genetics is Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species," published in 1859. This groundbreaking publication laid the foundation for the theory of evolution through natural selection, which has had a profound impact on our understanding of genetics and the diversity of life on Earth. Darwin's work not only presented his scientific findings but also engaged in a broader philosophical discourse on the implications of his theory, sparking debates and conversations that continue to this day.Another notable contribution to the literature on genetics is the work of Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian friar whose experiments with peaplants in the mid-19th century laid the groundwork for our understanding of heredity. Mendel's laws of inheritance, which describe the patterns of genetic inheritance, have become a cornerstone of modern genetics. While Mendel's work was not widely recognized during his lifetime, it has since been celebrated as a pivotal moment in the history of science.In the realm of fiction, genetics has been a recurring theme, often used as a tool to explore the ethical and social implications of scientific advancements. One such example is Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World," published in 1932, which presents a dystopian future where human beings are genetically engineered and society is strictly controlled. Huxley's novel raises questions about the potential consequences of genetic manipulation and the impact it could have on individual autonomy and societal structures.Similarly, Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein," published in 1818, can be interpreted as an exploration of the ethical boundaries of scientific experimentation, particularly in the realm of creating life. The story of Victor Frankenstein's creation of a sentient being, and the subsequent consequences of his actions, has become a classic in the science fiction genre and continues to be analyzed and discussed in the context of genetics and the limits of scientific inquiry.In more recent years, the field of genetics has been further exploredin popular fiction, such as Michael Crichton's "Jurassic Park," which explores the potential of genetic engineering to resurrect extinct species. This novel, and the subsequent film adaptations, have captured the public's imagination and sparked discussions about the ethical and practical implications of such advancements.Beyond fiction, the field of genetics has also been the subject of various scientific texts and scholarly works, which have helped to advance our understanding of the genetic mechanisms that govern the development and function of living organisms. These works range from textbooks and research papers to more accessible popular science books, which aim to bridge the gap between the scientific community and the general public.One such example is James Watson and Francis Crick's "The Double Helix," a firsthand account of their groundbreaking discovery of the structure of DNA, which revolutionized our understanding of the genetic code. This book not only presents the scientific findings but also provides insights into the personalities and dynamics of the scientists involved in the research, offering a glimpse into the human side of scientific discovery.Another notable work in the field of genetics literature is "The Selfish Gene" by Richard Dawkins, published in 1976. This book presents a gene-centric view of evolution, which has had a significant impact onour understanding of the mechanisms of natural selection and the role of genetics in shaping the natural world. Dawkins' engaging writing style and thought-provoking ideas have made this book a classic in the field of evolutionary biology and genetics.In conclusion, the field of genetics has been the subject of a rich and diverse body of English literature, spanning from scientific treatisesto imaginative works of fiction. These literary contributions have not only advanced our understanding of the genetic mechanisms that govern living organisms but have also explored the ethical, social, and philosophical implications of our growing knowledge in this field. As the field of genetics continues to evolve, it is likely that we will see new and innovative perspectives emerge in the literature, further enriching our understanding of this captivating and ever-expanding area of study.。
介绍遗传学的英语作文
