Access to Relational Knowledge a Comparison of Two Models

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AEAS词汇及阅读真题解析10-12年级卷二

AEAS词汇及阅读真题解析（10-12年级）卷二卷二VOCABULARY PART 128.A选项的evolve意为“进化”，B选项的resolve意为“决定”，C选项的solve意为“解决”，D选项的involve意为“使加入、牵连”，E选项的shove意为“猛推”。

include，consist of表示“包括”，与D选项意思最接近，所以本题选D。

29.A选项的evolve意为“进化”，B选项的resolve意为“决定”，C选项的solve意为“解决”，D选项的involve意为“使加入、牵连”，E选项的shove意为“猛推”。

decide，be firm表示“决定、坚定的”，对应B选项，所以本题选B。

30.A选项的evolve意为“进化”，B选项的resolve意为“决定”，C选项的solve意为“解决”，D选项的involve意为“使加入、牵连”，E选项的shove意为“猛推”。

change，grow表示“变化、成长”，对应A选项，所以本题选A。

31.A选项的celebration意为“庆祝”，B选项的obligation意为“义务”，C选项的limitation意为“限制、局限”，D选项的explosion意为“爆炸”，E选项的admission意为“准许”。

check、inadequacy表示“检查、缺点”，与C选项意思最接近，所以本题选C。

32.A选项的celebration意为“庆祝”，B选项的obligation意为“义务”，C选项的limitation意为“限制、局限”，D选项的explosion意为“爆炸”，E选项的admission意为“准许”。

detonation，blast表示“爆炸”，对应D 选项，所以本题选D。

33.A选项的celebration意为“庆祝”，B选项的obligation意为“义务、责任”，C选项的limitation意为“限制、局限”，D选项的explosion意为“爆炸”，E选项的admission意为“准许”。

