语言学第八章The Writing System PPT
语言学导论第八章
Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms
语言学概论：第八章语言接触ppt课件
• 汉民族在几千年的历史发展过程中曾数度被一些经济、 文化上比较落后的民族所统治，但由于它在经济上、文 化上处于先进的地位，汉语在融合中总是被其他民族所 采用而成为胜利者。
• 语言的融合还需要一个客观条件，这就是各民族人民必
须生活在同一地区，形成杂居的局面。
三、融合的类型
• 语言的融合的两种类型： • 自愿融合——北魏孝文帝的改革 • ——在语言的融合过程中，有些民族顺乎历史发展的规律， 自觉地放弃使用自己的语言，选用比自己民族经济文化发展水平高的 民族的语言作为共同的交际工具。如：鲜卑族。
3.仿译词：意译词的一种，其特点是用本民族语言的材 料逐一翻译原词的语素，不但把它的意义，而且也把它 的内部构成形式也转植过来。
•
借词、意译词的差异
仿译词
汉语早期的借词
• 中国“五四”运动以后和1978年中国对外开放以来，中 国和外国在政治、经济、文化、科技等方面的交往日益 频繁，新事物、新概念从欧美大量输入。这些外来的事 物、概念绝大部分在汉语里是用意译词来表达的，借词
• 两个或几个民族融合为一个民族，当然需要一种共同的 交际工具。社会历史条件决定哪一种语言成为胜利者。 • A、经济文化的优势成为决定性条件。政治地位的高低 不起决定作用。如鲜卑、契丹、女真、满等民族的语言
被汉语所替代。
• B、各民族杂居的局面是融合的客观条件。（满语被融
合200－300年，蒙古语未被融合。）
第二节 语言的融合
• 一、语言系统的排挤和替代
• 语言融合：指一种语言排挤和替代其他语言而成为不同民 族的共同交际工具。它是随着不同民族的接触和融合而产 生的一种语言现象。这是不同语言统一为一种语言的基本 形式。 • 从历史上看，语言融合在巩固国家的统一，民族的团结， 促进人们的往来等方面都有积极的作用。 • 春秋战国是我国历史上的一个混乱时期，但在民族关 系和语言关系上来说，却是一个大融合时期。这种融合为 秦统一全国，形成一个统一的汉民族奠定了坚实的基础。 两汉以来国家的统一和发展也清楚地说明了融合的历史进 步作用。
《英语语言学》ppt课件
31
举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系
学不研究
32
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
义和区别 2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音 3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征
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Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.
印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语 系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系
印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语 族，凯尔特语族, 斯拉夫语族，伊朗
印度语族
日耳曼语族下分西日耳曼支，东日 耳曼语支，北日耳曼语支
18
Indo-European language family
印欧语系
Germanic group 日耳曼语族
Celtic group 凯尔特语族
计算机语言学
26
语言学分类-按研究导向分
Linguistics
Theoretical Linguistics
Linguistic nature, universal rules
Applied Linguistics
language acquisition, teaching, assessment
generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩
语言学ppt课件
18
3.2 Duality
The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:
--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913):
Course in General Linguistics (1916)
6
“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” --Edward Sapir (1884-1939):
Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)
7
“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” --Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager
Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.