介绍遗传学的英语作文Genetics is a branch of biology that studies how genes are inherited and how they influence the traits of living organisms. The study of genetics has come a long way since the discovery of DNA in 1953 by Watson and Crick. Today, genetics plays a crucial role in many fields, including medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.The basic unit of genetics is the gene, which is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait. Genes are located on chromosomes, which are long strands of DNA that are found in the nucleus of every cell in the body. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.One of the fundamental principles of genetics is thelaw of segregation. This law states that during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells), the two alleles (versions of a gene) for a trait separate from each otherso that each gamete receives only one allele. This meansthat when a sperm and an egg unite during fertilization,the resulting offspring inherits one allele from each parent.Another important principle of genetics is the law of independent assortment. This law states that theinheritance of one trait is not influenced by theinheritance of another trait. For example, the gene for eye color is inherited independently of the gene for hair color.Genetic disorders are caused by mutations in genes. Some genetic disorders are inherited in a dominant manner, meaning that a person only needs to inherit one copy of the mutated gene to develop the disorder. Other geneticdisorders are inherited in a recessive manner, meaning that a person needs to inherit two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to develop the disorder.Genetic testing is a tool that can be used to identify genetic disorders or to determine a person's risk of developing a genetic disorder. Genetic testing can be done before or during pregnancy to identify genetic disorders in the fetus. It can also be done to determine a person's riskof developing certain diseases, such as breast cancer or Alzheimer's disease.In conclusion, genetics is a fascinating field of study that has revolutionized our understanding of how living organisms inherit and express their traits. The study of genetics has many practical applications, from diagnosing and treating genetic disorders to improving crop yields and developing new medicines. As our understanding of genetics continues to grow, we can expect to see even more exciting developments in the years to come.。
Genetics一课词根及翻译句子
1. monogenic：单基因的mono-: one,single 一，单一genic: of gene 基因的，产生2.chromosomal:染色体的chrom/o-:color,pigment 色，色素3. phenylketonuria：苯丙酮尿症phen-：苯；-yl:丙；ket/o-:keton 酮urin/o-: 尿4. neurofibromatosis: 神经纤维瘤病neur/o-:nerve 神经fibr/o: fibre 纤维oma：瘤-sis:process, action,diseased state,过程，行为病症5.interplay: 相互作用inter-:between, among , mutual在…之间；互相；为…平分6. multifactorial: 复杂多因素的multi-:many 多；多个7. cystic:囊状的cyst/i-: sac,bladder 囊8. aortic:主动脉aort/o-: 主动脉9. polycystic: 多囊的poly-:多，聚，许多，表示10. renal: 肾的ren/o-: kidney 肾，肾的11.pneum/o-: air, gas, lung 气，肺，呼吸12.gliomas: 胶质瘤gli/o-: glue 胶，胶质13.meningiomas: 脑（脊）膜瘤mening/o-: membrane 脑脊膜-oma : tumor 肿块，瘤14.cerebellum: 小脑cerebella-:小脑；小脑…的15.pheochromocytoma: 嗜铬细胞瘤phil-: love 嗜16.thyroid: 甲状腺thyr/o-:甲状，甲状腺17.parathyroid: 甲状旁腺para-: 旁；周；副18.endocrine 内分泌，内分泌的endo-: within, inside 内19.hemoglobinopathy:血红蛋白病hemo-: blood血液20.galactosemia:半乳糖血症galact/o-: milk,milking fluid 乳，乳汁-ia: diseased state 畸形，病态21.amemia: 贫血-emia:condition of having…blood 血症，血病22.cardiomyopathy: 心肌病cardio-:heart 心脏的my/o-:muscle 肌肉；…的肌23.thrombophilia: 血栓病thromb/o-:血栓，血凝phil-: love,friendly嗜，友好-ia: 病态，畸形24.ovarian: 卵巢的ovar/i-:卵巢25.adenomatous:腺瘤性瘤aden/o-: gland 腺-oma: 瘤26.polyposis: 息肉瘤polyp: 息肉27.colonic: 结肠的colon: 结肠-ic: pertaining to : …的28..endometrial:子宫内膜的metr/o: uterus : 子宫29.bilateral: 两侧的；双边的bi-: double: 双30.hypercholesterolemia:高胆固醇血症hyper-: over,,above 在上，亢进，高于Chol-: gall 胆-ol: 醇，酚-emia: having blood 血病，血症31.phlebotomy:静脉切开phleb/o:vein 静-tomy:切开31.colonoscopy: 肠镜colon/o-：结肠肠-scopy:viewing, examination 检查术，镜检术32.anticoagulation:抗凝治疗anti-:against抗，反Coagul/o: clotting凝血33.polymorphism:多态性morph/o-: form, shape 形式，形态34.genome: 基因组，染色体组geno-: 基因的35.thiopurine:别嘌呤-in/e:中性化合物，碳的基本化合物36.acetyltransferase: 转乙酰酶acetyl: 乙酰-ase: enzyme 酶1．Genetically determined host factors are known to modify susceptibility to infection or other environmental agents. Even individuals who are victims of trauma may find themselves at risk in part because of genetic traits that affect behavior or ability to perceive or escape from danger.人们已知由遗传决定的宿主因素，能影响对感染和其他外界因素的易感性。
遗传学的英语