2014年四川大学考博英语真题及问题详解

2014年四川大学考博英语入学考试试题考生请注意：1．本试题共5大题，共12页，请考生注意检查，考试时间为180分钟。

2．1-70题答案请填写在机读卡相应处，否则不给分。

3．翻译和作文请答在答题纸上，答在试题上不给分。

书写要求字迹清楚、工整。

I．Reading Comprehension (30%; one mark each)Directions: Read the following six passages. Answer the questions below each passage by choosing [A], [B], [C], or [D]. Write your answers on the Answer Sheet.Passage OneIn general, our society is becoming one of giant enterprises directed by a bureaucratic management in which man becomes a small, well-oiled cog in the machinery. The oiling is done with higher wages, Nell-ventilated factories and piped music, and by psychologists and “human-relations”experts; yet all this oiling does not alter the fact that man has become powerless, that he is bored with it. In fact, the blue and the white-collar workers have become economic puppets who dance to the tune of automated machines and bureaucratic management.The worker and employee are anxious, not only because they might find themselves out of a job; they are anxious also because they are unable to acquire any real satisfaction of interesting life. They live and die without ever having confronted the fundamental realities of human existence as emotionally and intellectually independent and productive human beings.Those higher up on the social ladder are no less anxious. Their lives are no less empty than those of their subordinates. They are even more insecure in some respects. They are in a highly competitive race. To be promoted or to fall behind is not a matter of salary but even more a matter of self-respect. When they apply for their first job, they are tested for intelligence as well as for the right mixture of submissiveness and independence. From the moment on they are tested again and again-by the psychologists, for whom testing is a big business, and by their superiors, who judge their behavior, sociability, capacity to get along, etc. This constant need to prove that one is as good as or better than one’s fellow-competitor creates constant anxiety and stress, the very causes of unhappiness and illness.Am I suggesting that we should return to the preindustrial mode of production or to nineteenth-century “free enterprise” capitalism? Certainly not. Problems the never solved by returning to a stage which one has already outgrown. I suggest transforming our social system form, a bureaucratically managed industrialism in which maxima, production and consumption are ends in themselves, into a humanist industrialism in which man and full development of his potentialities-those of all love and of reason-are the aims of social arrangements. Production and consumption should serve only as means to this end and should be prevented from ruling man.1. By “a well-oiled cog in the machinery” the author intends to deliver the idea that man is ____.[A] a necessary part of the society though each individual’s function is negligible[B] working in complete harmony with the rest of the society[C] an unimportant part in comparison with the rest of the society[D] a humble component of the society, especially when working smoothly2. The real cause of the anxiety of the workers and employees is that ____.[A] they are likely to lose their jobs[B] they have no genuine satisfaction or interest in life[C] they are faced with the fundamental realities of human existence[D] they are deprived of their individuality and independence3. From the passage we can conclude that real happiness of life belongs to those ____.[A] who are at the bottom of the society[B] who are higher up in their social status[C] who prove better than their fellow-competitors[D] who could dip fir away from this competitive world4. To solve the present social problems the author puts forward a suggestion that we should ____.[A] resort to the production mode of our ancestors[B] offer higher wages to the workers and employees[C] enable man to fully develop his potentialities[D] take the fundamental realities for granted5. The author’s attitude towards industrialism might best be summarized as one of ____.[A] approval [B] dissatisfaction[C] suspicion [D] susceptibilityPassage TwoThe government-run command post in Tunis is staffed around the clock by military personnel, meteorologists and civilians. On the wall are maps, crisscrossed with brightly colors arrows that painstakingly track the fearsome path of the enemy.What kind of invader gives rise to such high-level monitoring? Not man, not beast, but the lowly desert locust（蝗虫）. In recent moths, billions of the 3-inch-long winged warriors have descended on Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia, blackening the sky and eating up crops and vegetation. The insect invasion, the worst in 30 years, is already creating great destruction in the Middle East and is now treating southern Europe. The current crisis began in late 1985 near the Red Sea. Unusually rainy weather moistened the sands of the Sudan, making them ideal breeding grounds for the locust, which lays its eggs in the earth. The insect onslaught threatens to create yet another African famine. Each locust can eat its weight (not quite a tenth of an ounce) in vegetation every 24 hours. A good-size swarm of 50 billion insects eats up 100,000 tons of grass, trees and crops in a single night.All $150 million may be needed this year. The U.S. has provided two spraying planes and about 50,000 gal. of pesticide. The European Community has donated $3.8 million in aid and the Soviet Union, Canada, Japan and China have provided chemical-spraying aircraft to help wipe out the pests. But relief efforts are hampered by the relative mildness of approved pesticides, which quickly lose their deadly punch and require frequent replications. The most effective locust killer Dieldrin has been linked to cancer and is banned by many Western countries and some of the affected African nations. More than 5 million acres have been dusted with locust-killing chemicals; another 5 million will be treated by the end of June.On May 30, representatives of Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Mauritania will meet in Algiers to discuss tactics to wipe out the ravenous swarms. The move is an important step, but whatever plan is devised, the locust plague promised to get worse before the insects can be brought under control.6. The main idea of the first sentence in the passage is that ____.[A] the command post is stationed with people all the time.[B] the command post is crowded with people all the time.[C] there are clocks around the command post.[D] the clock in the command post is taken care of by the staff.7. The favorable breeding ground for the locust is ____.[A] rich soil.[B] wet land[C] spaces covered crops and vegetation[D] the Red Sea8. People are alert at the threat of the locust because ____.[A] the insects are likely to create another African famine.[B] the insects may blacken the sky.[C] the number of the insects increases drastically.[D] the insects are gathering and moving in great speed.9. Which of the following is true?[A] Once the pesticides are used, locust will die immediately.[B] Relief efforts are proved most fruitful due to the effectiveness of certain pesticides.[C] Dieldrin, the most effective locust killer, has been widely accepted in many countries.[D] Over 10 million acres of affected area will have been treated withlocust-killing chemicals by the end of June.10. The purpose for affected nations to meet in Algiers on May 30 is ____.[A] to devise antilocust plans.[B] to wipe out the swarms in two years.[C] to call out for additional financial aid from other nations.[D] to bring the insects under control before the plague gets worse.Passage ThreeThe London 2012 sustainability watchdog embroiled in a row over the sports ship of the Olympic Stadium by Dow Chemical is to push theInternational Olympic Committee to appoint an “ethics champion” forfuture Games.The Commission for a Sustainable London 2012 has been bruised by criticism over Dow’s sponsorship of the wrap that will surround the Olympic stadium, particularly since commissioner Meredith Alexander last month resigned in protest.Campaigners believe that Dow has ongoing liabilities relating to the 1984 Bhopal disaster that resulted in the deaths of an estimated 20,000 people and the serious injury of tens of thousands more. Dow, which bought the owner of the plant in 2001, insists that all liabilities have been settled in full.Commission chairman Shaun McCarthy said that its tight sustainability remit did not extend to acting as moral guardian of the Olympic movement but that it would press for such a role to be created when evaluating sponsors for future Games.In addition to sponsoring the 7m pounds wrap that will surround the Olympic Stadium, Dow has a separate 100m dollars sponsorship deal with the IOC that was signed in 2010.But McCarthy also defended the commission’s role in evaluating the Dow deal, after Amnesty International wrote to London 2012 chairman Lord Coe to raise the issue.“What has been lost in all of this story is that a really excellent, sustainable product has been procured, we looked at Locog’s examination of Dow Chemical’s current corporate responsibility policies and, again, Dow achieved that highest score in that evaluation. We verified that.” said McCarthy.“As far as the history is concerned and issues around Bhopal, there is no doubt Bhopal was a terrible disaster and snore injustice was done to the victims. Who is responsible for that injustice is a matter for the courts and a matter for others. We have a specific remit and terms of reference that we operate under and we have operated diligently under those terms.”The commission will on Thursday release its annual review. It findsthat “good press” has been made to wands many of Locog’s sustainability target, but that “major challenges” remain.In particular, the commission found that there was no coherent strategy to achieve a 20% reduction in carbon emissions after an earlier scheme to use renewable energy feel through when a wind turbine on the site proved impractical.“We had conversations with Locog over a year ago about this and said they had to demonstrate how they were going to achieve at least 20% carbon reductions through energy conservation if they’re not going to do itthrough renewable energy,” said McCarthy. “There are some goodinitiatives, but quite frankly they just haven’t done it.”11. Why was Dow’s sponsorship criticized according to the passage?[A] The products are not sustainable.[B] It was related to Bhopal disaster.[C] It bribed the London Olympic committee.[D] It can’t reduce 20% of the carbon emission.12. What is Paragraph 4 mainly about?[A] Commission’s role[B] Commission’s achievements[C] Commission’s complaints[D] Commission’s defense13. Which of the following words can best replace the underlined word “row”(Para. 1)?[A] line [B] argument[C] boating [D] course14. What is one of the challenges of the sustainability target mentioned in the passage?[A] Ethic champion of the games.[B] Reduction in carbon emissions.[C] The wind turbine proved to be impractical.[D] Renewable energy is not available.15. Which of the following can best summarize the passage?[A] Commission defends its own role in evaluating controversial.[B] Dow’s way to the 2012 London Olympic Games.[C] Campaign against Dow’s sponsorship.[D] IOC’s review on the controversy.Passage FourAs Facebook dominates the news with its initial public offering,activists are seizing the moment to pressure the company to add some estrogen and ethnicity to its white-male board.A women’s rights group called Ultraviolet, which has been running an online petition that claims to have attracted more than 50,000 signatures,is escalating its push, posting a new YouTube video called “Do Women Havea Future at Facebook?”. The video shows photos of successful women such as Hillary Clinton getting their heads cropped off the replaced with thesmiling face of Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg.“Facebook has grown off the backs of women, who make up the majorityof its users and are responsible for the majority of sharing and fanactivity on the site,” the group says in a blurb accompanying the video.An all-male board, the group says, is “not just wrong, it’s bad for business”. A related campaign, called Face It, criticizes the lack ofethnic diversity on the seven-member board. “seven white men: That’s ridiculous,” the group says on its homepage, along side headshots of the men. The campaign, which lists dozens of human-rights groups and corporate executives as supporters, also has its own YouTube video. Called “Face it, Facebook”, the video cites a recent Zuckerberg letter to investors that says:“Facebook was not originally created to be a company. It was built to accomplish a social mission-to make the world more open and connected.”That message is at odds with the pale-faced board, activists say. Susan Stautberg, co-chairwoman of Women Corporate Directors, an organization for female corporate board members, says Zuckerberg’s thinking is flawed. “If you’re trying to expand a company globally, then you want someone on the board who has built a global brand,” she says. “Most of these guys on Facebook’s board all have the same skills-they’re mostly from Silicon Valley and Washington. You want someone who has worked in China and India and rising markets. You want someone who has marketed to women. When you’re putting together a board, you don’t want your best friends, you wantthe best people.”Having zero female directors does not appear to be a good business plan, research shows. Companies with women on the board perform substantially better than companies with all-mall boards, according to a 2011 study of Fortune 500 companies conducted by the research group Catalyst. The study showed that over the course of four to five years, companies with three or more female board members, on average, outperformed companies with nofemale board members by 84 percent when it came to return on sales and by60 percent when it came to return on invested capital.Facebook may secretly be on the lookout for a female board member, according to a recent Bloomberg report. Citing unnamed sources, Bloomberg said Facebook had enlisted the corporate-recruitment firm Spencer Stuart to help seek some diversity. Spencer Stuary says it does not comment onclients due to confidentiality agreements.16. Which of the following descriptions is CORRECT about the Ultraviolet Group?[A] It is a non-government organization.[B] It is appealing for “more female roles in big corporations likeFacebook” through the Internet.[C] It has the support of many female celebrities such as Hillary Clinton.[D] It is getting more and more support from the society.17. Which of the following descriptions is INCORRECT about the campaign “Face It”?[A] It pointed out the irrational composition of Facebook’s board of directors.[B] The campaign has plenty of human-rights supporters.[C] It indicated the original objective of Zuckerberg’s establishment of Facebook.[D] It is constantly using other media devices to support Facebook.18. The underlined phrase “at odds with” in the fourth paragraph has the closest meaning of ____.[A] against all odds [B] supported by[C] disagree with [D] waifs and strays19. According to Susan Stauberg, a well-performed business should _____.[A] have a complex system of management.[B] possess the most market globally.[C] have your best and close friends as your board members.[D] have a diverse board member in which everyone has his/her ownspecialties and can contribute different skills into the corporation.20. What will probably happen to Facebook?[A] The corporation will turn to Spencer Stuart for recruiting morefemale board members.[B] The corporation will dominate the news because its worldwide popularity.[C] The corporation will gradually lose its users because it does nothave female board members.[D] None of the above.Passage FiveFor this generation of young people, the future looks bleak. Only onein six is working full time. Three out of five live with their parents or other relatives. A large majority-73 percent-think they need more education to find a successful career, but only half of those say they willdefinitely enroll in the next few years. No, they are not the idle youth of Greece or Spain or Egypt. They are the youth of America, the world’srichest country, who do not have college degrees and aren’t getting them anytime soon. Whatever the sob stories about recent college graduates spinning their wheels as baristas or clerks, the situation for their less-educated peers is far worse. For this group, finding work that pays aliving wage and offers some sense of security has been elusive.Despite the continuing national conversation about whether college is worth it given the debt burden it entails, most high school graduateswithout college degrees said they believe they would be unable to get good jobs without more education.Getting it is challenging, though, and not only because of formidable debt levels. Ms. McClour and her husband, Andy, have two daughters under 3 and another due next month. She said she tried enrolling in college classes, but the workload became too stressful with such young children. Mr. McClour works at a gas station. He hates his work and wants to study phlebotomy,but the nearest school is an hour and half away.Many of these young people had been expecting to go to college sincethey started high school, perhaps anticipating that employers would demand skills high schools do not teach. Just one in ten high school graduates without college degrees said they were “extremely well prepared by their high school to succeed in their job after graduation.” These young people worried about getting left behind and were pessimistic about reaching someof the milestones that make up the American dream. More than half-56percent-of high school graduates without college diplomas said that their generation would have less financial success than their parents. About the same share believed they would find work that offered health insurancewithin that time frame. Slightly less than half of respondents said thenext few years would bring work with good job security or a job with earnings that were high “enough to lead a comfortable life”. They were similarly pessimistic about being able to start a family or buy a home.The online survey was conducted between March 21 and April 2, and covered a nationally representative survey of 544 high school graduatesfrom the classes of 2006-11 who did not have bachelor’s degrees. Themargin of sampling error was plus or minus 5 percentage points.21. What does the underlined phrase “spinning their wheels” mean in Paragraph 1?[A] fastening the pace [B] confusing the situation[C] asking for help [D] scooting out22. What will the high school graduates probably do according to the article?[A] Find jobs right after graduation.[B] Receive further study in college.[C] Go to join the national conversation.[D] Pay for the debt.23. What does the story of “Andy and Ms. McClour” try to inform us?[A] They both prefer making money to education.[B] Colleges do not accept students who are married and have children.[C] Although people are eager to join in the college, life burden may block in the way.[D] None of the above.24. What is the financial outlook for this generation compared with their parents?[A] They have a prosperous outlook compared with the last generation.[B] Their financial situation is not as successful as their parents.[C] It depends on how hard they work and their educational background.[D] Not mentioned in the article.25. What can we infer from the last sentence?[A] The online survey is done nationally.[B] The result of the survey is completely trustworthy.[C] There is more or less inaccuracy of the survey.[D] The survey will have a continuous part coming soon.Passage SixSome 60 years ago, George Orwell wrote an allegorical novel, called Nineteen Eighty-Four, to describe life in a futuristic Britain under a oneparty police-sate presided over by an all-powerful figure known as Big Brother. One of the fealures of the nasty world described by Orwell was its systematic misuse of language, which went by the name of “Newspeak”. Byre-defining words and endlessly repeating them, the Ministry of Truth through the Thought Police was able to control what people thought, and through that, their actions. Language was instrumental in destroying the culture.The same technique is being used by different people today, withsimilar effects. In all areas of public administration, the words “spouse”, “husband” and “wife” have been replace by the word “partner”, although the words are subtly but substantially different in meaning, and convey different realities. In some schools and university departments, feminist ideologues have dictated that the personal pronoun “he” must not be used, and is replaced by the word “they”, which means something different. The word “homophobic”, which just a few years agowas used to describe a person who supported vigilante action against homosexuals, is now being used to describe anyone who defends the universal definition of marriage.Although the transformation of language is seen most obviously around social issues, it is also being used systematically to shape political debate. So, we are told that the federal government is introducing a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which is newspeak for its new carbon tax. The fact is that the new tax is not remotely concerned with “carbon pollution”at all, but rather with emissions of the gas CO2 which is not a pollutantby any credible definition, but rather, an essential building block inevery cell in every living plant and creature. By the government’s own admission, it will not lead to any reduction in CO2 levels, either in Australia or globally. And the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme is being introduced in Australia at the same time the government is expandingexports of coal, which is virtually 100 percent carbon, to countries suchas China.We live in a society in which the ordinary meaning of words is being systematically manipulated by spin-doctors and ideologues, as a means of changing the way people think, and, more fundamentally, the way they act. Language is an important part of the culture wars. For those of us who see this as a challenge to the foundations of society, it is important that we identify the problem and expose it.It is clearly preferable to avoid using the new debased, transformed language of the politically-correct left, although this can be difficult in situations where constant usage has already normalized it, as has happened with the term “same-sex marriage”. The alternative phrase, “same-sex unions”, has a different meaning. When such terms are used, they should be identified for what they are: a form of linguistic dishonesty, designed to undermine existing institutions and transform them.26. Which of the following descriptions is INCORRECT about George Orwell’s allegorical novel Nineteen Eighty-Four?[A] It describes a story that happens in the future.[B] One of the features in the novel is the misuse of language.[C] It is the most famous detective novel in the world.[D] It was written in the 20th century.27. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an example of misuse of language?[A] Feminists insist “he” be replaced by “they”.[B] “Partner” has taken the place of “husband” and “wife”.[C] “Homophobic” is now being employed to refer to defend conventionalunderstanding of marriage.[D] The meaning of “literacy” is no longer restricted to the ability to read and write.28. The example of carbon pollution is used to illustrate _______.[A] transformation of language is usually seen in social issues.[B] transformation of language is also tracked in political debate.[C] transformation of language is generated in the age of information.[D] transformation of language is legitimate to a certain extent.29. The underlined word “credible” in Para. 3 means ______.[A] reliable [B] correct[C] beneficial [D] provable30. According to the passage, transformed language serves to _______.[A] make people sound fashionable[B] change the way people think and act[C] eliminate discrimination against minorities[D] None of the aboveII. Vocabulary (10%; 0.5 mark each)31. The town was flooded when the river burst its banks. To make it worse,the storm _____ outside.[A] raided [B]ragged [C] raged [D]reaped32. My new laptop can _____ information much more quickly than my old computer.[A] proceed [B] precede [C] produce [D] process33. The country’s failure to abide by the Kyoto Protocol was _____ in all newspapers.[A] announced [B] denounced [C] renounced [D] trounced34. The company has _____ over three decades into a multi-million dollar organization.[A] evolved [B] revolved [C] involved [D] devolved35. We would like to _____ our customers of the best possible service.[A] assure [B] ensure [C] insure [D] ensue36. The government has promised to offer 10 million of emergency food aidto help ______ the famine in this region.[A] release [B] relate [C] reveal [D]relieve37. The course _____ two years’ training into six intensive months.[A] impresses [B] compresses [C] depresses [D] represses38. Make sure you pour the juice into the glass without _____ it.[A] splitting [B] spilling [C] spinning [D] spitting39. The vast majority of people in any culture _____ to the established standard of that culture.[A] confine [B] conform [C] confront [D] confirm40. Tom pointed out that the living standard of urban and _____ people continued to improve.[A] remote [B] municipal [C] rural [D] provincial41. The Egyptians _____ an area almost equal to France and Spain combined.[A] dwell [B] settle [C] reside [D] inhabit42. I’m going to have to take these clothes off, for I’m _____ to the skin![A] dipped [B] soaked [C] immersed [D] submerged43. The WHO has to come up with new and effective measures to _____ hisnext move in the game.[A] limit [B] cut [C] curb [D] keep44. My grandfather sat back in his chair for a few minutes to _____ hisnext move in the game.[A] think [B] ponder [C] reflect [D] dwell45. At this school we aim to _____ the minds of all the students by reading.[A] cultivate [B] instruct [C] teach [D] coach46. Most doctors _____ on a diet which contains a lot of fat.[A] criticize [B] object [C] oppose [D] frown47. Since you intend to sell your house, how will you _____ of all the furniture?[A] disapprove [B] discard [C] dispose [D] disregard48. The politicians were discussing the best way to _____ democracy andprosperity in their country.[A] hinder [B] foster [C] linger [D] quote49. Only one member of the committee _____ from the final report.[A] dissented [B] crawled [C] whispered [D] redeemed50. We always try to _____ him with financial assistance if necessary.[A] dazzle [B] sanction [C] accommodate [D] terminateIII. Cloze (10%; 0.5 mark each)The term “quality of life” is difficult to define. It (51) a verywide scope such as living environment, health, employment, food, familylife, friends, education, material possessions, leisure and recreation, and so on. (52) speaking, the quality of life, especially (53) seen by the individual, is meaningful in terms of the degree (54) which these various areas of life are available or provide (55) for the individual.As activity carried (56) as one thinks fit during one’s spare time, leisure has the following (57): relaxation, recreation and entertainment, and personal development. The importance of these varies according to the nature of one’s job and one’s life style. (58), people who need to (59) much energy in their work will find relaxation most (60) in leisure. Those with a better education and in professional occupations may (61) more to。

英语自考本科语言学概论

Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。

cocopolaris教资笔记英语

cocopolaris教资笔记英语Cocopolaris Teaching Certificate English NotesObtaining a teaching certificate is a significant milestone for many individuals who aspire to become educators. The journey to this achievement often involves a rigorous process, and the English language component plays a crucial role in ensuring that prospective teachers are equipped with the necessary linguistic skills to effectively communicate with students, parents, and colleagues. The Cocopolaris teaching certificate program is one such initiative that aims to provide aspiring teachers with the tools and knowledge they need to thrive in the classroom.The Cocopolaris English curriculum for the teaching certificate program is designed to be comprehensive and challenging, covering a wide range of topics and skills. One of the core focuses of the program is on developing a strong foundation in English grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. Students are required to demonstrate a solid understanding of these fundamental linguistic elements, as they form the building blocks of effective written and oral communication.In addition to the linguistic aspects, the Cocopolaris program alsoplaces a strong emphasis on the practical application of English in the classroom setting. Students are trained in various teaching methodologies and strategies, with a particular focus on how to effectively deliver lessons and engage with students using the English language. This includes techniques for lesson planning, classroom management, and assessment, all of which are essential for successful teaching.Another key component of the Cocopolaris English curriculum is the development of intercultural communication skills. As educators, teachers must be able to navigate diverse classrooms and effectively communicate with students, parents, and colleagues from various cultural backgrounds. The program provides training in cultural awareness, sensitivity, and adaptability, equipping aspiring teachers with the tools to create inclusive and welcoming learning environments.Throughout the Cocopolaris teaching certificate program, students are exposed to a variety of authentic English materials, ranging from academic texts and research articles to literary works and multimedia resources. This exposure not only enhances their language proficiency but also broadens their understanding of the richness and diversity of the English language and its cultural contexts.One of the unique features of the Cocopolaris program is theemphasis on reflective practice. Students are encouraged to regularly engage in self-assessment and critical reflection, evaluating their own progress, identifying areas for improvement, and developing strategies to enhance their teaching skills. This reflective approach fosters a growth mindset and helps students become lifelong learners, continually striving to enhance their English language proficiency and teaching effectiveness.The Cocopolaris teaching certificate program also places a strong emphasis on the development of research and analytical skills. Students are required to conduct research projects, analyze relevant literature, and present their findings in a clear and articulate manner. This not only strengthens their English language abilities but also prepares them to be informed and evidence-based practitioners, able to make data-driven decisions in the classroom.In addition to the academic components, the Cocopolaris program also provides opportunities for practical experience and mentorship. Students are placed in supervised teaching placements, where they can apply their knowledge and skills in real-world classroom settings. They also have access to experienced educators who serve as mentors, providing guidance, feedback, and support throughout the program.The Cocopolaris teaching certificate program is a comprehensive andrigorous initiative that aims to produce highly skilled and competent English language educators. By focusing on language proficiency, teaching methodologies, intercultural communication, and reflective practice, the program equips aspiring teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to thrive in diverse educational environments.As students progress through the Cocopolaris program, they not only develop their English language abilities but also cultivate a deep understanding of the art and science of teaching. They learn to create engaging and inclusive learning experiences, foster meaningful connections with their students, and contribute to the broader educational community.Ultimately, the Cocopolaris teaching certificate program is a transformative journey that empowers individuals to become exceptional English language educators, ready to make a lasting impact on the lives of their students and the communities they serve.。

【精品】英语语法名词归纳总结

【精品】英语语法名词归纳总结一、单项选择名词1．It's difficult to guess what his ______ to the news would be.A．reaction B．opinion C．comment D．impression【答案】A【解析】【详解】考查名词辨析。

句意：很难猜测他对这个消息会有什么反应。

A. reaction反应；B. opinion 观点；C. comment评论；D. impression印象。

分析句子可知，应是很难猜测他对消息的反应是什么。

故选A。

2．We have found that a boy matching your entered the amusement park just now. A．instruction B．explanationC．description D．application【答案】C【解析】【详解】考查名词词义辨析。

句意：我们发现一个符合你的描述的男孩刚才进入了游乐园。

Ainstruction指示；Bexplanation解释；Cdescription描述；Dapplication申请。

match description表示“匹配你的描述”，故C项正确。

3．The broken window was the that the house had been broken into.A．evidence B．expressionC．scenery D．function【答案】A【解析】【详解】考查名词。

A. evidence证据； B. expression表达； C. scenery风景； D. function功能。

句意：弄坏的窗户是这所房子被破门而入的证据。

故选A。

4．When people need information, from the news and weather forecasts to travel packages and academic research, the Internet is now the first______ they turn to.A．privilege B．source C．assistance D．outcome【答案】B【解析】【详解】考查名词。

cocopolaris 中学教资备考笔记

cocopolaris 中学教资备考笔记下载提示：该文档是本店铺精心编制而成的，希望大家下载后，能够帮助大家解决实际问题。

文档下载后可定制修改，请根据实际需要进行调整和使用，谢谢!本店铺为大家提供各种类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by this editor. I hope that after you download it, it can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you! In addition, this shop provides you with various types of practical materials, such as educational essays, diary appreciation, sentence excerpts, ancient poems, classic articles, topic composition, work summary, word parsing, copy excerpts, other materials and so on, want to know different data formats and writing methods, please pay attention!Cocopolaris Middle School Teaching Qualification Exam Review NotesChapter 1: Educational Psychology1.1 Definition of Educational PsychologyEducational psychology is the study of how people learn and the principles and theories that influence the teaching and learning process.1.2 Theories of Learning- Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors and reinforcement.- Constructivism: Emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge and experiences in learning.- Cognitivism: Focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, and problem-solving.1.3 Learning Styles- Visual: Learn best through seeing images and diagrams.- Auditory: Learn best through listening and speaking.- Kinesthetic: Learn best through hands-on experiences and movement.1.4 Motivation- Intrinsic: Motivation that comes from within oneself, such as a desire to learn for personal satisfaction.- Extrinsic: Motivation that comes from external rewards, such as grades or praise.1.5 Classroom Management- Establishing rules and expectations.- Providing positive reinforcement for desired behaviors.- Addressing disruptive behavior promptly and fairly.Chapter 2: Curriculum Design and Instructional Strategies2.1 Curriculum Development- Understanding the standards and requirements of the curriculum.- Designing units and lessons that align with the curriculum objectives.- Evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum through assessment tools.2.2 Instructional Strategies- Direct Instruction: Teacher-centered approach with explicit teaching and guided practice.- Inquiry-Based Learning: Student-centered approach that emphasizes investigation and discovery.- Cooperative Learning: Group-based approach that promotes teamwork and collaboration.2.3 Differentiated Instruction- Adapting teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of students.- Providing multiple ways for students to demonstrate their understanding.- Offering choice and flexibility in assignments and assessments.2.4 Assessment and Evaluation- Formative Assessment: Ongoing assessments used to monitor student progress and provide feedback.- Summative Assessment: Final evaluations used to measure student achievement.- Authentic Assessment: Assessments that reflect real-world tasks and skills.Chapter 3: Educational Technology3.1 Integration of Technology in the Classroom- Using educational technology to enhance learning experiences.- Incorporating multimedia and interactive tools into lessons.- Teaching digital literacy and responsible online behavior.3.2 Blended Learning- Combining traditional classroom instruction with online resources and activities.- Providing opportunities for self-paced learning and personalized instruction.- Engaging students in collaborative projects and discussions online.3.3 Digital Citizenship- Teaching students how to use technology responsibly and ethically.- Addressing issues such as cyberbullying, online privacy, and copyright infringement. - Encouraging digital literacy skills and critical thinking when using online resources.In conclusion, preparing for the middle school teaching qualification exam requires a strong understanding of educational psychology, curriculum design, instructional strategies, educational technology, and assessment practices. By reviewing and studying these key topics, educators can better prepare themselves for success in the classroom and on the exam.。

大学英语第一课详解

Propose grammar usage guarantees clarity and precision in writing Understanding basic sense structure and parts of speech are essential
Writing skills
Listening and speaking
Practice listening comprehension and fluent speaking in different contexts
Course content
Theory and practice
Integrate theory and practical exercises to enhance learning outcomes
Pronunciation correction
03
02
01
04
English writing exercises
Paragraph development
The ability to organize ideas into coherent paragraphs is critical for effective writing Paragraphs should have a clear topic presence, supporting presence, and a conclusion presence that ties everything together
Vocabulary usage
A rich vocabulary can enhance written expression It is important to choose precise words that consider meaning effectively

2024年教师资格考试初中学科知识与教学能力英语试题及答案指导

2024年教师资格考试初中英语学科知识与教学能力自测试题及答案指导一、单项选择题（本大题有30小题，每小题2分，共60分）1、In a conversation, which of the following expressions is most appropriate for showing empathy towards a student who is upset about a missed exam?A. “You should have studied harder.”B. “I can see you’re upset. Would you like to talk about it?”C. “It’s just an exam, don’t worry about it.”D. “You always miss exams, don’t you?”答案：B解析：选项B表达了对学生的同理心，询问学生是否愿意谈谈他们的感受，这有助于建立师生之间的信任和良好的沟通。

2、When designing a lesson plan for a junior high school English class, which of the following activities is most likely to promote critical thinking skills?A. A vocabulary matching exercise.B. A grammar worksheet.C. A group discussion on a social issue.D. A reading comprehension quiz.答案：C解析：选项C中的小组讨论能够鼓励学生就社会问题表达自己的观点，这有助于培养学生的批判性思维技能，而不仅仅是记忆或重复信息。

3、Which of the following is NOT a component of communicative language teaching (CLT)?A) Focus on accuracyB) Emphasis on fluencyC) Task-based learning activitiesD) Grammar translation methodAnswer: D) Grammar translation methodExplanation: The Grammar Translation Method focuses on the written language and the acquisition of grammatical rules rather than communication. This approach does not align with the principles of Communicative Language Teaching, which emphasizes the use of authentic language and real-life communication tasks.4、In the context of teaching vocabulary, which activity would best promote long-term retention and active use of new words?A) Reading the words from a listB) Writing the words ten times eachC) Using the words in sentences or dialoguesD) Listening to the words in a recordingAnswer: C) Using the words in sentences or dialoguesExplanation: Constructing sentences or dialogues using new vocabulary helps students to contextualize the words, understand their usage, and promotes deeperprocessing, which aids in retention and active recall. Simply reading, writing, or listening to words without context does not engage the same level of cognitive processing required for meaningful learning.5、The sentence “The book is easy to read but hard to understand” primarily focuses on which aspect of the book?A)GrammarB)VocabularyC)ComprehensionD)PlotAnswer: C) ComprehensionExplanation: The sentence compares the ease of reading the book with the difficulty of understanding its content, indicating a focus on comprehension rather than grammar, vocabulary, or plot.6、Which of the following sentence structures is typically used to presenta contrast between two ideas?A)Subordinate clauseB)Coordinated clauseC)Relative clauseD)Complex sentenceAnswer: B) Coordinated clauseExplanation: A coordinated clause, also known as a compound sentence, is used to present a contrast between two ideas by joining them with a conjunction like “but,” “however,” or “while.” Subordinate, relative, and complexsentences are used for different purposes and do not typically convey contrast as effectively.7、Which of the following is NOT an appropriate method to assess students’ speaking skills?A) Peer assessment wh ere students evaluate each other’s presentations.B) Self-assessment where students reflect on their own speaking performance.C) Testing vocabulary recall through multiple-choice questions.D) Oral interviews or discussions led by the teacher.Answer: C) Testing vocabulary recall through multiple-choice questions. Explanation: Assessing speaking skills should involve verbal interaction and the demonstration of fluency, pronunciation, intonation, and the ability to communicate effectively. Multiple-choice questions primarily test recognition of correct answers rather than the active use of language in speaking.8、In teaching reading comprehension, what technique encourages students to make predictions about the text before reading it?A) SummarizationB) SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)C) Jigsaw readingD) Cloze testAnswer: B) SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)Explanation: The SQ3R method includes a step called ‘Question’ where students generate questions about the headings and predict what the content will be about,promoting active engagement with the text prior to reading it thoroughly. This technique helps improve comprehension and retention of the material.9、The sentence “The book on the table is written by a famous author.” can be best classified as which type of sentence structure?A)SimpleB)CompoundC)ComplexD)Compound-complexAnswer: C) ComplexExplanation: A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. In this sentence, “The book on the table is written by a famous author” is the independent clause, and there are no dependent clauses, making it a complex sentence.10、In the following dialogue, which word is used as a conjunction to connect the clauses?A)“and” - Alice: “I think it will rain today.” Bob: “Let’s take an umbrella.”B)“but” - Alice: “I think it will rain today.” Bob: “But I don’t have one.”C)“because” - Alice: “I think it will rain today.” Bob: “Because I saw dark clouds.”D)“or” - Alice: “I think it will rain today.” Bob: “Or it might be sunny.”Answer: B) “but”Explanation: The word “but” is used as a conjunction to connect two independent clauses that express contrasting ideas. In the given dialogue, Bob’s response introduces a contrast to Alice’s statement about rain, making“but” the corr ect conjunction.11、Which of the following sentences correctly uses the subjunctive mood?A)If I was you, I would accept the offer.B)If she were me, she would not go.C)If he was taller, he could reach the top shelf.D)If they was coming, they would have called.Answer: BExplanation: The correct use of the subjunctive mood is demonstrated in option B, where “were” is used instead of “was” to express a hypothetical situation. Options A, C, and D all use the indicative mood (“was” or “were”) which is incorrect for a hypothetical condition about the present or future.12、Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject in the following sentence:“The committee________on the decision at their meeting tomorrow.”A)was decidingB)were decidingC)is decidingD)are decidingAnswer: CExplanation: The subject “committee” is treated as singular when it refers to the group as a whole, thus the singular verb form “is deciding” is correct. If the sentence were to focus on the members individually, then a plural verb might be appropriate, but in this context, option C is the correct choice.13.The sentence “The more books you read, the more knowledge you will gain.” demonstrates which of the following grammatical structures?A. ConditionalB. ComparativeC. AdverbialD. Present perfectAnswer: B. ComparativeExplanation: The given sentence uses a comparative structure to show a relationship between two comparable amounts of reading and knowledge gained. “The more…the more…” is a classic example of a comparative constructio n.14.In the following dialogue, which word is used as a conjunction to introduce a reason or explanation?A. HoweverB. ThereforeC. OtherwiseD. BecauseAnswer: D. BecauseExplanation: In the given dialogue, “because” is used as a conjunction to introduc e a reason or explanation for a statement. For example, “He was late because he got stuck in traffic.”15、Which of the following is NOT a component of communicative language teaching (CLT)?A)Focus on accuracyB)Emphasis on using the language for communicationC)Incorporation of all skills—speaking, listening, reading, writingD)Strict adherence to grammar translation methodAnswer: D) Strict adherence to grammar translation methodExplanation: Communicative Language Teaching emphasizes the use of the target language for real communication over the rote learning of grammatical rules. It focuses on accuracy in usage but prioritizes fluency and the ability to convey meaning effectively. Therefore, strict adherence to the Grammar Translation Method, which focuses heavily on translating texts and learning grammatical rules, is not a component of CLT.16、Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject in the following sent ence: “Every boy and every girl as well as every teacher and every student____asked to contribute.”A)areB)hasC)haveD)isAnswer: D) isExplanation: The verb in this sentence should agree with the singular subject closest to it, which is “student”. Despite the c ompound subjects introduced by “and”, the singular “student” at the end of the list requires a singular verb form. Thus, “is” is the correct choice. The construction“Every… as well as every…” does not affect the singularity or plurality of the verb; the verb should agree with the first subject mentioned, which is “boy”. However, due to the structure of the sentence, “student” is considered the nearest subject to the verb.17.The following sentence is written in passive voice. Which word in the sentence is the passive form of “do”?A. The book is written by a famous author.B. The famous author writes the book.C. The book was written by the famous author.D. The famous author was writing the book.Answer: CExplanation: The sentence in option C, “The book w as written by the famous author,” is in the passive voice. The passive form of “do” is “was done” in this context, which is represented by “was written” in the sentence.18.In the sentence “The students are happily participating in the school sports day,” which part of speech is “happily”?A. AdverbB. NounC. VerbD. AdjectiveAnswer: AExplanation: “Happily” is an adverb in the sentence. Adverbs modify verbs,adjectives, or other adverbs, providing additional information about the action, feeling, or state being described. In this case, “happily” modifies the verb “participating.”19.The sentence “The book is so interesting that I couldn’t put it down.” is an example of:A. a simileB. a metaphorC. an oxymoronD. a personificationAnswer: B. a metaphorExplanation: A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. In this sentence, “so interesting” is metaphorically describing the book, implying that the book is as captivating as something interesting.20.Which of the following is an effective teaching strategy for encouraging student participation in a group discussion?A. Providing detailed answers to all the questions before the discussionB. Limiting the number of students allowed to speakC. Assigning each student a specific topic to research and presentD. Preventing any interruptions or comments during the discussionAnswer: C. Assigning each student a specific topic to research and present Explanation: Assigning each student a specific topic to research and presentis an effective strategy for encouraging student participation because it ensures that all students have a role and responsibility in the group discussion. It also promotes accountability and helps to structure the conversation.21.Which of the following sentence structure is most suitable for introducing a new topic in a初中英语 lesson?A. Simple present tenseB. Present perfect tenseC. Future perfect tenseD. Past continuous tenseAnswer: A. Simple present tenseExplanation: The simple present tense is commonly used to introduce a new topic or a general statement of fact. It is a stable and factual way to starta new lesson in a classroom setting.22.In a lesson on “Weather”, which of the following activities is most effective for developing students’ vocabulary and speaking skills?A. Reading a weather forecast from a textbookB. Writing a weather report using complex sentence structuresC. Role-playing different weather scenarios with peersD. Listening to a recorded weather forecast and answering multiple-choice questionsAnswer: C. Role-playing different weather scenarios with peersExplanation: Role-playing is an interactive and engaging activity thathelps students practice and expand their vocabulary and speaking skills. It also allows them to apply the target language in a real-life context, which is more effective than passive reading or listening.23、What is the main purpose of using a storybook in English language teaching at the junior high level?A)To introduce new vocabulary.B)To practice grammar structures.C)To develop reading comprehension skills.D)To encourage creative writing.答案：C解析：The main purpose of using a storybook at the junior high level is to develop reading comprehension skills. While storybooks can introduce new vocabulary and sometimes provide opportunities to practice grammar, the primary focus is on enhancing reading abilities and comprehension.24、Which of the following teaching strategies is most effective for engaging students in group discussions about a recent English literature text?A)Direct instruction.B)Guided discovery.C)Jigsaw.D)Collaborative learning.答案：C解析：The Jigsaw teaching strategy is most effective for engaging students in group discussions about a recent English literature text. In this strategy,students are divided into smaller groups, each studying a different part of the text. They then come together in new groups to share their knowledge and discuss the text, promoting active participation and deeper understanding.25.The teacher is demonstrating a new grammar structure to the students. Which of the following activities would be most suitable for practicing this structure in a communicative approach?A)Fill in the blanks with the correct tense form of the verb.B)Role-playing a dialogue using the new structure.C)Matching sentences with correct grammar.D)Writing a short essay on a topic related to the grammar.Answer: B) Role-playing a dialogue using the new structure.解析：In a communicative approach to language learning, activities that encourage students to use the language in real-life contexts are preferred. Role-playing a dialogue using the new grammar structure allows students to practice the structure in a conversational setting, which is more authentic and beneficial for language acquisition than the other options, which are more focused on written or fill-in-the-blanks exercises.26.What is the primary goal of formative assessment in the classroom?A)To evaluate student performance on standardized tests.B)To provide feedback to students on their progress.C)To ensure that all students meet the same learning objectives.D)To create a competitive environment among students.Answer: B) To provide feedback to students on their progress.解析：Formative assessment is designed to monitor student learning and provide ongoing feedback that helps teachers adjust their instruction to meet student needs. It is not meant to be summative or to compare students against each other. Therefore, the primary goal of formative assessment is to provide feedback to students on their progress, allowing them to understand their strengths and areas for improvement.27.What is the main purpose of using vocabulary teaching techniques in English language classroom?A. To test students’ grammar knowledge.B. To introduce new vocabulary items.C. To enhance students’ reading skills.D. To improve students’ pronunciation.Answer: BExplanation: The main purpose of using vocabulary teaching techniques in English language classroom is to introduce new vocabulary items effectively and help students acquire and use them appropriately.28.In a lesson on “My Hometown,” which of the following activities would be most suitable for practicing past tense?A. Listening to a story about the present.B. Reading a poem about the future.C. Writing a short essay about past events in the students’ hometown.D. Discussing the weather forecast for the next day.Answer: CExplanation: Writing a short essay about past events in the students’ hometown would be most suitable for practicing past tense. This activity encourages students to use past tense verbs to describe events that have already occurred.29.The teacher in the video was using a “Think-Pair-Share” strategy. Which of the following statements best describes this strategy?A. Students work individually, then share their answers with the whole class.B. Students work in pairs, discuss their thoughts, and then present their ideas to the class.C. Students are asked to think silently, then discuss their thoughts with a partner, and finally share their ideas with the whole class.D. Students are given a question and must find the answer by working with a partner.Answer: CExplanation: The “Think-Pair-Share” strategy involves students thinki ng individually about a question, then discussing their thoughts with a partner, and finally sharing their ideas with the whole class. This encourages collaborative learning and ensures that all students have an opportunity toparticipate in the discussion.30.Which of the following activities would be most suitable for teaching the present perfect tense in a初中 English class?A. Role-playing a conversation between two friends discussing their recent experiences.B. Listening to a recorded story and identifying the present perfect tense verbs used by the characters.C. Completing a gap-fill exercise using only present perfect tense verbs.D. Reading a passage and answering comprehension questions about the present perfect tense.Answer: AExplanation: Role-playing a conversation between two friends discussing their recent experiences is an effective way to teach the present perfect tense because it provides a real-life context for using the tense. It allows students to practice the grammar structure in a conversational setting, which can help them better understand and retain the concept.二、简答题（20分）Question:In a junior high school English class, how can a teacher effectively incorporate technology to enhance students’ learning experience?Answer:1.Utilize interactive whiteboards to engage students in interactive lessons.2.Introduce educational apps and online platforms for vocabulary building and grammar practice.3.Incorporate multimedia resources such as videos, audio clips, and images to support content delivery.4.Create online discussion forums to encourage student collaboration and reflection.e educational games and simulations to make learning more engaging and interactive.6.Implement flipped classroom techniques by providing video lectures or readings for students to watch or read before class, allowing class time to focus on discussions and activities.7.Offer online resources for students to access at home, promoting independent learning.8.Encourage students to create digital portfolios to showcase their work and reflect on their progress.9.Regularly assess students’ understanding of the material through quizzes and interactive quizzes on platforms like Kahoot or Quizizz.e social media platforms for communication with students and parents, providing updates on assignments and progress.Explanation:The question asks for ways to effectively incorporate technology in a juniorhigh school English class. The answer provides a list of strategies that teachers can use to enhance the learning experience. These strategies include using interactive whiteboards, educational apps, multimedia resources, online discussion forums, educational games, flipped classroom techniques, online resources, digital portfolios, quizzes, and social media for communication. These methods cater to different learning styles, encourage student engagement, and promote independent learning.三、教学情境分析题（30分）Question:As a teacher of English in a junior high school, you are assigned to teach a lesson about “Festivals in Different Countries” to your Year 8 students. The class consists of 25 students with varying English proficiency levels. The school has provided you with a PowerPoint presentation, a worksheet, and some handouts about various festivals from different countries. Your students are generally engaged and interested in learning about different cultures.Please analyze the teaching situation and provide a detailed lesson plan that includes the following elements:1.Objectives2.Introduction3.Main Activity4.AssessmentAnswer:1.Objectives:•By the end of the lesson, students will be able to describe different festivals from various countries.•Students will be able to discuss the significance of these festivals and share information about their own cultural traditions.•Students will enhance their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in English through various activities.2.Introduction:•Start the lesson by showing a short video clip about different festivals around the world to capture the students’ interest.•Briefly introduce the topic, emphasizing the importance of understanding and appreciating diverse cultures.3.Main Activity:a.Group Discussion:•Divide the class into groups of 5 students.•Provide each group with a handout about a festival from a different country(e.g., Diwali, Chinese New Year, Halloween).•Ask each group to research their assigned festival, focusing on the following aspects:•Date of celebration•Significance of the festival•Traditional activities•Cultural background•Give the groups 10 minutes to discuss and gather information.•Each group will present their findings to the class.b.Interactive PowerPoint:•Use the PowerPoint presentation to showcase the festivals discussed by each group.•Encourage students to ask questions and participate in a class discussion about the festivals.c.Worksheet:•Hand out the worksheet with activities related to the festivals, such as matching, true/false, and fill in the blanks.•Students will work on the worksheet individually or in pairs to reinforce their understanding of the material.d.Creative Writing:•Assign students to write a short essay about their favorite festival, explaining why it is significant to them.•Encourage students to use descriptive language and proper grammar to convey their thoughts.4.Assessment:•Evaluate the students’ participation in group discussions and presentations.•Assess the completion and accuracy of the worksheet and the creative writing assignment.•Observe the students’ ability to use proper grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in their discussions and essays.Explanation:This lesson plan aims to provide a comprehensive approach to teaching the topic of “Festivals in Different Countries” to junior high school students. By incorporating various activities, such as group discussions, interactive presentations, and creative writing, the students will have the opportunity to enhance their language skills while learning about different cultures. The lesson plan ensures that students of varying proficiency levels are engaged and have the opportunity to participate actively in the learning process.四、教学设计题（40分）Teaching Design QuestionQuestion:Design a lesson plan for a 45-minute English class for Grade 8 students. The topic is “Festivals in Different Cultures”. The lesson should focus on developing students’ speaking and listenin g skills. The class will be conducted in a mixed-ability group of 30 students. You are expected to include the following elements in your lesson plan:1.Introduction2.Vocabulary Building3.Reading Comprehension4.Speaking and Listening Activities5.ConclusionAnswer:Lesson Plan:1.Introduction (5 minutes)•Greet the students and introduce the topic: “Festivals in Different Cultures”.•Ask the students to share their knowledge about festivals they celebrate with their families.•Discuss the importance of festivals in different cultures.2.Vocabulary Building (10 minutes)•Present new vocabulary related to festivals (e.g., celebration, tradition, decoration, etc.).•Use flashcards to display the vocabulary and ask students to match the words with their meanings.•Conduct a vocabulary game, such as “Simon Says,” to reinforce the new words.3.Reading Comprehension (10 minutes)•Provide a reading passage about festivals in different cultures (e.g., Diwali, Christmas, and Chinese New Year).•Ask the students to read the passage silently and then answer comprehension questions.•Discuss the key points of the passage with the class.4.Speaking and Listening Activities (15 minutes)•Divide the class into groups of four students.•Each group will be assigned a different festival to research (Diwali, Christmas, and Chinese New Year).•Students will work together to create a short presentation about their assigned festival, including information about the history, customs, and traditions.•After the presentations, have a class discussion where students ask questions and share their observations.•Conduct a “Gallery Walk” activity, where students move around the classroom and read each group’s presentation.5.Conclusion (5 minutes)•Summarize the main points of the lesson with the students.•Ask the students to reflect on what they have learned about festivals in different cultures.•Encourage them to explore other festivals and share their findings with the class in the next lesson.Explanation:This lesson plan focuses on developing students’ speaking and listening skills through a variety of activities. The introduction engages the students by asking them to share their own experiences with festivals, while the vocabulary building and reading comprehension sections help them expand their knowledge of different festivals. The speaking and listening activitiesencourage collaboration and allow students to showcase their research and presentation skills. The conclusion reinforces the main points of the lesson and encourages further exploration of the topic.。