语言学教程第8章
第八章：Relevance theory有点小问题1)the speech act theory (言语行为理论) p186It originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950’s. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.2)performatives (施为句) p186Austin classifies sentences in two categories: Performatives and Constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action.e.g. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.3)constatives （叙事句）p187Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.(This is a sentence said by achemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these worlds. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring.Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement.)4)locutionary act （发话行为）p188utterance meaning (the movement of muscles)The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.(According to Austin, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something, one of them is ) locutionary act, which is the act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences or the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.5)illocutionary act （行事行为）p189speaker’s meaning (intention)(the other sense is illocutionary act which means) the act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: asking or answering a question, giving some information or an assurance or a warning, pronouncing sentence, making a request or an appointment or a criticism, making identification or giving a description, and many others.6)perlocutionary act （取效行为）p189contextual meaning (results)(the third sense is) perlocutionary act which means the consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or inducing him to do something (the act preformed by or as a result ofsaying, the effects on the hearer.).7)the cooperative principle （合作原则）p191This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation. According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.The cooperative principle has four categories of maxims: maxims of quality, maxims of quantity, maxims of relation, and maxims of manner.8)maxim of quantity （数量准则）Be economicalmake your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) but do not make your contribution more informative than is required.9)maxim of quality （质量准则）Be truthfuldo not say what you believe to be false and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10)maxim of relation （关系准则）Be relevant (what you say)11)maxim of manner （方式准则）Be clearBe perspicuous(清晰明白的). Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. And be orderly.12)calculability （可推导性or 可计算性）p195It is the first character of implicature. Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including: 1) the conventional meaning of the words, 2) the CP and its maxims, 3) the context, 4) other items of the background knowledge, 5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case. (Hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.)13)cancellability （可取消性）p196Also known as defeasibility（可废除性）. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts, etc. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change.14)non-detachability （不可分离性）p196A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content ofwhat is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as awhole, even though the specific words may be changed.15)non-conventionality （非常规性）p197Implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It is indeterminate and varies with context.Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words.16)contextual meaning (语境意义)（perlocutionary act）meaning in context, meaning made in different situationsThe meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.17)pragmatics (语用学)The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.18) relevance theory （关联理论）p194Relevance theory was formally proposed by Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its optimal relevance.The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in anygiven context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction. RT is thus a minimalist theory of communication. Relevance is all we need.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
普通心理学 8语言和言语ppt课件
第八章 语言与言语
主要内容 语言和言语的一般概念 言语的生理机制 言语的理解 言语的产生
第一节 语言和言语的一般概念 一、语言的概念及其特征 二、语言的结构 三、言语及其特性 四、言语的种类 五、语言的表征和加工过程 六、研究语言的意义
表层结构与深层结构 同一个深层结构可以用不同的表层结 构来体现，即表达同一意义时，可以采用 不同的表达方式；一个表层结构也可包含 两个或更多的深层结构。
人的言语活动和言语交际是由言语的表层结
构与深层结构的联合所完成的，表层结构规范了
人的言语活动的框架或基本模式，全部使用语言
进行交际的人均必须遵守；深层结构从主题和态 度两方面结合起来为句子赋予意义。
（四）内部言语 内部言语是自问自答的语言活动，或不出声的 言语活动。 它的特点是： 1．隐蔽性。内部言语是一种不出声的言语， 它以语音的隐蔽性为特点。 2．简略性。内部言语不是一种直接用于交际 的语言，它不存在别人是否理解的问题，因而常 常以十分简略、概括的形式出现。在内部言语中 句子的大量成分常常被省略，例如只保留主语和 谓语。它可以用一个词或词组来代表一系列完整 的陈述。
从深层结构到表层结构的转换，要通
过一定的规则来实现。这些规则包括短语
结构规则和转换规则等。
运用短语结构规则可以把某些表面结 构相同而深层结构不同的句子区别开来。 转换规则是说明句子的深层结构与表层 结构转换关系的规则。通过转换，相同的 深层结构就可用不同的表层结构表达出来 了。 乔姆斯基的理论不仅推动了语言学的发 展，而且推动了心理学的发展。
四、言语的种类 言语活动分两类：外部言语和内部言语 。外部言语又包括口头言语(对话和独白言 语)和书面言语。
《语言学教程》第 8 章 语用学
精选版课件ppt
7
①But gradually linguists found that it would be
impossible to give an adequate description of meaning
if the context of language use was left unconsidered.