遗传学的英语Genetics, a branch of biology dealing with the study of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms, is a fascinating and rapidly advancing field. At its core, genetics explores the fundamental laws of inheritance that govern the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next. This information, encoded within the DNA of each cell, determines the characteristics and traits of an organism, including its physical appearance, behavior, and even its susceptibility to certain diseases. The field of genetics has made remarkable progress in recent years, thanks to advancements in technology and the availability of vast amounts of genetic data. One of the most significant milestones in genetics was the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. This revelation opened the door to a new understanding of how genetic information is stored, replicated, and transmitted.Since then, genetics has made leaps and bounds in various areas, including human genetics, agricultural genetics, and ecological genetics. Human genetics, forinstance, has provided insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and conditions, leading to the development of new diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches. Agricultural genetics has enabled the creation of crop varieties that are more resistant to diseases and pests, and that produce higher yields. Ecological genetics, on the other hand, studies the genetic variation within and among species in natural populations, providing valuable insights into the evolution and adaptation of organisms to their environment.The impact of genetics on society is profound. It has revolutionized our understanding of human health and disease, leading to the development of personalized medicine and precision health care. Genetic testing and screening have become increasingly common, allowing individuals to learn about their genetic risks for certain diseases and to make informed decisions about their health. However, the rapid pace of genetic research and technology also raises ethical and social concerns. Issues such as genetic privacy, the potential misuse of genetic information, and the ethical implications of geneticengineering and gene editing require careful consideration and debate.In conclusion, genetics is a crucial field that holdsthe key to understanding the fundamental processes of life. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the genome and apply genetic knowledge to improve human health and address global challenges, it is essential that we also address the ethical and social implications of these advancements. By doing so, we can ensure that the benefits of genetics are realized in a way that is beneficial and responsible for all.**遗传学：遗传的科学**遗传学是生物学的一个分支，研究基因、遗传和生物体变异的科学，这是一个引人入胜且迅速发展的领域。
保护生物学一新分支学科_保护遗传学_李明
保护生物学一新分支学科———保护遗传学李 明1,魏辅文1＊＊,谢 菁2,方盛国3,张志和4,冯祚建1(1.中国科学院动物研究所,北京100080 2?.苏州城市建设环境保护学院 3.浙江大学生命科学学院4.成都大熊猫繁育研究基地) 摘要:研究人类对生物多样性的影响以及防止物种灭绝是保护生物学的两个主要目的。
随着环境日益恶化、分子遗传学的迅速发展以及保护生物学和分子遗传学的不断相互渗透,孕育和产生了一全新的分支学科———保护遗传学。
保护遗传学是保护生物学研究中的一个核心部分,主要研究濒危物种的遗传多样性和保持物种的进化潜力。
目前保护遗传学已成为国际上的一个研究热点,但在我国才刚刚起步。
为此,本文就保护遗传学的产生和发展及其研究内容和意义作一简要介绍,以推动我国在该方面的研究。
关键词:保护生物学;保护遗传学;分子标记中图分类号:Q16,Q953 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1000-7083(2001)01-0016-04 野生动物是自然界赋予人类的宝贵遗产,是人类赖以生存的自然环境的重要组成部分。
由于人类经济活动的不断加剧,特别是现代工农业生产的飞速发展,盲目利用自然资源,大面积砍伐森林和延伸农业耕地等社会行为,己严重地毁坏了自然资源和生态系统的平衡,并由此引发的一系列恶果,如土地荒漠化和沙化、全球气候反常、环境污染、水土流失和生物多样性严重丧失等,不仅使人类社会陷于粮食短缺、资源匮乏和持续发展受阻的四面楚歌之中,也使许多野生动物因受到不同程度的胁迫而仅残存于片段化的生境中。
由于种群隔离、基因交流中断以及严重的近亲繁殖,许多物种已处于严重濒危的境地。
因此,最大限度地保护自然环境,保护野生动物,是我们人类迫在眉睫的共同任务。
1 保护遗传学的产生和发展以上种种原因促使了一门新兴学科———保护生物学(Conservation Biology)的产生和发展。
保护生物学有两个目的:一是研究人类对生物多样性的影响;二是研究防止物种灭绝的有效途径[1～3]。
遗传学英文教科书an introduction to genetic analysis第一章
Chapter 1Genetics and the Organism遗传学与生物Key Concepts关键概念The hereditary material is DNA.遗传物质是DNA。
DNA is a double helix composed of two intertwined nucleotide chains oriented in opposite directions.DNA由两条相互缠绕的互补链反向平行螺旋组成In the copying of DNA, the chains separate and serve as molds for making two identical daughter DNA molecules.在复制的DNA中，链解开并作为完全相同的子链的模板。
The functional units of DNA are genes.基因是DNA上的一个功能单位。
A gene is a segment of DNA that can be copied to make RNA.一个基因就是一个能够转录出RNA的DNA片段。
The nucleotide sequence in RNA is translated into the amino acid sequence of a protein.一条RNA中的核苷酸序列可以被翻译为蛋白质中的一条氨基酸序列。
Proteins are the main determinants of the basic structural and physiological properties of an organism.蛋白质是生物体基本结构构成与生理过程中的主要决定性物质。
The characteristics of a species are encoded by its genes.基因来编码相应物种的特有性状。
Variation within a species may be from hereditary variation, environmental variation, or both.物种中的变异可能来源于遗传上的变异、环境变异或者这两个因素都有作用。
2022届上海市实验学校高三上学期10月摸底考试英语试题(解析版)
D.The woman was satisfied with the improvement in the garage's service
9.A.The man didn't intend to make the woman unhappy.
C.Ask the woman which floor she's going to. D.Stay in the same lift to go down to his floor.7.
7.A.The size of the electric vehicle market.
B.A new trend in the car making industry.
10.A.The man may need to re-evaluate her priorities.
B.The man should deal with the urgent matters first.
C.The man has failed to take care of the urgent matters.
B.The man thought the woman was being unreasonable.
C.The man believed the woman had misunderstood him.
D.The man wanted to say something upsetting to the woman.
Questions 11through 13are based on the following passage.