(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目录
第1章导言 1.1 复习笔记 1.2 课后习题详解 1.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第2章语音 2.1 复习笔记 2.2 课后习题详解 2.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学 3.1 复习笔记 3.2 课后习题详解 3.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法 4.1 复习笔记 4.2 课后习题详解
III. Scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范畴) 1. Microlinguistics(微观语言学) Phonetics语音学 Phonology音系学 Morphology形态学 Syntax句法学
Semantics语义学 Pragmatics语用学 2. Macrolinguistics (宏观语言学) Sociolinguistics社会语言学 Psycholinguistics心理语言学 Neurolinguistics神经语言学 Stylistics文体学 Discourse analysis语篇分析 Computational linguistics计算语言学 Cognitive linguistics认知语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学
3. Language is vocal—the primary medium for all languages is sound. 4. Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication. 1. 语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的。 2. 语言是任意的——词与其所指物之间没有内在的联系。 3. 语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。 4. 语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。

Access to Relational Knowledge a Comparison of Two Models

Access to Relational Knowledge: a Comparison of Two Models William H. Wilson (billw@.au)Nadine Marcus (nadinem@.au)School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney,New South Wales, 2052, AustraliaGraeme S. Halford (gsh@.au)School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, AustraliaAbstractIf a person knows that Fred ate a pizza, then they can answer the following questions: Who ate a pizza?, What did Fred eat?, What did Fred do to the pizza? and even Who ate what? This and related properties we are terming accessibility properties for the relational fact that Fred ate a pizza. Accessibility in this sense is a significant property of human cognitive performance. Among neural network models, those employing tensor product networks have this accessibility property. While feedforward networks trained by error backpropagation have been widely studied, we have found no attempt to use them to model accessibility using backpropagation trained networks. This paper discusses an architecture for a backprop net that promises to provide some degree of accessibility. However, while limited forms of accessibility are achievable, the nature of the representation and the nature of backprop learning both entail limitations that prevent full accessibility. Studies of the degradation of accessibility with different sets of training data lead us to a rough metric for learning complexity of such data sets.IntroductionThe purpose of this research is to determine whether a backpropagation net can be developed that processes propositions with the flexibility that is characteristic of certain classes of symbolic neural net models. This has arguably been difficult for backpropagation nets in the past. For example, the model of Rumelhart and Todd (1993) represents propositions such as "canary can fly". Given the input "canary, can" it produces the output "fly". However processing is restricted, so it cannot answer the question "what can fly?" ("canary").There are, however, at least two types of symbolic nets that readily meet this requirement. One type of net model makes roles and fillers oscillate in synchrony (Hummel & Holyoak, 1997; Shastri & Ajjanagadde, 1993) while another is based on operations such as circular convolution (Plate, 2000) or tensor products (Halford, et al., 1994; 1998; Smolensky, 1990). These models appear to have greater flexibility than models based on backpropagation nets, in that they can be queried for any component of a proposition. We will refer to this property of tensor product nets as omni-directional access (cf. Halford, Wilson & Phillips, 1998). Omni-directional access is the ideal form of accessibilit y.Another reason for investigating this lies in the work of Halford, Wilson, and Phillips (e.g. 1998) which seeks in part to define a hierarchy of cognitive processes or systems and to draw parallels between this hierarchy and a second hierarchy of types of artificial neural networks. Levels 0 and 1 of this second hierarchy are 2- and 3-layer feedforward nets, and levels 2-5 are tensor product nets of increasing rank. It thus becomes interesting to consider how well feedforward nets can emulate tensor product networks.Figure 1 – Tensor product network of rank 3.As tensor product networks are not as well known as feedforward networks, we shall describe them and their accessibility properties briefly here before proceeding. Tensor product networks are described in more detail, and from our point of view, in Halford et al. (1994). Briefly, a rank k tensor product network consists of a k-dimensional array of "binding units", together with k input/output vectors. For example, a rank 2 tensor product network is a matrix, plus 2 input/output vectors. To teach the network to remember a fact (that is, a k-tuple), the input/output vectors are set to be vectors representing the components of the k-tuple, and a computation is performed that alters the k-dimensional array. Subsequently that fact can be accessed in avariety of ways. It is common to interpret the firstcomponent of the k-tuple as a predicate symbol, and the remaining components as argument symbols - e.g. for rank 3, the components might be vectors representing the concepts likes jane pizza (Jane likes pizza) (see Figure 1). Once this fact has been taught to a rank 3 tensor product network, the following 7 queries can be formulated and answered by a computation involving the tensor product network.1) Is likes(jane,pizza) true?2) Who likes pizza? This we often write as likes(X, pizza)? The response depends on what else has been taught to the tensor product network. If the tensor product network also knows that likes(fred,pizza) and likes(mary,pizza) then the response will be the sum of the vectors representing Jane, Fred, and Mary - often written jane + fred + mary.3) What does Jane like? - likes(jane,X)? Similar to 2).4) What relationships hold between Jane and pizza? -X(jane,pizza)? Again, similar to 2).These four are referred to as limited accessibility.5) Who likes what? - likes(X,Y)? The response in this case would be a rank 2 tensor product network storing the pairs (X,Y) for which likes(X,Y) is known to the original rank 3 tensor product network. The tensor product network approach solves this by producing a rank 2 tensor product network, which stores the pairs (X,Y). (This output possibility, and corresponding ones for 6) and 7) below, are not shown in Figure 1).6) Who does what to pizza? - X(Y,pizza)? Like 5).7) Jane does what to what? - X(jane,Y)? Like 5).The full set of 7 forms of access are referred to as full accessibility, or omni-directional access.A rank 4 tensor product network would have 15 access modes, a rank 5 tensor product network would have 31 access modes, and so on. Provided that an orthonormal set of vectors is used for the set of vectors representing concepts, retrieval is perfect. Facts are learned by a tensor product network one at a time, and do not interfere with each other (given orthonormal representation vectors).Tensor product networks using orthonormal sets of representation vectors exhibit what has been called full omni-directional access to the facts that have been taught, as noted above. Humans attempting similar tasks may find some types of access easier than others. For example, children who have recently learned sets of multiplication facts such as 9×7=63 are able to use this knowledge to perform division (9×X= 63, what is X?), but may find this more difficult than multiplication (9×7=X, what is X?). We use the term accessibility to refer to imperfect or partial versions of omni-directional access. It turns out that some of the nets discussed in this paper also exhibit accessibility rather than full omni-directional access.Our specific aim in this paper is to experiment with a feedforward net design that appears to have potential to provide at least limited accessibility in a rank 3 situation. When we move to feedforward networks trained by error backpropagation, we hope to preserve the accessibility property that is characteristic of symbolic nets. The model resembles an auto-encoder but has restricted connectivity.Architecture of the networkThe particular backpropagation network we used to test for accessibility consisted of the following components: 15 input units, 15 hidden units and 15 output units. The 15 input units were used to represent 3 items or patterns, each made up of 5 elements. The hidden and output units also each consisted of three groups of 5 units, connected as shown in Figure 2. The input patterns represented relational instances of the form RELATION(SUBJECT, OBJECT). The target output contained the same information: namely, RELATION, SUBJECT and OBJECT.Figure 2 - Connections in our feedforward netarchitecture.Notice that this network consists of three functions: one takes as inputs a relation name and a subject, and produces an object as output, the second takes relation name and object and produces subject as output, and the third takes subject and object and produces relation name as output. Thus, while it resembles a traditional auto-association net, note that regular auto-association nets allow connection paths between corresponding input and output neurons, typically allowing total interconnection between input and hidden layers, and between output and hidden layers. In essence, the network architecture can be unraveled into 3 distinct networks that share common inputs. Thus, any weight in the network is influenced by the output errors in only one of the 3 output sets (relation, subject, object). The net makes learning easier by constraining the learning algorithm to look for sets of weights that, for example, ignore predicate input when trying to infer predicate output from argument input. We also conducted some pilot studies with a fully connected network and thenetwork’s performance was inferior.buysmarypizzadogbookhatlikeshassellsjanefredginabobinput:buys(mary,book)target outputhatesNotice that both the tensor product net architecture and the architecture we are studying here have three groups of input and three groups of output nodes.Experimental designThe network was given three different sets of relational instances to learn. Each set was made up of five different relational instances. For example, given the relational instance likes(jane,pizza), l i k e s is the RELATION, jane is the SUBJECT and pizza is the OBJECT. The training sets varied in terms of the amount of overlap or the degree of interaction between the elements of each of the five relational instances. Training set 1 was set up to contain little or no overlap between the different relational instances. Training set 3 consisted of five relational instances with a large degree of interaction between the different instances. Training set 2 contained an intermediate degree of overlap.It was hypothesized that relational instances with the least amount of interaction between the different instances would be the easiest to learn. This is because each instance does not have components that overlap with the other instances. These relations are one-to-one mappings. Accordingly, the network is most likely to achieve success in learning such a set of facts. In contrast, the set of relations with the highest level of overlap is expected to be the most difficult for the network to learn. These relations can be classified as many-to-many mappings, and so cannot be completely learned by a feedforward network. Accessibility may be easier to obtain if each relational instance can be represented in isolation, with little or no reference to the other relations. As the overlap and interaction between the relations and their elements increases, so the degree of accessibility that can be obtained is likely to decrease. This is because information from other related instances is more likely to interfere, when the system is presented with queries.The software used to run the simulations described in this paper is Tlearn v1.01 (Plunkett & Elman, 1997). Other simulators were also used and similar results were obtained. The settings used included a learning rate of 0.1, momentum set to 0 (the default) and an initial weight range of -0.5 to 0.5.Training set 1In this simulation, the network was trained on five relations that have no overlap. Each relational instance consisted of a unique OBJECT, SUBJECT and RELATION. Within each relational instance, each field or argument was represented by a 1-out-of-5 localist encoding. The first five relational instances (and their associated patterns) that were given to the network to learn are shown in Table 1. Figure 3 (see training set 1) contains a graphic representation of the relational instances and their relationships (or in this particular case, their lack of relatedness).The system was trained for 20 000 epochs. At around 4000 epochs the error curve smoothed close to zero. In other words, the difference between the target and the actual output values was negligible.Table 1 — The instances and patterns in training set 1.Relational instance Action Subject Objectlikes(jane, pizza)100001000000100buys(fred, book)010000100000010 hates(mary, dog)001000010000001has(gina, icecrm)000100001010000sells(bob, hat)000010000101000Figure 3 - Graphical representation of 3 training sets. The system was then presented with a set of test patterns to assess the degree of accessibility that could be obtained (refer to Appendix 1, test pattern set 1). For example, to present the query likes(jane,X) the RELATION and SUBJECT input units were set to the patterns for likes and jane respectively, and the OBJECT input units were set to all zeroes, i.e. the ’X ’ is represented by ’00000’. Then the OBJECT outputs were inspected. All of the outputs were checked to see if they matched the target values. If the correct number of output units that should be on is N, then a value of 3/(5N) or greater for an output unit is considered to be on, a value of 2/(5N) or less is considered to be off and any values in the region between 2/(5N) and 3/(5N) can be seen to be "partially on". The output thus falls into one of three categories: 1) Either the output is correct and all of the outputs units are correctly on or off (as defined above), or 2) The output is incorrect and at least one output unit that should be on is clearly off and vice-versa, or lastly, 3) The output is uncertain or partially correct, and output units that should be on are only "partially on". For example, if likes(fred,pizza) and likes(fred,dog) are facts, then if presented with the query likes(fred,X), the answer would be pizza and dog, i.e. N=2. Therefore, the units representing both dog and pizza need to be on and a value of 0.3 (3/(5N)) or greater for both units is needed for the answer to be accepted as correct. Moreover, output units that need tobe off should be less than 2/(5N) or in this case less than 0.2.With training set 1, correct scores were obtained for all of the test queries. The system was able to handle all of the single and double query test patterns. Therefore, overall an excellent degree of accessibility was achieved with the first training set.When there is little or no overlap between the elements of the relational instances, the system is able to learn and access elements of the relations with ease. This would correspond with human learning, where the less related information is to other information, the easier it is to understand and learn (Marcus, Cooper & Sweller, 1996; Sweller, 1994).Training set 2The next training set the system was given to learn had a higher degree of interaction between the relational instances and their elements than training set 1. In particular, both Fred and Jane like pizza and Jane buys both dogs and books.For the first two instances the same OBJECT is liked by two SUBJECTS and can be characterized as a many-to-one mapping, and for the last two instances the same SUBJECT buys two different OBJECTS, a one-to-many mapping. In contrast, hates(mary,icecream) is the only instance that does not overlap with the other four, and is a one-to-one mapping. The OBJECT and SUBJECT in this instance are unique and are not contained in any of the other instances. The five relational instances contained in training set 2 are shown in Table 2. The overlap or interrelations between the elements of the relational instances can be seen graphically in Figure 3 (see training set 2).The system was trained for 20 000 epochs. At around 2000 epochs the error stabilized at around 0.6 in terms of Tlearn’s error measure. The trained net transformed the training patterns as follows:input outputlikes(jane, pizza) → likes(fred+jane, pizza)likes(fred, pizza) → likes(fred+jane, pizza)buys(gina, book) → buys(gina, book+dog)buys(gina, dog) → buys(gina, book+dog)hates(mary, icecrm) → hates(mary, icecrm).It can be seen that the four (related) assertions have now been combined into two assertions. What has been learned is intelligible - likes(gina,book+dog) is easy to interpret as signifying that gina likes both books and dogs.A set of test patterns (see Appendix 1, test pattern set2) was then given to the system to assess performance on the accessibility property. All output units were then inspected to see if they matched the target units. Using the scoring criterion described above, output patterns were either considered to be 1) correct, 2) incorrect or 3) uncertain. All of the queries with a single unknown element were correctly answered by the system and some of the queries with two unknown elements were correct. None of the queries were considered incorrect, however, four queries obtained uncertain or partially correct scores. These queries were likes(X,Y), buys(X,Y), X(gina,Y), and X(Y,pizza). It is interesting to note that all of the responses of questionable correctness need to access information that is contained in more than one relational instance, i.e. information from the many-to-one and one-to-many mappings. For instance, the answer to likes(X,Y) is that both Fred and Jane like pizza. This can be clearly expressed in the representation available, but the trained system does not do so. Thus although, accessibility is still relatively good, the net struggles with the queries that access information that has to be integrated from two relational instances.Table 2 — The instances and patterns in training set 2.Relational instance Action Subject Object likes (jane, pizza)100001000000100 likes (fred, pizza)100000100000100 hates(mary,icecrm)001000010010000 buys (gina, book)010000001000010 buys (gina, dog)010000001000001 We also tried training the network with the 3 patterns: likes(fred+jane,pizza), buys(gina,book+dog), and hates(mary,icecream), that is, the 3 outputs the net just discussed (call it net 2A) produced in response to the training patterns. The network rapidly learned these patterns, not surprisingly. We tested this network (net 2B) on the queries shown in Appendix 1, test pattern set 2, and found that it had inferior accessibility performance compared with net 2A.The greater number of uncertain or partially correct scores obtained during testing, for training set 2 (net 2A)reflects the fact that these five assertions may be considered harder to learn. These findings suggest that as the degree of overlap between the relational instances and their elements increases and as the amount of related information that needs to be considered at once increases, so the level of accessibility that the system can cope with, decreases. This corresponds with our understanding of difficulty associated with learning for people. The more interactivity there is between different learning elements, the harder information is to learn (Sweller & Chandler, 1994). The more difficult it is to learn information, the harder it is to transform and use that information. It thus appears, that as the information becomes more complex and so more difficult to learn, the backpropagation system struggles to achieve areasonable level of accessibility. The next training set supports this hypothesis.Training set 3The last training set has the highest degree of interaction between the relational instances and their elements. The relational instance likes(fred,pizza) overlaps with two other instances. The SUBJECT fred performs the RELATION likes on both the OBJECTS dog and pizza, a one-to-many mapping. Also, both SUBJECTS fred and jane perform the RELATION likes on the same OBJECT pizza, a many-to-one mapping. The five relational instances contained in training set 3 are shown in Table 3. Figure 3 (see training set 3) contains a graphic representation of the relational instances and their interrelatedness.Table 3 — The instances and patterns in training set 3.Relational instance Action Subject Objectlikes (jane, pizza)100001000000100likes (fred, pizza)100000100000100likes (fred, dog)100000100000001buys (fred, book)010000100000010buys (jane, dog)010001000000001The system was trained for 20 000 epochs. At around 3000 epochs the error stabilized at around 0.7 in terms of Tlearn’s error measure. It should be noted that buys(fred,book) and buys(jane,dog) each have at most one attribute in common with the other instances. The trained net transformed the three more overlapping instances as follows:input outputlikes(jane, pizza) → likes(fred+jane, pizza)likes(fred, pizza) → likes(fred+jane, pizza+dog) likes(fred, dog) → likes(fred, pizza+dog).Notice that from this output, there is no way to interpret these instances without inferring that Jane also likes dogs. The whole is not truly equivalent to the sum of the parts, which in this case are the three (and not four) given relational instances.Thus the pattern likes(fred+jane,pizza+dog) even if it were valid, would be unintelligible (in contrast to likes(gina,book+dog) in training set 2).The test patterns shown in Appendix 1 (test pattern set 3) were used to test the trained net for accessibility properties. As before, output units were inspected to see if they matched the target units. Using the scoring criterion described above output patterns were either considered to be correct, incorrect or uncertain. All of the queries with a single unknown element were correctly answered by the system. However, only two of the queries with two unknown elements were correct. The two correct queries were X(Y,dog) and X(Y,book).The rest of the queries with two unknown elements were incorrect. These queries all access information from more than one relational instance. For example, the query X(jane,Y) should have a response of likes+buys, pizza+dog. However, the system’s response to this query is only buys, pizza+dog. As with all the other incorrect queries, some of the relevant information has been lost. It appears that as the information becomes more and more overlapping, the network finds it harder and harder to handle queries that access related elements of information. This type of network appears to be more suited to dealing with one-to-one relations, rather than many-to-many mappings. Training set 4A fourth training set was given to the system to learn. It consisted of the relational instances likes(jane,pizza), likes(fred,pizza), likes(fred,dog), buys(fred,dog), and buys(jane,book). The amount of overlap between these instances, and the test results, fall somewhere between training sets 2 and 3. All the single unknown element queries were answered correctly. Three of the two unknown element queries were answered correctly, two were uncertain and two were incorrect.ConclusionAs the degree of overlap between the arguments and predicates of the relational instances in the training set increases, the degree of accessibility provided by the nets simulated decreases. It is well-known that when trained on data that corresponds to a one-to-many mapping, the activations of the output units corresponding to the "many" will be reduced in comparison to a one-to-one mapping. To us, the interesting thing is the effect of argument and predicate overlap on accessibility, and the fact that beyond some critical level of overlap, the trained net starts to produce "generalizations" which, seen from the relational-instance point of view, mean that the net has learnt false propositions e.g. likes(jane,dog).By way of contrast, tensor product networks (Halford et al., 1998) provide full accessibility for arbitrary sets of relational instances, and do not lose critical information when tested.Backpropagation nets can handle propositional information that is in the form of distinct functions. For example, the model of Rumelhart and Todd (1993) handles propositions such as "canary can fly" in the sense that, given an input "canary can" it produces the output "fly". However, it was not tested for the accessibility property. Our backpropagation net was tested for accessibility, but succeeded in only a limited sense. It could only handle queries to data sets that are relatively simple, in terms of the overlap and relatedness of information. As the relational instancesin the data set become more and more related, so accessibility deteriorates. Consequently the net could not model propositional knowledge adequately. In contrast, a tensor product net can process more complex data sets and still have full access to all the elements of the relational instances.In a sense, it is not surprising that a backprop-trained net does not do as well at this task - backprop tends to do well at perceptual tasks where generalization of an interpolative type is useful, whereas the data used in this is discrete. Since their introduction, backprop nets and variants have been used in cognitive modeling tasks including those concerned with discrete relational knowledge (Hinton, 1986; Rumelhart & Todd, 1993). This paper has attempted to explore the boundaries of applicability of such models.What has come out in the wash is evidence from the model’s performance of a new dimension of task difficulty. This dimension measures component overlap in a set of facts to be learned. This type of difficulty seems to correlate with model performance at the boundary between rank 1 and rank 2 tasks (in the sense of Halford et al., 1998).It is clear that humans do have accessibility with respect to their relational knowledge. What might be interesting to investigate is whether they have greater difficulty learning sets of facts like those in training set 3 than those in training set 1, and whether accessibility also takes longer to develop (see Sweller & Chandler, 1994 for a discussion of element interactivity and its effects on learning).AcknowledgmentsThis work was supported by a grant from the Australian Research Council. We wish to acknowledge helpful discussions with Steve Phillips, and helpful comments made by a reviewer of a previous version of the paper.ReferencesHalford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., Guo, J., Gayler, R. W., Wiles, J., Steward, J. E. M. (1994). Connectionist implications for processing capacity limitations in analogies. In K. J. Holyoak & J. Barnden (Eds.), Advances in connectionist and neural computation theory, vol. 2: Analogical connections. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, S. (1998). Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental, and cognitive psychology. Brain and Behavioural Sciences, 21, 803-864.Hinton, G. E. (1986). Learning distributed representations of concepts. In Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 1-12, Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K .J. (1997). Distributed representations of structure: A theory of analogical access and mapping. Psychological Review, 104, 427-466.Marcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J. (1996). Understanding Instructions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 49-63.Plunkett, K., & Elman, J. L. (1997). Exercises in Rethinking Innateness: A Handbook for Connectionist Simulations. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.Plate, T. A. (2000). Analogy retrieval and processing with distributed vector representations. Expert Systems: The International Journal of Knowledge Engineering & Neural Networks, 17(1), 29-40. Rumelhart, D. E., & Todd, P. M. (1993). Learning and connectionist representations. In D.E. Meyer & S. Korhnblum (Eds), Attention and Performance XIV (figure 1.9 p15, top paragraph p16). Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.Shastri, L. & Ajjanagadde, V. (1993). From simple associations to systematic reasoning: A connectionist representation of rules, variables, and dynamic bindings using temporal synchrony. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 16(3), 417-494.Smolensky, P. (1990). Tensor product variable binding and the representation of symbolic structures in connectionist systems. Artificial Intelligence, 46, 159-216.Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312.Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994). Why some material is difficult to learn. Cognition and Instruction, 12, 185-233.Appendix 1Test pattern set 1likes(jane,X), buys(fred,X), hates(mary,X), has(gina,X), sells(bob,X), likes(X,pizza), buys(X,fred), hates(X,dog), has(X,icecrm),sells(X,hat), X(jane,pizza), X(fred,book), X(mary, dog), X(gina, icecrm), X(bob,hat), likes(X,Y), buys(X,Y), hates(X,Y), has(X,Y), sells(X,Y), X(jane,Y), X(fred,Y), X(mary,Y), X(gina,Y), X(bob,Y),X(Y,pizza), X(Y,book), X(Y,dog), X(Y,icecrm), X(Y,hat).Test pattern set 2likes(jane,X), likes(fred,X), buys(gina,X), hates(mary,X),likes(X,pizza), buys(X,book), buys(X,dog), hates(X,icecrm),X(jane,pizza), X(fred,pizza), X(gina,book), X(gina,dog),X(mary,icecrm), likes(X,Y), buys(X,Y), hates(X,Y), X(jane,Y),X(fred,Y), X(gina,Y), X(mary,Y), X(Y, pizza), X(Y,book),X(Y,dog), X(Y,icecrm).Test pattern set 3likes(jane,X), likes(fred,X), buys(fred,X), buys(jane,X),likes(X,pizza), likes(X,dog), buys(X,book), buys(X,dog),X(jane,pizza), X(fred,pizza), X(fred,dog), X(fred,book), X(jane, dog), likes(X,Y), buys(X,Y), X(jane,Y), X(fred,Y), X(Y,pizza), X(Y,dog), X(Y,book).。

新思拓展新界的英语作文

In the realm of innovation,the English language has always been a powerful tool for expressing new ideas and expanding horizons.The ability to articulate thoughts in English opens up a world of opportunities for learning,communication,and collaboration across cultures.Heres a detailed exploration of how English can serve as a catalyst for innovation and the expansion of new frontiers.The Role of English in Global Innovation1.Global Communication:English has emerged as the lingua franca for international business and academia.It facilitates the exchange of innovative ideas among scientists, entrepreneurs,and professionals from diverse backgrounds,fostering a global community of innovators.2.Access to Knowledge:A vast majority of scientific literature,research papers,and patents are published in English.This makes it easier for individuals to access and build upon existing knowledge,leading to new discoveries and advancements.3.Cultural Exchange:English allows for the crosspollination of ideas from different cultures.This cultural diversity is a rich source of creativity and innovation,as different perspectives can lead to novel solutions to global challenges.4.Technological Advancements:The tech industry,which is a significant driver of innovation,is heavily reliant on English.From coding languages to user interfaces, English is the medium through which many technological advancements are developed and shared.cation and Training:English is often the language of instruction in higher education,particularly in fields related to science,technology,engineering,and mathematics STEM.This exposure to English in education helps students to think critically and innovatively.The Impact of English on Innovation1.Collaborative Research:English enables researchers from around the world to collaborate on projects,combining their expertise to tackle complex problems that require innovative solutions.2.Entrepreneurship:English is the language of business plans,pitches,and negotiations. It helps entrepreneurs to attract international investment and expand their businesses globally.3.Innovation Ecosystems:Englishspeaking countries,such as the United States,the United Kingdom,and Australia,have thriving innovation ecosystems that attract talent and ideas from around the world.4.Intellectual Property:The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights often require communication in English,ensuring that innovators can secure their ideas and inventions.working:English is the key to building professional networks at international conferences,trade shows,and online platforms,where new partnerships and collaborations are formed.Challenges and Opportunitiesnguage Barriers:While English is beneficial,it can also create barriers for those who are not proficient in it.Efforts to make English more accessible and inclusive are essential to ensure that everyone can participate in the innovation process.2.Cultural Sensitivity:Its important to be aware of cultural nuances when communicating in English,as misinterpretations can hinder the innovation process.nguage Learning:Encouraging the learning of English as a second language can empower more people to contribute to the global innovation landscape.4.Technological Integration:The integration of language learning technologies can help individuals improve their English proficiency,thus enhancing their ability to innovate.5.Diverse Representation:Ensuring that the Englishspeaking innovation community is diverse and inclusive can lead to a broader range of ideas and more effective problemsolving.In conclusion,English plays a pivotal role in the advancement of innovation and the exploration of new frontiers.By embracing the language and leveraging its global reach, individuals and organizations can contribute to a more innovative and interconnected world.。

写成功人士的大学英语作文

Successful individuals often have a variety of traits in common,and their journeys to success are as diverse as the people themselves.However,one common thread that runs through many success stories is the role that higher education plays in their lives.In this essay,we will explore the impact of university education on the lives of successful people and how it contributes to their achievements.The Foundation of KnowledgeA university education provides a solid foundation of knowledge that is essential for success in many fields.Successful individuals often have a deep understanding of their chosen field,and this understanding is often built upon the education they received at university.The rigorous coursework and research opportunities available at the university level allow students to delve deeply into their areas of interest,gaining a comprehensive understanding of the theories,practices,and challenges that define their disciplines. Critical Thinking and Problem SolvingOne of the key skills that successful people possess is the ability to think critically and solve problems effectively.University education fosters this skill by encouraging students to question assumptions,analyze information,and develop logical arguments. Through coursework,discussions,and research projects,students learn to approach problems from multiple angles and to consider the implications of their decisions. Networking OpportunitiesThe connections that students make at university can be invaluable for their future success.Universities often host networking events,guest lectures,and career fairs that provide students with opportunities to meet professionals in their fields.These connections can lead to internships,job opportunities,and collaborations that can propel a students career forward.Additionally,the friendships and professional relationships formed at university can provide a support network that lasts a lifetime.Access to ResourcesUniversities are hubs of resources that can be instrumental in a persons journey to success. Libraries,research facilities,and academic support services provide students with the tools they need to excel in their studies and to pursue their passions.Access to these resources can be a significant advantage for students who are looking to conduct research, develop new ideas,or create innovative solutions to problems.Personal Growth and DevelopmentThe university experience is not just about academic learning it is also a time for personal growth and development.Living away from home,managing ones own schedule,and interacting with a diverse group of peers can help students develop independence, resilience,and adaptability all qualities that are essential for success.Furthermore,the opportunity to explore new interests,participate in extracurricular activities,and engage in community service can help students develop a wellrounded perspective on life and a sense of social responsibility.Entrepreneurial SpiritMany successful individuals are entrepreneurs who have turned their ideas into successful businesses.University education can play a crucial role in fostering this entrepreneurial spirit.Business and innovation programs,as well as mentorship opportunities,can provide students with the knowledge and skills they need to start their own ventures.The university environment,with its emphasis on creativity and risktaking, can be an ideal place for budding entrepreneurs to test their ideas and learn from their failures.Lifelong LearningFinally,a university education instills a love for lifelong learning that can be a key factor in a persons success.Successful individuals are often those who continue to learn and adapt throughout their lives.The skills and knowledge gained at university can serve as a foundation for continued learning and professional development,whether through further education,professional training,or selfdirected study.In conclusion,while not every successful person has a university degree,the benefits of higher education are clear.From the knowledge and skills gained to the personal growth and networking opportunities,a university education can be a powerful catalyst for success.It is not just about the degree itself,but the experiences,the connections,and the mindset that university life can provide all of which can contribute to a persons journey to success.。