pragmatic study of language. ②It is generally
considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by
the speaker and the hearer. ③Various components of
shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge
study. ③Pragmatics is a comparatively a new branch
of study in the area of linguistics; its development and
establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the
being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
精选版课件ppt
8
“句子”与“语句”
①某年某月某日某时，张三说“天在下雨”；
这是语句( utterance)。②某年某月某日某时，李四
也说“天在下雨”；这也是语句( utterance) 。③张
三、李四各自的语句所表现出的共有的、得到普
certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
语言学概论-绪论(共14张PPT)
第11页，共14页。
YUYAN XUE GAILUN
◆理论语言学：研究语言的本质、语言学
方法的语言学，与普通语言学有某些共 同点。
◆应用语言学：广义的应用语言学指一 切与语言文字应用有关问题的研究， 如词典编撰，人机对话，言语病理 等研究。狭义的应用语言学专指语 言教学研究。
◆微观语言学：只研究语言系统自身的语 言学。
纪巴尼尼（panini）写的《梵语语法》，达到了很高的水平。 ◆古代希腊——罗马。古代西欧各国的语言研究与哲学研究密切相关，他们注重探
索逻辑与语言，思维与语言的关系问题，同时在学校中主要讲授语法、修辞、逻 辑，编出了许多语法读本。 ◆古代中国。我国有悠久的文化传统，为了阅读先秦典籍，我国古代学者以汉字 为中心，分析字形，考究字音，训释字义，形成了文字学，音韵学，训诂学
课程特点
• 抽象性。本课程讲述人类语言的一般规律，因而比较抽象。
• 链条性。本课程的知识结构是链条状的，前后知识联系密切。
• 知识点多。本课程涉及到古今中外各种语言现象，知识点十分丰富。
第2页，共14页。
课程内容
本课程内容大致有三大板块：语言的本质，
语言的结构，语言的发展
第一章 绪论
4学时
第二章 语言的社会功能
三门传统学科，其典型代表是汉代许慎著的《说文解字》。
第9页，共14页。
古代的语言研究主要还是为了读懂先
辈留下的典籍，而不是探索语言自身规律，
第二章 语言因的此社会那功能时的语8学言时研究称为“传统语文学”。
理论语言学和应用语言学；
◆宏观语言学：指语言学同其它科学部门相互交叉融合而成的边缘学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学等。
准确理解并牢记基本概念，在听课和阅读教材的 基础上尽量多读参考文献，扩大视野。
英语语言学 第八章 语言与社会
Register 语域
▪ Register, in a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
▪ Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacherstudent, etc.)语旨
away, please? ▪ Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once. ▪ Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the
upper floor by way of the staircase.
▪ When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.
《语言学纲要》PPT课件
4.英语中有现在进行时、过去进行时、现在完成时、 过去完成时等等“时体”的概念，汉语中也可以用动
态 助词“着”“了”“过”表示，例如：
你怎么吃？ 你怎么吃了？ 下面这两句表示了什么样的时体概念？能解释一下 吗？ 这本书看了三天。 这本书看了三天了。
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5.同样是否定前缀in,为什么在 indefinite[in‘definit]“模糊的”中是[in],在 incomplete中是[iη]，而在impossible中是[im] ？
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本章需要掌握的内容：
一、名词解释： 1.语言学：是以人类语言为研究对象的学科。探索范围包括
语言的结构、语言的运用、语言的社会功能和历 史发展，以及其他与语言有关的问题。
2.小学： 指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂
学 三方面的内容。
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`
3.语文学：是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面
一，是研究并揭示语言中存在的普遍规律的学科，是 一项基础研究，属于基础学科。具有社会科学属性 （语言是一种社会现象）和自然科学属性（语言的语 音形式——声音，体现了语言的自然属性）。
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二、语言学的发展简史
语言研究的三大发源地： 古代印度、中国和古希腊——罗马
语文学 西方：书面语（为古代经典著作做注释）
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你能回答下列问题吗？
1.一老外问：同样是名词的重叠，“家家”“人人” 表示
“每一家”“每一个人”，而幼儿语言中的“回家 家”“吃饭
饭”“拿勺勺”却不能理解为“回每一个家”“吃每 一顿
饭”“拿每一个勺子”，为什么？
2.你的普通话说得标准吗？为什么？
3.你注意到字母b在汉语和--英- 语中的记音方式有什么
语言学导论PPT课件
isn’t innate
As.
Material →
→ product
.
7
※ competence ① (Grammar) is equal to everybody ② ideal knowledge of language user
performance ① isn’t equal to everybody ② influenced by psychological and social factors.
.
11
3. Social functions of language (1) Communicative means (the most important one) (2) The means for conceptual thinking and recognition of
the world. (3) The vehicle and transmitter of culture.
language is cultural-dependant language mirrors culture
.
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4. Functions of language in communication (1) Phatic (2) Directive function (3) Informative function (4) Expressive function (5) Interrogative function (6) Evocative function (7) Performative function
Descriptivism: a) Language is live, changing. If one of
第八章言语产生
语法规则失误
在应用屈折和派生形态规则时同样有可能 发生错误。
eg: 1) I knew about it soon. → I knowed about it soon. 2) He always keeps a pack. →He always packs a keep.