The Ethics of Gene Editing
The Ethics of Gene EditingGene editing has been a topic of debate for several years now, with scientists and ethicists divided on the ethical implications of this technology. The ability to manipulate genes and alter the genetic makeup of an organism has the potential to revolutionize medicine, agriculture, and even human evolution. However, it also raises several ethical concerns, including the possibility of creating a new class of genetically modified humans and the potential for unintended consequences.One of the primary ethical concerns surrounding gene editing is the potential for creating a new class of genetically modified humans. This could lead to a society that is divided based on genetic traits, with those who are genetically modified having advantages over those who are not. This could lead to discrimination and the creation of a genetic underclass, which is a violation of basic human rights. Additionally, there is the possibility that these genetic modifications could be passed down to future generations, leading to further genetic inequality.Another ethical concern is the potential for unintended consequences. Gene editing is a complex process that involves manipulating the genetic makeup of an organism. While scientists have made significant progress in this area, there is still much that is unknown about the long-term effects of these modifications. There is the possibility that these modifications could have unintended consequences, such as creating new diseases or causing existing ones to become more virulent.There is also the issue of consent. Gene editing has the potential to create a new class of humans, but it is unclear who would have access to this technology. If only the wealthy or privileged have access to gene editing, it could lead to further inequality and discrimination. Additionally, there is the issue of informed consent. It is unclear how much information individuals would need to make an informed decision about gene editing, and whether they would fully understand the risks and benefits of this technology.On the other hand, gene editing also has the potential to revolutionize medicine and agriculture. In medicine, gene editing could be used to cure genetic diseases, such as sicklecell anemia and cystic fibrosis. It could also be used to develop new treatments for cancer and other diseases. In agriculture, gene editing could be used to develop crops that are resistant to pests and disease, reducing the need for harmful pesticides and herbicides.In addition, gene editing could be used to address issues of social justice and equality. For example, it could be used to eliminate genetic diseases that disproportionately affect certain populations, such as sickle cell anemia in African Americans. It could also be used to address issues of food insecurity by developing crops that are more resilient to climate change and other environmental factors.In conclusion, the ethics of gene editing is a complex issue that requires careful consideration. While there are certainly potential benefits to this technology, there are also significant ethical concerns that must be addressed. The possibility of creating a new class of genetically modified humans, the potential for unintended consequences, and the issue of consent are just a few of the ethical concerns that must be addressed. Ultimately, it is up to society as a whole to decide whether the benefits of gene editing outweigh the ethical concerns.。
a history of genetics-10
C HAPTER 10––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––O ENOTHERA As was pointed out in Chapter 3, there was a growing interest in dis-continuous variations in the 1890’s. In 1901 there appeared the first vol-ume of de Vries’ monumental Die Mutationstheorie, in which he developed the idea that evolution occurs through discrete steps (“salta-tions” or “mutations”) rather than by gradual changes accumulated by selection. This conclusion rested on a vast amount of data concerning many kinds of plants but was based more especially on the work of de Vries on the evening primrose, Oenothera Lamarckiana.The members of this genus are American in origin, but several of them have escaped from cultivation in Europe, and grow in sandy or disturbed soil there, as they do in much of the United States and Canada. De Vries found a patch of Lamarckiana growing in an abandoned field at Hilversum in Holland, and noticed that two variant types were present. He brought all three types into his garden and found that the typical form produced a series of mutant types, generation after generation. Many of these new types bred true, and most of them differed from the parental form in a whole series of relatively slight respects. It is now known that this is because they differ from the parental form in many genes, and that Lamarckiana is a very unusual and special kind of multiple heterozygote. But to de Vries these new forms were essentially new species, and their sudden occurrence meant that selection had little or nothing to do with the origin of new species that differed from their parents in numerous ways. This was the mutation theory in its original form; it is ironic that few of the original mutations observed by de Vries in Oenothera would now be called mutations.It seems likely that the properties of these new types were largely responsible for the emphasis placed by many geneticists on the multi-plicity of phenotypic effects of single gene changes. It became the cus-tom to emphasize the cases where such multiple effects occur—though surely if geneticists had approached their material without preconceived62O ENOTHERA63 ideas, the striking thing would have been the relative scarcity of obvious multiple effects of single-gene substitutions.It soon became evident that the genetic behavior of Oenothera is un-usual. The short-styled type (brevistylis) of Lamarckiana was one of the Mendelian characters listed by de Vries in 1900, but it gradually became a puzzle in itself, since nothing else in the plant behaved in so orthodox a way.The first examples of the new types to be explained were gigas, a tetraploid with 28 chromosomes instead of the usual 14, and lata, a tri-somic with 15 chromosomes (Lutz, 1907, 1909). These led to a whole series of observations and experiments with other organisms, but they left unexplained the majority of the Oenothera mutant types, since these were found to have the 14 chromosomes of typical Lamarckiana.The behavior of these 14-chromosome types when crossed to Lamarckiana, and the results of crosses between various distinct wild forms (biennis, muricata, and so on) were puzzling, sometimes giving “twin” hybrids (that is, two distinct types in F1 from true-breeding par-ents), usually giving different results from reciprocal crosses, and usually producing hybrids that bred true. Bateson, and later Davis, suggested that Lamarckiana is really a hybrid—but this suggestion, while probably cor-rect, did little to explain its anomalous behavior. Meanwhile de Vries published many data that seemed to show regularities but resisted all at-tempts at a systematic analysis.The solution of the problems was really begun by Renner in a re-markable series of papers that were long disregarded, even by those of us who were actively trying to relate the published data to a scheme consis-tent with what was known elsewhere. This neglect of Renner’s work was undoubtedly due to his use of a system of terminology which was and is very convenient for Oenothera but makes the papers unintelligible unless the special terminology is first learned. When it is learned, the papers are found to be written in a very clear and logical style.The series of papers began in 1913 with one on fertilization and early embryology; it showed that a suggestion of Goldschmidt’s (merogony) was incorrect. This was followed in 1914 and 1917 by a study of the em-bryos and seeds from Lamarckiana after self-pollination and after cross-ing with other species. These studies showed that Lamarckiana is a permanent heterozygote between two “complexes” called “gaudens” and “velans.” After self-fertilization about half of the seeds contain inviable embryos. Half of these die at an early stage, and the other half at a later one. Renner concluded that these inviable seeds represented the gaudens-64 A H I STO RY O F G EN ETIC Sgaudens, and velans-velans types, respectively, whereas the viable seeds were all gaudens-velans heterozygotes. In agreement with this was the fact that crosses (for example, to muricata) that gave twin hybrids gave fully formed viable embryos in almost all the F1 seeds. Renner here de-veloped the hypothesis of balanced lethals, though he did not use that term. He also suggested, especially in the 1917 paper, that such “mutant”types as nanella and rubrinervis arise from recombination between the two complexes.In biennis, muricata, and suaveolens, the functional pollen is all of one kind, and the eggs are mostly of a different kind, so that crosses with these species yield reciprocal hybrids that are different. Renner studied the pollen in these species and in hybrids from them and showed (1919) that each produces two kinds of pollen in equal numbers, which are dis-tinguishable especially by the shape of the starch grains they carry. Only one of these types is functional, as shown by the shapes of the starch grains in the pollen tubes in the styles, and in the pollen of their hybrids. Here was a direct demonstration of a pollen lethal and also a clear dis-proof of the idea of somatic segregation that Bateson continued to insist on in certain cases in Matthiola and in Pelargonium, where the pollen also fails to transmit some of the genes that may be recovered from eggs of the same individual.The eggs, especially in muricata, only rarely transmit the complex that is transmitted by all the pollen, and Renner’s studies (1921) showed why this occurs. In Hookeri, which is homozygous, or in Lamarckiana, where the eggs are of two kinds in nearly equal numbers, he found that the uppermost (micropylar) megaspore of the four that result from meio-sis is regularly the one that functions to produce the gametophyte. That is, it has an advantage due to its position. But in muricata the upper megaspore functions in only about half of the ovules; in the other half the basal of the four is functional. Evidently the “rigens” complex has an inherent advantage over the “curvans” one that usually enables it to function even when it occupies the less favorable position—although it never functions in the pollen. Here then, by study of the nature of the cells themselves, Renner succeeded in solving the problem of how the Oenothera species maintain their balanced condition—both the “homo-gametic” condition of Lamarckiana (where eggs and sperm both transmit both complexes) and the “heterogametic” one of muricata and similar forms (based on pollen lethals and megaspore competition).These results left unexplained the nature of the “complexes,” which Renner interpreted as groups of linked genes, and he set about analyzingO ENOTHERA65 them in terms of separable components. It was soon apparent that the linkages are not constant. The dominant gene for red midribs on the leaves is completely linked to the complexes in muricata and biennis, but segregates independently of them in Lamarckiana. The various hybrids show one or the other of these kinds of behavior, but almost never an intermediate type with moderate linkage. In some of the hybrids, such as curvans-velans (from muricata by Lamarckiana), there is rather extensive recombination between the complexes, and Renner made use of such hy-brids to dissect the complexes into their component parts. The most ex-tensive account of these studies appeared in 1925. In this paper Renner concluded that if two genes are independent in any combination, they are in different pairs of chromosomes, and if these same two are closely linked in another combination, then in the second case the two pairs of chromosomes are not showing recombination. He suggested that the ex-planation was probably to be sought in the chromosome rings that Cle-land had already described in Oenothera.Cleland reported in 1922 that the 14 chromosomes of Oenothera franciscana do not form 7 bivalents at meiosis, but 5 bivalents and a ring of four. In 1923 he recorded still larger rings, including a ring of 8 and one of 6 in biennis, and a ring of 14 in muricata. He showed that alter-nate chromosomes in these rings pass to the same pole at the first meiotic division and suggested that this behavior might be related to the frequent linkage of characters that occurs in Oenothera.Similar chromosome rings were observed in Datura by Belling, who in 1927 suggested that they were due to the past occurrence of transloca-tions, so that two original nonhomologous chromosomes, with ends that may be represented as a.b and c.d, gave rise to two new chromosomes that between them carried the same genes but had the arrangement a.d b.c (or a.c b.d). He specifically suggested that the repeated occurrence of such translocations might give rise to the large rings of Oenothera. This suggestion was then followed up by Cleland and Blakeslee (1930) and by S. Emerson and Sturtevant (1931), who showed that it could be utilized to give a self-consistent scheme for the numerous configurations known, and that this scheme was also consistent with the variable linkage re-ported by Renner. With this result, the peculiar genetic behavior of Oenothera was at last brought into line with the general Mendelian scheme.More recently these principles have been used by Cleland to build up a very extensive series of analyses of the chromosome makeup of a large number of strains collected over most of the United States, and by Ren-ner and others to locate particular genes in particular chromosomes. The66 A H I STO RY O F G EN ETIC Sdiscovery of a “V-type” position effect in Oenothera by Catcheside will be referred to later (Chapter 14); the most recent advance in the unravel-ling of the genetic complications of the group is the discovery by Steiner (1956) that the egg complexes of many wild forms of the eastern United States carry self-sterility alleles of the oppositional type already known in the remotely related O. organensis (S. Emerson, 1938).。
基因科普英文作文
基因科普英文作文英文：Genetics is a fascinating subject that has been studied for centuries. It is the study of genes and how they are passed down from generation to generation. Genes are the basic unit of heredity and they determine many of ourtraits, such as eye color, hair color, and height. Theyalso play a role in determining our susceptibility tocertain diseases.One of the most interesting things about genetics isthat it can help us understand why some people are more prone to certain diseases than others. For example, if a person has a certain gene that makes them more susceptibleto breast cancer, they may need to be more vigilant about getting regular check-ups and screenings. On the other hand, if a person has a gene that makes them less likely to develop a certain disease, they may be able to take certain preventative measures to reduce their risk even further.Another interesting aspect of genetics is that it can help us understand our ancestry. By analyzing our DNA, scientists can determine where our ancestors came from and how they migrated across the globe. This can be especially fascinating for people who are interested in genealogy and tracing their family history.Overall, genetics is a complex and fascinating subject that has the potential to revolutionize the way we think about health and ancestry.中文：基因学是一个引人入胜的学科，已经研究了几个世纪。
英汉句法结构对比
英汉句法结构对比吕叔湘先生曾说过，“要认识汉语的特点，就要跟非汉语比较，要认识现代汉语的特点，就要跟古代汉语比较；要认识普通话特点，就要跟方言比较。
无论语音、语汇、语法，都可以通过对比来研究”。
下面从翻译的角度出发，通过例子对英语和汉语进行比较、分析，以期准确地把握英语的语言特点及精神风貌，尽量把这种“特点”和“风貌”真实地反映到汉语译文中。
一、英汉句法结构的互换A.英语简单句可转换成汉语复合句例1：This attitude has been described as anything from a “merciful loss of memory” to “escapist therapy”.【译文】人们对这种态度议论纷纷，有的说是“好心的遗忘”，有的说是“逃避现实的疗法”。
【分析】英语简单句→汉语联合复句.例2：His superior grades at high school enabled him to enroll at the tuition-free Beijing University.【译文】由于中学成绩优异，他免费上了北京大学。
【分析】英语简单句→汉语偏正复句的因果句.例3：His weariness and the increasing heat determined him to sit down in the first convenient shade.【译文】她很疲惫，也感到越来越热，于是决定一遇到有阴凉的地方就坐下来休息。
【分析】英语简单句→汉语偏正复句的因果句.B.英语并列句、复合句可转换成汉语简单句例1：He doesn’t know what life means to him.【译文】他不知道人生的意义。
【分析】英语主从复合句→汉语简单句.例2：What troubles me is that I don’t have much experience in this kind of work.【译文】使我苦恼的是我做这种工作经验不多。
genetic词根词缀
genetic 词根词缀探究genetic 是一个常见的英语单词，它的意思是“遗传的，基因的，起源的”。
它是由词根 gen- 和词缀 -etic 组成的。
词根 gen- 表示“产生，出生；出身，天性，血统，种族，种类”。
本文将介绍 genetic 的一些常见单词和派生词。
与 genetic 相关的一些常见单词和派生词单词释义例句gene n. 基因，遗传因子The gene for blue eyes is recessive. 蓝眼睛的基因是隐性的。
genetics n. 遗传学Genetics is the study of how traits are inherited. 遗传学是研究性状如何遗传的。
genetical adj. 遗传学的He is a genetical engineer. 他是一名遗传工程师。
geneticallyadv. 遗传地；基因地They are genetically identical twins. 他们是基因相同的双胞胎。
geneticist n. 遗传学家He is a famous geneticist who discovered a new gene. 他是一位著名的遗传学家，发现了一种新基因。
genetic engineering n. 遗传工程Genetic engineering can create new varieties of plants and animals. 遗传工程可以创造新品种的植物和动物。
genetic code n. 遗传密码The genetic code is the set of rules that determines how DNA is translated into proteins. 遗传密码是决定 DNA 如何转化为蛋白质的一套规则。
genetic disorder n. 遗传性疾病Hemophilia is a genetic disorder that affects blood clotting. 血友病是一种影响血液凝固的遗传性疾病。
智慧树知到《英语词源探秘》章节测试答案
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英语科普书籍推荐作文
英语科普书籍推荐作文Certainly! Here are some recommendations for English popular science books:1. "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind" by Yuval Noah Harari: This book takes readers on a journey through the history of Homo sapiens, exploring our evolution, the development of societies, and the impact of various revolutions such as the cognitive, agricultural, and scientific revolutions. Harari offers thought-provoking insights into the nature of humanity and our place in the world.2. "The Gene: An Intimate History" by Siddhartha Mukherjee: In this book, Mukherjee delves into the history and science of genetics, tracing the discovery of the gene from ancient times to the present day. He explores the implications of genetic research for medicine, ethics, and society, offering a comprehensive and engaging look at one of the most important areas of modern science.3. "Astrophysics for People in a Hurry" by Neil deGrasse Tyson: Tyson, a renowned astrophysicist and science communicator, presents a concise and accessible overview of the universe, covering topics such as the Big Bang, black holes, dark matter, and the search for extraterrestrial life. This book is perfect for readers who are curious about the cosmos but short on time.4. "The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks" by Rebecca Skloot: This book tells the true story of Henrietta Lacks, a woman whose cancer cells were taken without her consentin the 1950s and became the source of the first immortal human cell line. Skloot explores the ethical issues raised by this case and the profound impact of Henrietta's cells on medical research and treatment.5. "The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer" by Siddhartha Mukherjee: In this Pulitzer Prize-winning book, Mukherjee provides a comprehensive history of cancer, from its earliest descriptions in ancient texts to the latest breakthroughs in treatment. He combines scientificrigor with storytelling prowess to create a compelling narrative that sheds light on one of the most formidable diseases facing humanity.These books offer fascinating insights into a wide range of scientific topics, from human evolution to genetics to astrophysics to medical research. Whetheryou're a seasoned science enthusiast or just beginning to explore the wonders of the natural world, there's something for everyone in these thought-provoking and illuminating reads.。
What is Genetics 什么是遗传学 英语文章
What is Genetics?Genetics is the study of heredity. Heredity is a biological process whereby a parent passes certain genes onto their children or offspring.Every child inherits genes from both of their biological parents and these genes, in turn, express specific traits. Some of these traits may be physical for example hair and eye color etc.On the other hand, some genes may also carry the risk of certain diseases and disorders that may be passed on from parents to their offspring.Genes in the cellThe genetic information lies within the cell nucleus of each living cell in the body. The information can be considered to be retained in a book for example. Part of this book with the genetic information comes from the father while the other part comes from the mother.ChromosomesThe genes lie within the chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of these small thread-like structures in the nucleus of their cells. 23 or half of the total 46 comes from the mother while the other 23 comes from the father.The chromosomes contain genes just like pages of a book. Some chromosomes may carry thousands of important genes while some may carry only a few.The chromosomes, and therefore the genes, are made up of the chemical substance called DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid). The chromosomes are very long thin strands of DNA, coiled up tightly.At one point along their length, each chromosome has a constriction, called the centromere. The centromere divides the chromosomes into two ‘arms’: a long arm and a short arm.Chromosomes are numbered from 1 to 22 and these are common for both sexes and called autosomes. There arealso two chromosomes that have been given the letters X and Y and termed sex chromosomes. The X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome.Chemical basesThe genes are further made up of unique codes of chemical bases comprising of A, T, C and G (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine). These chemical bases make up combinations with permutations and combinations. These are akin to the words on a page.These chemical bases are part of the DNA. The words when strung together act as the blueprints that tell the cells of the body when and how to grow, mature and perform various functions. With age, the genes may be affected and may develop faults and damages due to environmental and endogenous toxins.Males and femalesWomen have 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes plus two copies of the X chromosome) in their body cells. They have half of this or 22 autosomes plus an X chromosomein their egg cells.Men have 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes plus an X and a Y chromosome) in their body cells and have half of these 22 autosomes plus an X or Y chromosome in their sperm cells.When the egg joins with the sperm, the resultant baby has 46 chromosomes (with either an XX in a female baby or XY in a male baby).Genes and geneticsEach gene is a piece of genetic information. All the DNA in the cell makes up for the human genome. There are about 20,000 genes located on one of the 23 chromosome pairs found in the nucleus.To date, about 12,800 genes have been mapped to specific locations (loci) on each of the chromosomes. This database was begun as part of the Human Genome Project. The project was officially completed in April 2003 but the exact number of genes in the humangenome is still unknown.。
基因工程发展过程及流程
假基因又分为两种：
重复的假基因（repeated pseudogene ）：
许多假基因都是同亲本基因（parental gene） 连锁的，而且同其编码区及侧翼序列的DNA具 有很高的同源性。
加工的假基因（processed pseudogene）
这类假基因没有与“亲本基因”连锁，而且其 结构是同转录本而非“亲本基因”类似。 加工的假基因与转录本都没有启动子和内含子， 3’端都有poly（A）尾巴。
SINES ： 长 度 <500bp ， 拷 贝 数 >105. 如 人 Alu 序 列
高度重复序列（几百个拷贝到几百万个拷贝）
卫星DNA(Satellite DNA)
重叠基因（overlapping genes） 或嵌套基因（nested genes）
类型： 一个基因的核苷酸序列完全包含在另一 个核苷酸序列中。由于它们的读码结构 互不相同，因此编码着不同的蛋白质。 2个基因的核苷酸序列之末端密码子相互 重叠。
遗传密码是通用的
一系列的三联密码子（除极少 数外）同氨基酸之间的对应关系， 在所有生物中都是相同的。
基因可以通过复制把遗传信息 传递给下一代
经重组的基因一般来说是能传 代的，可以获得相对稳定的转 基因生物。
基因工程（genetic engineering）
也叫基因操作、遗传工程，或重组体DNA 技术。一般说来所谓的基因工程是指在体外将 核酸分子插入病毒、质粒或其它载体分子，构 成遗传物质的新组合，并使之参入到原先没有 这类分子的寄主细胞中内，而能持续稳定的繁 殖。
基因在哪里？ 基因是什么？
显微镜技术与染色技术的发展，使 人们注意到，细胞分裂时，尤其是减 数分裂中，染色体的行为和孟德尔提 出的等位基因的分离规律相当一致， 所以，确定基因在细胞核中，在染色 体上。
英语谱系作文
英语谱系作文Genealogy。
Genealogy, also known as family history, is the study and tracing of family lineages and history. It is an important way for people to learn about their ancestors, their culture, and their heritage. Genealogy involves researching various types of records, such as birth, marriage, and death certificates, census records, and military records, to establish family relationships and to construct a family tree.The study of genealogy has become increasingly popular in recent years, with the advent of online databases and DNA testing. Many people are interested in learning about their family history, and genealogy can provide a wealth of information about where they come from and who their ancestors were. Genealogy can also help people to connect with living relatives they may not have known about, and to build a sense of community and belonging.One of the main benefits of genealogy is that it can help people to understand their family history and culture. By learning about their ancestors, people can gain a better understanding of their own identity and the traditions and values that have been passed down through their family. Genealogy can also help people to appreciate the struggles and hardships that their ancestors faced, and to recognize the sacrifices that were made to provide a better life for future generations.Genealogy can also be a fun and rewarding hobby. Many people enjoy the challenge of researching their family history and piecing together the puzzle of their ancestry. Genealogy can also provide a sense of accomplishment and pride, as people discover new information about theirfamily and add new branches to their family tree.In addition to being a personal pursuit, genealogy can also have broader social and historical significance. By studying family history, researchers can gain insights into the social, economic, and political forces that shaped thelives of their ancestors. Genealogy can also help to preserve cultural traditions and historical knowledge, and to promote a greater understanding of the diversity and richness of human experience.Overall, genealogy is a fascinating and rewarding pursuit that can provide a wealth of information and insights into family history, culture, and heritage. Whether as a personal hobby or a scholarly pursuit, genealogy offers a valuable way to connect with the past and to understand our place in the world.。
阅读下面短文根据短文内容回答问题The girl is Li
阅读下面短文根据短文内容回答问题The girl is Li阅读下面的短文，然后根据短文回答问题。
The Forbidden City is also called “Zijincheng (purple forbidden city)”. It is the largest and greatest palace in China today. Under Ming Emperor ,people began to build the Forbidden City in 1406,and it took 14 years to finish it.The palace is 960 meters long from north to south and 750 meters wide from east to west. It has 9,900 rooms under a total roof area 150,000 square meters. A 52-meter-wide-moat（护城河） encircles a 9.9 –meter-high wall which encloses the plex(综合设施).The Forbidden City in Beijing was th e emperors’palace during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Though its walls are red and its roofs are yellow, the palace’s name mentions the color purple. How did it get this name? In fact, this has more to do with what thepalace stands for than what it looks like.The character “ zi ” refers to (指代) the Ziwei star. According to ancient Chinese astronomy (天文学), the Ziwei star was surrounded (包围) by 28 other stars, meaning it was the heart of the sky. People believed that the palace of the God Emperor, which is called Ziweigong, or Ziwei palace, was located on this star.Chinese emperors were believed to be the sons of the God Emperor. It was believed that their palace on the earth should be like the Ziweigong in the sky. That’s how the Forbidden City got its name.In Chinese culture, the color purple stands for good luck. This belief began with Laozi, the founder of Taoism (道教) who lived around 2,500 years ago. One day, when Laozi was traveling through the Hangu Pass (函谷关) in Henan from the east, a purple mists uddenly appeared in the air. This “purple air from the east” (紫气东来) story led people to connect the color to great sages (圣人), and it also stands for nobility (高贵).1.When did people finish building The Forbidden City?2.Does the name of “Zijincheng” have more to do with what it looks like?3.How wide is the moat which encircles the high wall?4.Where was the God Emperor’s palace located according to ancient Chinese belief?5.What does the color “purple” stand for in Chinese culture?•阅读下面的短文，根据短文内容，回答1-5小题。
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