读书有真意的英语作文

Reading is an activity that holds profound significance for individuals and society as a whole.It is not merely a pastime but a gateway to knowledge,wisdom,and personal growth.Here is a detailed essay on the true essence of reading:The Transformative Power of ReadingReading is a journey that transcends time and space,allowing us to explore the depths of human experience and the vast expanse of knowledge.It is a pursuit that enriches the mind,cultivates the soul,and broadens the horizons of understanding.1.Access to Knowledge:The first and foremost benefit of reading is the access it provides to a wealth of information.Books are repositories of human knowledge,capturing the collective wisdom of the ages.Through reading,we can learn about history,science,literature,and philosophy,gaining insights into the world and our place within it.2.Cognitive Development:Reading stimulates the brain,enhancing cognitive abilities such as critical thinking, problemsolving,and creativity.It challenges us to analyze complex ideas,make connections,and form our own interpretations of the text.This mental exercise keeps our minds sharp and agile,promoting cognitive health.3.Emotional Intelligence:Novels and narratives,in particular,offer a window into the emotional landscapes of characters,allowing us to empathize with their experiences.This emotional engagement fosters empathy and understanding,contributing to our emotional intelligence and social skills.4.Personal Growth:Reading can be a catalyst for personal growth.It encourages selfreflection,prompting us to consider our own values,beliefs,and aspirations.Many readers find inspiration and guidance in the stories and ideas they encounter,leading to personal transformation and selfimprovement.5.Cultural Understanding:Literature often reflects the cultural context in which it was written.By reading works from diverse cultures and time periods,we can gain a deeper understanding of the worlds rich tapestry of human experiences and perspectives,fostering a more inclusive and tolerant worldview.nguage Skills:The act of reading helps to improve language skills,including vocabulary,grammar,and syntax.Exposure to wellwritten texts can enhance our own writing and communication abilities,making us more articulate and effective in expressing our thoughts and ideas.7.Entertainment and Relaxation:Beyond its educational benefits,reading is also a source of entertainment and relaxation. It provides an escape from the stresses of daily life,allowing us to immerse ourselves in imaginary worlds and lose ourselves in the narratives of others.8.Lifelong Learning:In an everchanging world,the ability to learn and adapt is crucial.Reading cultivates a habit of lifelong learning,ensuring that we remain curious,adaptable,and informed throughout our lives.9.Social Engagement:Reading can also be a social activity.Book clubs,literary discussions,and online forums provide platforms for sharing ideas and engaging in intellectual debates,fostering a sense of community and shared interest.10.Preservation of the Human Spirit:Finally,reading serves as a preservation of the human spirit.It allows us to connect with the thoughts and emotions of those who have come before us,and to carry forward their legacy of ideas,dreams,and aspirations.In conclusion,the true essence of reading is multifaceted,offering a myriad of benefits that extend beyond simple entertainment.It is a pursuit that enriches our lives in countless ways,making us more knowledgeable,empathetic,and wellrounded individuals.By embracing the transformative power of reading,we can unlock our full potential and contribute meaningfully to the world around us.。

23年专升本公共英语作文真题

23年专升本公共英语作文真题英文回答：In the realm of higher education, the debate between the value of specializations and general education has been a topic of constant discussion. While specializations provide in-depth knowledge in specific fields, general education fosters a broader understanding of the world. Each approach has its merits, but the choice between them depends on the individual's aspirations and career goals.Those who pursue specializations often develop a deep expertise in their chosen disciplines. This can be highly advantageous in fields that require specialized knowledge, such as medicine, engineering, or law. Specializations enable individuals to master the complexities of theirfield and to contribute effectively to its advancement. However, the narrow focus of specialization can also limit one's perspective and make it difficult to adapt to changing job markets.General education, on the other hand, aims to provide students with a broad foundation in a range of disciplines. This includes courses in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. General education courses are designed to cultivate critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and an appreciation for diverse perspectives. By exposing students to a wide range of knowledge, general education empowers them to become well-rounded individuals who can navigate complex issues and make informed decisions.The choice between specialization and general education is not mutually exclusive. It is possible to pursue a specialized degree while also incorporating courses in general education. This hybrid approach can provide the benefits of both worlds: the in-depth knowledge of a specialization combined with the broader perspective of general education.Ultimately, the decision between specialization and general education is a personal one. Individuals shouldconsider their interests, career aspirations, and the demands of the job market when making this choice. Both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, and the best choice depends on the individual's unique circumstances.中文回答：专升本阶段对于选择专业化还是通识教育的争论已经持续了很长时间。

机会在于新学习的英语作文

Opportunities lie in the continuous learning of English.In todays globalized world, English has become an essential tool for communication,business,and education.Here are some ways in which learning English can open up opportunities:1.Enhanced Communication:English is a global language,spoken by over a billion people worldwide.By learning English,you can communicate with a larger audience, making it easier to share ideas and collaborate on projects.2.Access to Information:Much of the worlds knowledge is stored in English.By learning the language,you gain access to a vast array of information from scientific research to cultural insights,which can enrich your understanding of the world.cational Opportunities:Many prestigious universities and educational institutions offer their courses and materials in English.Proficiency in English can open doors to higher education and specialized training.4.Career Advancement:In the job market,English skills are highly valued.Whether you are looking to work in a multinational corporation or in a field that requires international collaboration,knowing English can give you a competitive edge.5.Cultural Exchange:Learning English allows you to engage with different cultures and perspectives.It can lead to a deeper understanding and appreciation of the diversity in the world.6.Travel:English is widely understood in many countries,making it easier to travel and navigate unfamiliar places.It can also enhance your travel experience by allowing you to interact more deeply with locals.7.Personal Growth:The process of learning a new language can be intellectually stimulating and personally rewarding.It challenges your brain and can lead to improved cognitive skills.working:English is often the default language for international networking.Being proficient in English can help you build a global network of contacts and collaborators.9.Entrepreneurship:If you have a business idea that could appeal to an international audience,knowing English can help you market and sell your products or services globally.10.Technological Advancement:Much of the latest technology and software isdeveloped in Englishspeaking countries.Understanding English can help you stay updated with the latest technological trends and innovations.In conclusion,the opportunities that come with learning English are vast and varied. They can impact your personal life,your career,and your ability to engage with the world on a broader scale.。

配套问题知识点

配套问题知识点（中英文实用版）Title: Companion Question Knowledge PointsTo ensure a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter, it is crucial to identify and address配套问题知识点(companion question knowledge points).These are the essential concepts, theories, and methodologies that underpin the questions asked in various fields.By mastering these knowledge points, individuals can better navigate the complexities of their respective domains.Firstly, it is important to differentiate between "配套问题知识点" and other related terms.For instance, "companion question knowledge points" should not be confused with "auxiliary question knowledge points" or " supplementary question knowledge points".Each of these terms has a distinct meaning and application within the context of academic inquiry.Secondly, understanding the interconnectedness of various knowledge points is vital.In many cases, a question in one field may require knowledge from several different disciplines.Therefore, having a broad and integrated understanding of various subjects is essential for addressing complex questions effectively.Thirdly, it is necessary to recognize the dynamic nature of knowledge.The concepts and theories that are considered "companionquestion knowledge points" today may evolve or be replaced by new ideas in the future.Staying updated with the latest research and developments in the field is therefore crucial for maintaining a relevant and accurate understanding of companion question knowledge points.Fourthly, mastering the art of applying knowledge points to real-world scenarios is essential.Knowledge is not static; it must be actively used and applied to address practical questions and challenges.This application process helps to refine and enhance one"s understanding of the subject matter, making it even more robust and reliable.最后，教授学生如何寻找和应用配套问题知识点是提高他们学术能力的关键。

电子通信英语第三章

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Unit 14 Basic Knowledge of Communications
The size of the group is a compromise as treating each channels individually involves far more equipment because separate filters, modulators and oscillators are required for every channels rather than each group. However the failure of one module will lose all of the channels associated with a group.
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Unit 14 Basic Knowledge of Communications
Pulse Code Modulation
In analog modulation, the signal was used to modulate the amplitude or frequency of a carrier, directly. However in digital modulation a stream of pulses, representing the original, is created. This stream is then used to modulate a carrier or alternatively is transmitted directly over a cable. Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) is one of the two techniques commonly used.

高二英语知识点

高二英语知识点As a language learner, it is important to have a solid understanding of the key points in English. In this article, we will explore some essential knowledge points for second-year high school students.1. Grammar and SyntaxGrammar and syntax are fundamental to language learning. It is crucial to have a good grasp of the different parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Understanding sentence structures, verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, and word order will help students construct correct and meaningful sentences.2. Vocabulary ExpansionExpanding one's vocabulary is essential for effective communication. Students should actively build their word bank by learning new words, understanding their meanings, and using them in different contexts. It is important to recognize synonyms, antonyms, idioms, and phrasal verbs, as they enhance language proficiency and provide variety in expression. Utilizing dictionaries, flashcards, and online resources can assist in vocabulary expansion.3. Reading ComprehensionThe ability to comprehend written texts is crucial in academic and everyday life. Students should practice reading a wide range of materials, such as news articles, essays, poems, and short stories, to improve their reading comprehension skills. Focusing on main ideas, supporting details,inference, and understanding the writer's tone will help students become better readers.4. Writing SkillsDeveloping strong writing skills is essential for effective communication. Students should learn how to structure their writing, use appropriate vocabulary and grammar, and convey their ideas clearly. Practicing different types of writing, including essays, letters, reports, and narratives, will improve students' ability to express themselves effectively in writing. Proofreading and editing are crucial to ensure clarity and coherence in their compositions.5. Listening and SpeakingImproving listening and speaking skills is vital for effective communication in English. Students should actively listen to various forms of audio, such as podcasts, songs, speeches, and conversations, to enhance their listening comprehension. Engaging in conversations, debates, and presentations will improve their speaking skills and boost their confidence in expressing their thoughts and ideas fluently.6. Exam PreparationAs second-year high school students, it is important to be aware of the standardized exams that await, such as the TOEFL, IELTS, or SAT. Familiarize yourself with the exam format, practice past papers, and seek guidance from teachers or tutors to ensure proper exam preparation. Developing effective time management skills and exam strategies will contribute to achieving desired results.In conclusion, mastering the key knowledge points in English is crucial for second-year high school students. A strong foundation in grammar and syntax, vocabulary expansion, reading comprehension, writing skills, listening, and speaking abilities, as well as exam preparation, will greatly enhance students' overall English language proficiency. Continuous practice, dedication, and a passion for learning will pave the way for success in English language acquisition.。

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电子通信英语第三章

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