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1）人在说话时心里出现的并不只有一个意愿
2）这种失误体现的是一种相互对立的活动，是两种不 同意愿同时进行的活动。 3）心理动力因素也可促使某些内容比别的更容易出现
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心理语言学解释言语失误
1）心理语言学家的研究目的是，通过言语失误来了解人 的语言机制。 2）言语失误中的音段变化、移动等支持了认为区别性特 征、音素、语素组成了话语产生中制订计划的单位的说 法。
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重复(repeats)
eg: Turn on the heater / the heater switch. 打开热水器，热水器开关。
第14页，共82页。
开始失误(false start)
1）重复性开始失误 eg:Turn on the stove / the heater switch.
动词短语互换
He prefers playing football to reading books. → He prefers reading football to playing books.
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重音失误（stress errors）
重音和其他音素特征一样同样可以错位
eg: apples of origin→apples of origin mobility →mobility phonetic →phonetic
系统功能语言学ppt
temple. (R) （6）小句中的其他成分
主位与疑问句
如何划分疑问句的主位？
※ 夸克：
主位=动词的限定成分
※ 韩礼德
√
主位=动词的限定成分+主语
（1）是非疑问句：主位= 动词的限定成分+主语 Ex: Can you (T) // lend me this book? (R) Is anybody (T) // there? (R)
关系： 主语+ 限定成分的次序 小句语气的类型 小句的主位和述位
从语气的角度可对句子分类如下：
句子的 语气
直陈语气
陈述 疑问 感叹
是非疑问 特殊疑问
祈使语气
祈使句
主位与陈述句
陈述句中，主位通常是句子的主语。
陈述句中 的主位
（1）人称代词 Ex: I (T) // like this poem best. (R)
（2）非人称代词 Ex: It (T) //isn’t what I mean. (R)
（3）名词词组或名词性小句 Ex: Whether you go or not (T) // makes no difference to me. (R) （4）小句中的宾语 Ex: The poem (T) // I like best. (R)
主位与祈使句
要求受话者做某事: 主位= you Ex: You (T) // keep quiet! (R) 与受话者一起做某事: 主位= let’s Ex: let’s (T) //go home ! (R)
肯定句
祈使句中 的主位
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HELLO! HELLO! HELLO!
Acronym system
ur( your), nite (night), f2f (face-to-face) np (no problem), imho ( in my humble opinion) CU (see you)…
The writing system
Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese & Simplified Chinese
才 -纔 缠 -纏 尘 -塵 冲 -遲 聪 -聰 忏 -懺 衬 -襯 丑 -醜 灿 -燦 偿 -償 称 -稱 处 -處 层 -層 厂 -廠 惩 -懲 触 -觸 搀 -攙 彻 -徹 迟 -遲 辞 -辭
Thanks !
Chinese characters
Chinese Characters & Pinyin System
PINYIN literally means “spelling according to sound” in Mandarin Chinese and usually refers to HANYU PINYIN, which is a system of Romanization for Putonghua used in the People’s Republic of China.
It is a semiotic system for recording language, and it is one of the most important tools for human communication.
Characteristics of Writing
Brain – language – writing The materials it uses are writing signals, which must be sensed by eyes. It plays the role of an assistant to speech for communication. Spoken language may be limited by space and time, while writing can record the speech of the ancient people and can transmit the message to far-away places. Spoken language is a unique feature of a nation, while writing is not.
Chapter 8 The Writing System
1004180
I owe nothing; for I ate nothing． “我什么没吃, 所以不欠什么。”
What is writing?
Writing is a sign that used to record information, and it can turn the auditory elements into visual ones.
1）to change the word formation rules or writing orders 2）to make thorough change in its wording construction or use an alternative alphabetic system to replace the original one.
The History of writing
1) The origin of writing
2) Development of writing
Pictogram age Ideogram age Alphabetic writing Pictogram age: it is an inscription which represents the features of a physical object. Many Chinese characters derived from pictograms. Ideogram age: During this period, people extended the meaning of pictogram. The script can refer to not only these concrete things but also some abstract ideas.
Hanyu Pinyin includes SHENGMU (consonants) and YUNMU (vowels). Additionally, the Pinyin system uses tone marks to represent pronunciation of Putonghua.
Electronic writing
Electronic writing --- it may take visual and auditory information as its assistant devices for better expression.
In cyberspace, people communicate with each other via E-mails, bulletin board system (BBS), or internet relay chat (IRC).
Morphemic writing system 形素文字系统 Syllabic writing system 音节文字系统 Alphabetic writing system 拼音文字系统
The reformation of writing system
Two ways to conduct the reformation of the writing system: