Schools of Modern Linguistics22
《语言学概论》大纲
河北师范大学《语言学概论》课程教学大纲课程代码：0510010390课程英文名称：A Brief Introduction to Linguistics学分：3学时：54适用对象/专业：英语专业学生先修课程：英语语法，英美文化概况授课语言：英语、汉语开课单位：外国语学院课程负责人：张玲玲一、课程性质及教学目标1. 课程性质和类别“语言学概论”课程是英语专业本科高年级阶段的专业必修课程，为报考本专业硕士研究生必考课程之一。
课程通过讲授语言学的基础知识、基本理论、研究成果和研究方法，使学生了解语言学领域中的一些基本概念的内涵；了解语言学传统分支领域的基础理论知识；基本了解各个语言学流派的观点和主张；旨在运用语言学的知识提高他们的语言修养，言语交际效果和具备初步的科研能力。
2. 教学目标本课程的教学目的是向学生讲授英语语言的属性、功能、起源和内部层次，掌握英语语言学基本特征和主要分支的基本概念，了解语言在时空中的变异及其与社会、文化、语境、思维等外部因素的关系，同时了解部分主要语言学流派，使学生通过对该课程的学习，既能借助语言学理论整理和吸收语言知识，又能运用正确的观点评价语言，并为进一步的深造打下基础。
二、理论教学内容及要求Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics主要内容：1.1 Why Study Language?1.2 What Is Language?1.3 Design Features of Language;1.4 Origin of Language;1.5 Functions of Language;1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics;1.8 Macrolinguistics;1.9 Important Distinctions in Linguistics基本要求：掌握语言的区别性特征和语言学里一些重要区别性概念。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章试题
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning ___D______ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. co nte xt2. A sentence is a ______B___ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied inisolation. A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. co nce p tual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes a (n) ___C______.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. e xp re ssive4. Which of the following is true?√ A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.√ D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until ____A______.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. ___C_______ is the act performed by or resulting fro m saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ___B___.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the sam e category share the same p urp ose, b ut they differ ___A__C_____.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. _____A_____ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D_____ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12.T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13.T What e sse ntially d isting uishe s se m antics and p rag m atics is whe the r in the stud y o fmeaning the context of use is considered.14. F The m ajor d ifference b etween a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence isnot uttered while an utterance is.15.F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16.F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17T. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19.T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20.T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of ___context_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think o f a sentence as what people actually utter in the course o f communication, it becomes an ___utterance_______.23. The meaning of a sentence is __abstrac t________, and decontexualized.24. _Constative_________ were statem ents that either state or d escrib e, and were thus verifiable.25. __Perfo rm ative_______ were sentences that d id no t state a fact o r d escrib e a state,and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __locuionary________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) ___illocutionary_______ act is the act o f e xp re ssing the sp e ake r’s inte ntio n; it isthe act performed in saying something.28. A(n) __commisive_______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course o f action.29. A(n) __expressive______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim o f ____quantity______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)Ke y: Chapter8I. 1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII. 11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII. 21.context 22.utterance 23.abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantityChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The p e rso n wh o is o fte n d e scrib e d as “fath e r o f m o d e rn lin g u istics” is __B________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Cho m sky2. The m o st im p o rtant co ntrib utio n o f the Prag ue Scho o l to ling uistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of ___A_______.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. syste m3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is _______C__.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally sp eaking, the _____A_____ sp ecifies whether a certain tag m em e is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Co he sio n5. _____A_____ Gram m ar is the m o st wid esp read and the b est und ersto o d m etho d o f discussing Indo-European languages.A. Trad itio nalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Ge ne rative6. ____A______ Gram m ar starte d fro m the Am e rican ling uist Syd ne y M. Lam b in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Mo n tag u e7. In Hallid ay’s view, the _____B_____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. info rm ative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is _____D_____.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jan e9. Chomsky follows _____C_____ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. m e ntalism10. TG grammar has seen _____C_____ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. F The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. T London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14.T According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.15.F American Structuralism is a branch o f diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16.F The Stan d ard Theo ry focuses discussion on language universals and universalg ram m ar.17.T American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities o f languages.18.T Cho m sky’s co nce p t o f ling uistic p e rfo rm ance is sim ilar to Saussure’s co nce p t o fp aro le, while his u se o f lin g u istic co m p e te n ce is so m e what d iffe re n t fro m Sau ssu re’s lan g u e.19.T Glo sse m atics e m p hasize s the nature and status o f ling uistic the o ry and its re latio nto description.20. F If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of ___synchronic _______ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and re m e m b e re d for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _____Mathesius__﹙×﹚_J.R Firth_.24. Hallid ay’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is ______systemic ___.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) ___socially_sociogically______ orientedfunctional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is b ased on the assum p tion that g ram m atical categ ories should b edefined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___stucture___ distribution ____.27. In the history of Am erican ling uistics, the p eriod b etween 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian________ Age.28. Descriptivism__________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point o f Cho m sky’s TG grammar is his ____innateness______ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD p ro b ab ly consists o f three elements, that is a __hypothesis maker________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarKe y: Chapter12I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Pe rsp e ctive. It is a theory o f linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis o f utterances (o r texts) in term s o f the info rm atio n theycontain.＊32. Co hesio n: The Co hesio n sho ws whether a certain tag m em e is d o m inating o ther tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a d evice effectively p resent in the m ind s o f child ren b y which a g ram m ar o f their nativelanguage is constructed.＊34. Case Gram m ar: It is an ap p roach that stresses the relationship of elem ents in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s。
英语语言学概论Chapter13Schools.
Chapter 13 Schools of modernLinguistics现代语言学流派•1 Saussure（索绪尔）and modern Linguistics:•Saussure is the father of modern linguistics for his attempts to describe the structure of language rather than the history of languages・He is the founder of structuralism（结构主义语言学）.Course in general linguistics（普通语言学教程）was published in 1916・•Nature of linguistic sign（语言符号的本质）：every linguistic unit is a sign:•1 bilaterality（双面性）:every sign has two aspects: the material sign which is realized phonetically or graphemically, and the conceptual side, that is , the signifier（能指）and the signified（麻指）or the form and content（形式与内容），sound image（音响形彖）and concept.•Both are of a mental nature and the relation is arbitrary, fixed by convention・•2 linearity（线性特征）:the signifier, being auditory, is unfolded solely in time and it represents a span which is mearurable in a line ・ Linearity has to do with the one・dimensional ordering and sequential ordering of linguistic elements in the course of communication・• Arbitrariness:the relation between the signifier and the signified, or sound image and concept, sign and meaning, is not motivated although fixed by conventi on.•Other contributions: relational nature of linguitic signs（符号的关系性，即与其他符号的关系），langue and parole, synchronic and diacronic.组合与聚合•The European Structuralism• Structural linguistics suggestsstudying language in a systematic way. • Three schools of structuralism: Prague school（布拉格学派）,the Copenhagen School（哥本哈根学狼）and the American school（American descriptive Linguistics）• Prague sc hool focues the function of language; theCopenhagen school emphasizes the relation among linguistic structures and the American school stresses the descrription and analysis of the form of linguistic structure.• But they all accept Saussure's ideas.•The Prague school: founded in 1926 by Mathesius and ceased to work in 1950, represented by Jakobson, Trubetzkoy, Firbas. •It holds that Ianguage is a system of functionally related system; makes the distinction between phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds, language is a functional means of communication, abandons Saussure^s separation of langue and parole, primacy of synchrony over* diachr ony.•Shared premises: 1 a decisive break from the positivistic atomism（实证原子主义）of the Neogrammarians（新语吐学家）；2 it interprets the representation of language as a system and linguistics is an independent science;3 it emphasizes the function of language・•Three contributions•The distinctive feature theory formalized by Jakobson:•1 all features are binary（二分的）:/+nasal/ VS /- ・nasal/, /+ voiced/ VS /-voiced/•2 there is a difference between phonetic and pho no logical features ・Distinctive features are phonological features while phonetical features are surface realizations of phonological features・•3 distinctive features may be defined in terms of articulatory（发音）or acoustic （音响）features.•4 a small set of features is able to differentiate between phonemes of any single language・•Phoneme has three distictive features: discriminative power, minimal, determined by distinctive features・•Trubetzkoy proposed 9 phonological oppositions ・•Functional sente nee perspective（功能句子观）:it studies how information is disributed in sen fences ・Each sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse or theme （主位）and rheme（述位），given information and new intormationis on page 5 predicate （谓语） rhemei New information is the picture subject rhemen New information • communicative dynamism （CD ）（交际动 力）:the amount of information a linguistic item carries in a sentence ・ Subject —verb-objectThe picture issubject （主语） theme given information On Page 5 predicate theme given information•The Copenhagen School:•代表人物:Hjelmslev（1899-1965）•Its approach to linguistics is called glossmatics（语符学）:language is a symbolic system・It should be studied together with other systems・•America n Structuralism: post-Bloomfield linguistics・ It is represented by F. Boas, E. Sapir, L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris.•Two stages: the Bloomfield era and the distributionalism（分布主义）represented by Z. Harris・•It studies and describes dying native American languages・• 2 it studies the obsevable or perceptible data. It neglects meaning but focuses on phonologyandgrammar.3 it is characterised by empirical and inductive procedures(实证和归纳程序)4Jt is influenced by behaviorism(心理学上的行为主义):children learn Ianguage through a chain of stimulus-response reinforcement and adults* use of language is also a process of stimulus -response.Chomsky and transformational-Generative Grammar•T・G Grammar started a evolution in linguistics, called Chomskyan revolution ・•Works: Syntactic Structures (1957): classic theory•Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965): •Standard theor y・Features•1 language is a set of rules or principles ・•2 the aim of linguistics is to capture the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language・•3 the theory relies on intuition•4 it is hypothesis-deductive(假设•演绎)•5 it follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.4 parts of the model: T-G Grammarbase component(phrase structure rules and vocabulary)Ideep structuretransformational componentpho no logical comp orient sema ntic compone ntThe Innate Hypothesis（先天主义假设）•Language is to some extent innate・Human knowledge of language develops from structures, processes and ideas that are in the mind at birth.•Children are born with language acquisition device to learn their native language ・•Competenceand performanee•P260-261•Phrase structure rules, the rules that generate the deep structures ofsen fence.•Structural linguistics and TG Grammar•P 261 TableHalliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar（韩礼德与系统功能语法）•The London School（伦敦学派）：•Malinowski（马林诺夫斯基，人类学家）：he is concerned with the functioning of language ・•Two kinds of situations for Ianguage use: the magic situation: where words or utterance have direct effects on the outside world・Language can get things done. The other is the context of situation: three kinds•1 ・situation in which speech in terrelates with bodily activities・•2 narrative sitation・•3 Situations where speech performs the function of “phatic communion M（客套话）•J. Firth, the founder of the London School •Contributions: 1 he studies prosody（韵律）which in eludes pitch, stress, tone, rhythm,liprounding and nasalization・•2 meani ng is fun ction in con text. There are four levels in con textual analysis:phonological analysis; lexical and semantic analysis; grammatical analysis; and the analysis of the context of situation.•1 language is a social process, a means of social life, a means of doing things or make others doing things・•2 Language consists of two elements: system and structure. Structure is the syntagmatic ordering of elements and system is a set of paradigmatic units・One is horizontal and the other is verticalHallida's Systemic-FunctionalGrammar• Halliday is the father of Systemic- Functional Grammar. Which is built on two concepts by Firth: system and context of situation・• Halliday s grammatical system includes: transitivity system（及物亲统）;mood system（情态系统）;and theme system（主位系统）P 263• Language has three metafunctions（元功能）or macrofunctions（宏观功能）：ideational function （概鸟功能）；interpersonal function（人际动能）and textual function（语篇功能）P263-264 Context includes two communicationplanes（语境包括两个交际平面广genre（言语类型）—context of culture; and register（i普域）一ontext of situation Three variables of context of situation:The field of discourse（语场）;The tenor of discourse（语The mode of discourse（语式）p264summary Saussure Structuralism; The Prague School; the Cope nhage n School and the America n Structualism Chomsky and TG grammar Halliday and Systemic and Functinonal grammar.。
英语语言学—中文版
单元练习...．..７6页英语语言学概论—自学指导主编: 支永碧王永祥英语语言学概论—自学指导主编: 支永碧王永祥副主编：李葆春丁后银王秀凤前言本书主要为参加英语专业(本科段)自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写,是《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,2０0７）的配套辅导用书。
自2０0７年起,《英语语言学概论》（王永祥、支永碧，２007)被确定为英语专业(本科段)自学考试的指定教材。
在此期间，许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。
他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。
而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。
其一,配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案；其二，和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面；其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导，而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂，再加上其它各种原因,不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点，因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题；此外，在英语专业研究生入学考试中，英语语言学是一门必考科目。
入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。
鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论，多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题，以备将来需要。
为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。
本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外，我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》(修订版）和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。
本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念，主要包括:本章主要考点，课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习,和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是，在本部分，我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题，以便考生更好地了解本章重点。
韩礼德语言功能总结
Chapter 12Theorise and Schools of Modern Linguistics.The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is "father of modern linguist".His two students, C. Bally and A. Sechehaye, collected lecture notes and put them together to produce the great work.Saussure insists on the concept of Arbitrariness of language. And he saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon. He believes that language is a system of signs, which mean something and conventional. Moreover, his linguistic theorise on the nature of the linguistic sign were also influenced by western economic theorise of the time.The Prague School sees language in terms of function. And it would be meaningless if it's viewed in isolation. It is best known for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Trubetzkoy 's principles of phonology argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. A phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.Function Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterance in terms of the information they contain. Those Czech linguistics believe that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer ——it is the ground on which they meet and is called the THEME, the goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer, and is called the RHEME. J. Firbas developed the notion of COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM, based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one.The London School is also known as systematic and functional linguistics. Malinowski said that language is to be regarded as a mode of action rather than as a counterpart of thought which means the meaning of a utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs. He distinguished three types of context of situation: ①situations in which speech interrelate s with bodily activity ；②narrative situations ；and ③situations in which speech is use d to fill a speech vacuum -PHATIC COMMUNION.Halliday and Systemic -Function Grammar.SF Grammar has two components: systemic grammar and function grammar. Systemic grammar aimes to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meanimg potential. Functional grammar aimes to reveal that language is a means of social interaction. All systems have3essential characteristics: ①the term s in a system are mutually exclusive. ②a system is finite. ③the meaning of each term in a system depends on the meaning of the other terms in the system. Halliday 's systemic grammar contains a functional component.The Ideational FunctionIt is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer.The Interpersonal Function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relation. It is realized by MOOD and MODALITY. The Textual Function refers to the fact that language has mechanism to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.American Structuralism 美国结构主义It is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century.Boas: Handbook of American Indian Language -a good summary of the descriptive approach to language.Sapir: An Introduction to the Study of Speech, which aimed at giving a certain perspective on the subject of language rather than to assemble facts about it.Bloomfield 's TheoryFor Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology. It is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human begins cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of STIMULUS -RESPONSE reinforcement and the adult 's use of language is also a process of stimulus -response. First principle is: when one individual is stimulated his speech can make another individual react according. ②the division of labour and all human activities based on the speaker and hearer two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves.Post -Bloomfieldian Linguistics.Harris methods in Structural Linguistics gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the DISCOVERY PROCEPURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization.Transformational -Generative Grammar.TG grammar has seen 5stages of development.①Classic Theory aimes to make linguistics a science; ②The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory; ③the Extended St andard Theory focuses discussion on language universal and universal grammar; ④The Revised Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on government and binding;⑤Mininalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The Innateness Hypothesis 天赋假设Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE, which is a unique kind of knowledge that first them for language.GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means "a system of rules that in some explicit and well -defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences ".He believes that every speaker of a language has mastered and internalised a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.Case GrammarCASE GRAMMAR is an approach that stresses the semantic relationships of elements in a sentence.Generative SemanticsGENERATIVE SEMANTICS hold that there is no principled distinction between synactic processes and semantic processes.。
语言学主要学派（MainschoolsofLinguistics）
语言学主要学派（Main schools of Linguistics）12章现代语言学理论与流派12引言-弗迪南·德·索绪尔瑞士语言学家弗迪南·德·索绪尔（1857 ~ 1913）是“现代语言学”和“一把现代学科硕士的父亲。
”他的重要思想是语言学中的语言学收集（1916），这是由他的学生巴利和A. Sechehaye发表C.。
索绪尔认为，语言单位是一个标志。
语言符号的统一，不是一个符号和名称，而是概念和音响形象。
他称之为概念所指与能指的声音形象。
语言符号的特点有两个。
首先，能指与所指之间的关系是任意的。
其次，语言符号是由能指的线性性质。
索绪尔做了一个区分语言和言语。
他认为语言学家的任务是学习语言，因为它是一个连贯的、可分析的对象。
正是这种区别导致了语音学和音位学的区别。
历时与共时研究的区别是索绪尔对普通语言学的又一重大贡献。
12.1布拉格学派12.1.1介绍布拉格学派有特别重要的三点：（1）它强调语言的共时研究是完全合理的，因为它可以利用完全可控的材料进行调查。
（2）强调语言的系统性，认为孤立地看待任何语言的任何元素都不能令人满意地分析或评价。
换句话说，之间有功能性的对立。
（3）它把语言看作是使用它来为社区执行一些基本功能或任务的工具。
12.1.2音韵学和语音的对立布拉格学派最著名和最著名的是它对音位学和语音学和音位学的贡献，它对语言学的最重要贡献是它从功能的角度看语言。
索绪尔区分语言和言语，Trubetzkoy认为语音属于言语，而音位属于语言。
在此基础上，他发展了“音位”这个概念，作为声音系统的抽象单位，不同于实际产生的声音。
在分类的区别特征，他提出了三个标准”（1）对整个系统的对比关系（2）对立分子之间的关系（3）他们的辨别力这些对立可以概括为：（1）双边反对（2）多边反对（3）比例对立（4）孤立对立（5）对立（6）渐进对立（7）均等对立（8）中和对立（9）不断的反对12.1.3功能句子观（FSP）1。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题第一章：语言学导论I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. . De Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?（南开大学，2004）36.Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）第二章：语音I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely,the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to placea consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing__________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without__________.26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开04）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative第三章：词汇I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a__________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation第四章：句法I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” be longs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between andamong natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.第五章：意义I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2.“We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents_______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called__________.26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called__________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Entailment32. Proposition33. Componential analysis34. ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36. What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a)words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）第七章：语言、文化和社会[注：第六章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6._________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuu m from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8.Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can n ot be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a__________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26.__________ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually range s on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or。
Schools of Modern Linguistics 现 代 语 言 学 流 派
Schools of Modern Linguistics现代语言学流派Ferdinand de Saussure and his Work▪father of modern linguistics▪establish the structural study of language▪emphasize the arbitrary nature of linguistic sign▪emphasize the relational nature of language units▪make several pairs of distinctions▪Saussure‟s most influential work: Course in General Linguistics (1916)▪g ive definition of language▪outline the scope of linguistics▪present principles for phonology and writing systems▪General principles▪Synchronic linguistics▪Diachronic linguistics▪Geographical linguistics▪Retrospective linguisticsThe Arbitrary Nature of the Linguistic Signs▪ language as a system of signs: the sign as a union of the signifier and the signified▪no natural or inevitable connection between the signifier and the signified▪an arbitrary way of organizing the world into concepts and categories▪two important characteristics of linguistic signs:▪the arbitrary relation between the signifier and the signified▪the linear nature of the signifiedThe Relational Nature of Language Units⏹no essential core of meaning for a signified to be the proper signified for that signifier⏹signifiers as members of system defined by their relations to the other members of thatsystem⏹language units as relational identity⏹the comparison between language and chessSaussure‟s Dichotomies⏹Langue and parole⏹Synchronic and diachronic linguistics⏹Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsLangue and Parole▪Langue is the system of a language▪it is what the individual assimilates when he learns a language;▪it is social and abstract;▪It enables the members of a speech community to communicate linguistically.▪Parole is actual speech▪it is individual and concrete;▪it is the realization of the language system.Distinction between langue and parole⏹separate what is social from what is individual and what is essential from accidental⏹lead to the distinction between phonetics and phonology⏹phonetics studies speech sounds from a physical point of view⏹phonology studies the functional units within the linguistic system⏹lead to the distinction between utterance and sentence⏹an utterance is a unit of parole⏹ a sentence is a unit of langueSynchronic and Diachronic Linguistics⏹Synchronic linguistics:concerned with language at one point in time⏹Diachronic linguistics: concerned with the development or evolution of language⏹Distinction between synchronic and diachronic study: synchronic study is given priority⏹there cannot be logical comparisons or diachronic studies without synchronicstudies⏹notion of language change should be carefully used⏹there is a close connection between the study of diachronic change andsynchronic variationSyntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations⏹Syntagmatic relations:⏹relations a linguistic element enters into with other elements in a serial or linearstructure in writing or in the temporal stream of speech⏹relations of cooccurrence⏹relations that link the whole structure to its parts and vice versa⏹Paradigmatic relations:⏹relations that obtain between elements⏹Priority is given to paradigmatic relations in modern linguistics.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹Be the first to define the symbolic nature of human language.⏹Sign:an intersection or relationship or form and meaning, where form is somethingconcrete, and meaning is something mental or cognitive.⏹Three types of signs: icon, index, and symbol.⏹Icon: a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning;⏹Index: a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in naturewith its meaning;⏹Symbol:a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with itsmeaning.Saussure‟s Contributions to Semiotics⏹with respect to the study of the syntactic and semantic dimensions of texts⏹ a rich working hypothesis demonstrating the systematic character of language (orliterature) at each particular period of life⏹The application of the two categories of parole and langue to literatureChapter Two European Functionalism The Prague SchoolIntroduction♦one of the most influential schools of linguistic thought in pre-war linguistics♦the approach to the study of language as a synchronic system♦the importance of the social function of language♦three points are of special importance:–the synchronic study of language–emphasis on the systemic character of languageContributions of The Prague School♦distinction between phonetics and phonology–phonetics belongs to parole–phonology belongs to langue–the notion of the phoneme as an abstract unit of the sound system ♦the functional conception of language as manifested in the analysis of sentences –Mathesius‟s distinction between theme & rheme•the theme, which is a fact or facts already known•the rheme, which contains all the new information to be transmitted –others‟ investigation of the functions of languagePhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s distinction between phonetics and phonology♦Trubetzkov‟s notion of phoneme–it has discriminative power–it cannot be analyzed into smaller segments–it can only be determined by distinctive features♦phonemes as being composed of a number of phonologically significant distinctive featuresPhonology and Phonological Oppositions♦Trubetzkov‟s nine phonological oppositions:–Bilateral opposition（双边对立）–Multilateral opposition（多变对立）–Proportional opposition（均衡对立）–Isolated opposition（孤立对立）–Privative opposition（否定对立）–Gradual opposition（分级对立）–Equipollent opposition（等价对立）–Neutralizable opposition（抵消对立）–Constant opposition（永恒对立）Trubetzkov‟s Con tributions to Phonological Theory♦distinctive functions of speech sounds and an accurate definition for the phoneme♦the sphere of phonological studies♦the interdependent relations between phonemes♦methodologies for phonological studiesJokobson‟s Concept o f Distinctive Features♦The distinctive features are explicitly regarded as binary choices and hence they could be listed as paired oppositions, e.g. …vocality‟ v. …consonantality‟, …vocality‟ v. …non-vocality‟.♦These features were defined with reference not only to articulatory positions but also to acoustic properties of speech-sounds.♦It was hoped that the proposed list of distinctive features would be universal. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)♦Interests in FSP:–Mathesius (1924, 1939)–Firbas (1960‟s)–Halliday (1967, 1968, 1970)♦Definition and scope of FSP:–an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain–the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new information in discourse.♦Firbas‟s notion of Com municative Dynamism (CD):–Linguistic communication is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon.–CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence(e.g. He was angry.)–The various elements of an utterance is thought to have varying degrees of communicative dynamism.Firbas: concept of “context”♦区分了四种语境：–交际双方共有的经验知识（一般语境）；–语言交际正在进行时的直接语境（范围稍窄）；–刚刚出现的上文（范围更窄）；–句子本身（范围最窄，“语境依赖”指的是这种语境）。
12.Theories and schools of modern linguistics-修改版
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黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
2. The Prague School
• Prague Linguistic Circle:
– Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (19212000). – The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.
Teaching objectives:
The learners will be better able to have some knowledge about Saussure, the Prague School, the London School, American Structuralism and Transformational-Generative Grammar.
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黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
李金妹制作
• Functionalism
• Formalism
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黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》 外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
The functional perspective • The Prague School • The London School
语言学习题1
Chapter oneMultiple Choice1. ____________, Father of modern linguistics, is known for his Course in General Linguistics.A. SassureB. ChomskyC. LeechD. Firth2. The traditional grammar rules like You should never use a double-negative are technically known as ______________.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. connotativeD. denotative3. The fact that human beings use languages to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication is referred to ______________ of language.A. displacementB. metalanguageC. dualityD. arbitrariness4. Which of the following pairs was proposed by Chomsky?A. langue and paroleB. etic and emicC. synchronic and diachronicD. competence and performance5. Macrolinguistics includes all the branches EXCEPT _____________.A. sociolinguisticsB. psycholinguisticsC. pragmaticsD. computational linguistics6. The functions of language DOES NOT consist of ____________.A. informativeB. emotiveC. performativeD. prescriptive7. The fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning is technically known as _______________.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. creativityD. displacement8. _________ made the important distinction between langue and parole.A. SaussureB. MalinowskyC. HallidayD. Chomsky9. What kind of function does the sentence “How do you do?” have?A. InformativeB. EmotiveC. Recreational D Phatic communion10. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. psycholinguistic D descriptive11. The term ___________ may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronic linguisticsB. comparative linguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. applied linguistics12.The Chinese phrase “茶，上茶，上好茶；坐，请坐，请上座” is an example of _____________ of human language.A. phatic communionB. emotive functionC. interpersonal functionD. metalingual function13. Which of the following is the major role played by human language?A. Emotive.B. Interpersonal.C. Performative.D. Informative.14. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called____________.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission15. Unlike animal communication systems, human language is .A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest16. The function of the sentence “Water bo ils at 100 degree Centigrad e” is .A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative17. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human ______.A.contactmunicationC.relationmunity18. ______ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A.PragmaticsB.SemanticsC.Sense relationD.Concept19. _______ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement20. Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A.sociological…psychologicalB.applied… pragmaticC.psychological…sociologicalD. semantic …linguistic21. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable22. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is_________. A. arbitrary B. non-arbitrary C. logical D. non-productive24. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above25. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. A. parole B. performance C. langue D. Language26. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of __ ___.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement27. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of ____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional28. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an ( every year be safe and happy), what the function of this idiom among the functions of language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. PhaticFill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time is called as_____________ study of language.2. L____________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while theparole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. In modern linguistics, s________ study seems to enjoy priority over d_______ study. The reason is that successful studies of various states of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.4. Chomsky defines “competence “as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.5. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consistsof two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.6. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is calleds________.8. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.9. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of suchapplications is generally known as a________ linguistics.10. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.11. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.12. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This famous quotation from Shakespeare illustrates that language has the design feature of .13. Halliday’s metafunctions include.Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. According to Chomsky, competence instead of performance should be studied in linguistics.2. Duality is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.3. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.4. When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function.5. Descriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.6. Language is arbitrary by nature but it is not completely arbitrary.7. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.9. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.10. We use the word “word” to talk about a word, we can talk about “talk”, we can think about “thinking”, this shows that language has a metalingual function.11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.17. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.18. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.19. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.20. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.21 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the oral language.22. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.23. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.Define the following terms.Linguistics 2. Phonology 3. Syntax 4. Pragmatics 5. Semantics 6. Language 7. Phonetics 8. Morphology 9.Arbitrariness 10. Displacement 11.Duality 12. Design Features 13. Competence 14 Performance 15. Langue16. Parole Rewrite each of the following lists of words into natural order.（1）Five /the /fresh /potatoes（2）Pretty /American /girls /the two（3）Airlines /brand /France-made /new /the two（4）Fashions /Chinese /the /latest /three（5）Beginning /hardworking /two /the /workersAnswer the following questions in details.1. Why do linguists say language is human specific?2. How you understand arbitrariness in human languages?3. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?4. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?5. How do you understand competence and performance ?。
modern linguistics
A Brief T alk on the Modern LinguisticsAs we all known that founder of modern linguistics is Ferdinand de Saussure, who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”. In 1916, two of his students C. Bally and A. Sechehaye collected lecture notes and put them together to produce the great work, Course in General Linguistics, which marks the beginning of modern linguistics.The development of modern linguisticsSaussure’s linguisticsSaussure drew on a restricted range of language, mostly the familiar languages of Europe, but his influence on the twentieth-century linguistics, which he could be said to have inaugurated, is unsurpassed. A number of ideas on language and the study of language, to some extent, have been expressed by German linguist Humboldt. Whether Saussure is directly influenced by him is uncertain.Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. He rejected the traditional way and orientation of studying linguistics. Saussure also criticized traditional grammarians for neglecting entire aspects of language and for lacking overall perspective, but allowed that their method was fundamentally correct and that they properly emphasized synchrony.He distinguished four pairs of distinctions which are the Signifier vs. Signified, Langue vs. Parole, Synchrony vs. Diachrony, and Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic relations. His structural approach to language underlies virtually the whole of modern linguistics and justifies Saussure’s claim on the independence of linguistics as a subject of study in its own right.The Prague School, the Copenhagen School and American StructuralismIn the 1920s-1930s, another three structuralist schools came into being; they are the Prague school, the Copenhagen school and American Structuralism. They are developed from Saussure’s structural linguistics, which is to study the language structure as the object.The Prague School was founded in 1926, and the representatives are V. Mathesius, Trubetzkoy and R. Jakobson. This school practised a special style of synchroniclinguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. Its major contribution to linguistics is phonology and the distinction between phonetic s and phonology. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue.In the 1930s, another noteworthy structuralist school is the Copenhagen Linguistic School. It was founded by L. Hjelmslev, V. Bröndal and H.J. Uldall. One of its leading theoreticians was L. Hjelmslev, whose Prolegomena (1943; English edition 1953) is intended as a series of preliminary statements essential for the formulation of any theory of language. Hjelmslev viewed language as a self-sufficient totality of its own. He foresaw the emergence of an “algebra of language” which he called “glossematics”. This novel linguistic approach, which strongly emphasizes form, is intentionally designed to distinguish the ideas of the Copenhagen School from more traditional forms of structural linguistics, such as those of the Prague School. Hjelmslev did adhere to Saussure’s basic principles of structuralism, but attempted to make his theory more axiomatic.American structuralism is also called descriptive linguistics, which is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas. Three outstanding scholars of American structuralism are F. Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield. F. Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics in his Handbook of American Indian Languages, holding that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Sapir’s work is best summarized in his Language: an Introduction to the Study of Speech. He started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language and its development, with its main focus on typology. His idea on language and thought was later developed by his student, B.L. Whorf and is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The period between 1930s-1950s is known as Bloomfieldian Era, in which American descriptivelinguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development. For L. Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology and specifically of the positivistic branch of psychology known as Behaviorism. American structuralism is the most influential school among the structuralist schools.The London schoolIn the 1940s, J.R. Firth turned linguistics into a recognized distinct academic subject in Brain. Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski. In turn, he influenced his students, the well-known linguist M.A.K. Halliday. The three all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system of language. Thus London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG)In 1957, the publication of his Syntactic Structures marked the beginning of the Chomsky Revolution. He found that the classification of structural elements of language according to distribution and arrangement had its imitation. Therefore, he dismissed the entire behaviorist approach to language use as the unacceptable product of the strong empiricism of the Bloomfieldian behaviorist school. The second half of the twentieth century can then be regards as the era of transformational-general grammar. In his theory, he made a hypothesis that human was born with language acquisition device (LAD).The three prominent figures in modern linguisticsIn the development of modern linguistics, three prominent figures must be mentioned; they are Humboldt, Saussure and Chomsky. These men have made the greatest contributions to the modern linguistics.Humboldt was one the profound and most original thinker on general linguistic questions in the nineteenth century. He published a quantity of writings on language and languages, of which the most important is The Variety of Human LanguageStructure, first published posthumously a lengthy introduction to his description of the ancient Kawi language of Java. His theory of language lays stress on the creative linguistic ability inherent in every speaker’s brain mind. He follows t he lines of Herder’s thought in asserting the individuality of each different language as a peculiar property of the nation or the group. Possibly Humboldt is best known in linguistics for popularizing a tripartite language typology, isolating, agglutinative, and flexional, according to the predominant structure of the word as a grammatical unit. The two typological poles are Chinese and Sanskrit.Saussure exerted two kinds of influence on modern linguistics. First, he provided a general orientation for the modern linguistics. Second, he influenced modern linguistics in the specific concept. It is he that pushes linguistics into a brand new stage.Chomsky has established a new language theory and analysis of the language structures, which is the Transformational-generative Grammar. TG functions not only as the description of the language structure but also as the emphasis on the explanation of the language acts. TG studies the grammar rather than the language. Chomsky believed linguistics was one part of psycholinguistics. The grammar he talked abut was one part of the cognitive system in the human brain. In his research, he incorporated logics into linguistics. He has cultivated another direction for the linguistics.To sum up, linguistics becomes more perfect, and it is not isolated, but a cross science. As the cognitive linguistics has been just introduced, it will have a great potentiality in its development.。
英语语言学期末复习1
期末考试语言学复习范围2：名词解释复习范围language，speech community, bilingualism, semantics, context, locutionary act, language acquisition, phonology, psycholinguistics, langue, phoneme, culture, intercultural communication, linguistics, phonetics, competence，interlanguage, neurolinguistics, sense, morphology3：术语翻译都选自教材最后的glossary；4：简答题复习范围（主要限定在第一章、第五章、第六章、和第十章）1.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?5.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?6.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.7.What are the three variables that determine register? Interpret them with an example.8.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?9.What are the major types of synonyms in English?10.What are the five design features of language specified by C. Hockeet to show that human language is essentially differentfrom any animal communication system?11.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?12.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?13.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names and explain them briefly.14.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your ownlearning experience?15.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?16.Explain the definition：“Linguistics is the scientific study of language”.17.What are suprasegmental features? Use examples to illustrate your points.18.What is grammaticality? Is a grammatically meaningful sentence necessarily a semantically meaningful sentence?19.How are “sentence” and “utterance” and “sentence meaning” and “utterance meaning” related and how d o they differ?20.What distinction, if any, can you draw between bilingualism and diglossia?Ⅰ.For each question, there is only ONE correct answer. Choose the one from A, B, C and D.1.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle____A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractionsC. interpersonal relationshipD. performative functions2. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative3. According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky4. Whose Cardinal V owel system is still in use?A. A.J. EllisB. A.M. BellC. Daniel JonesD. A. C. Gimson5. Which of the following words involves“nasalization”?A. rapB. readC. roseD. running6. Which of the following words is likely to have stress in sentences?A. aB. andC. toD. sun7. “_______” is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.A. WordB. LexemeC. MorphemeD. Vocabulary8. Word Class is known as in traditional grammar as _______.A. ConstructionB. parts of speechC. inflectionD. categories9. Which of the following are NOT prefixes?A. paraB. disC. irD. ion10._________is NOT included in the studies of traditional grammar.A. Classifying words into parts of speechB. Defining the properties of sentencesC. Identifying the functions of wordsD. Recognizing certain categories, like number and tense11. “Concord” has the same meaning as_____A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government12. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Surface StructureC. Transformational ComponentD. Theme and Rheme13. The “semantic triangle” was proposed by______A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer14. Which of the following are NOT converse antonyms?A. clever: stupidB. boy: girlC. give: receiveD. teacher: student15. “ I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. DualityD. Displacement16. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional17. According to G.B. Shaw’s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existed word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as______A. goatB. hotC. fishD. floor18. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop19. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even though there are several parts in a word.” This is known as ________A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability20. Which of the following word class is the closed-class?A preposition B. adverb C. adjective D. noun21. Which of the following are NOT suffixesA. inB. iseC. lyD. ful22. Traditional grammar sees a sentence as _________A. a sequence of morphemesB. a sequence of clausesC. a sequence of wordsD. a sequence of phrases23. _________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.A. ConnotativeB. DenotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective24. Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell25. The fact that sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages proves the ________of language.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement26. Which of the following are correct descriptions of Langue and Parole?A. It was Chomsky that distinguished langue from parole.B. It was Martin Joo that distinguished langue from parole.C. Langue constitutes the immediately accessible data.D. The linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community.27. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ________.A. the manners of articulationB. the places of articulationC. the position of the soft palateD. the obstruction of airstream28. When the different forms, such as tin and din, are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form_______A. allophonesB. a minimal pairC. a maximal pairD. phonemes29. The process of word formation in which a verb, for example, blacken, is formed by adding–en to the adjective black, is called_____A. inflectionB. derivationC. compoundD. backformation30. The sense relation between rose and flower is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy31.Which of the following are NOT instances of blending?A. transistorB. classroomC. boatelD. brunch32. The one that is NOT one of the suprasegmental features is ________A. syllableB. stressC. coarticulationD. intonation33. What the element”-es”indicates is third person singular, present tense, and the element “-ed”past tense, and “-ing”progressive aspect. Since they are the smallest unity of language and meaningful, they are also called_______A. phonemesB. phonesC. allophonesD. morphemes34. The term“_______”in linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative35. Since early 1990s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar known as the _______theoryA. speech actB. TGC. minimalist programD. principles-and- parametersII Decide whether the following statements are true(T) or false (F) .1.Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.（F）2.“Radar” is an invented word.(F)3.The consonant [x] existed in Old English.(T)4.Today, we normally say that English has two tenses: present and past.(T)5.Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.(T)6.Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.(F)7. A good method to determine the phonemes in a language is the Minimal Pairs Test.(T)8.Phonology is concerned with speech production and speech perception.(F)9.Leech uses the term “connotative” in the same sense as that in philosophical discussion.(F)10.Duality is the physical manifestation of the “ infinite use of finite terms”(T)11.The idea of a system of cardinal vowels was first suggested by Danniel Jones.(T)12.Word is the smallest unit of meaning which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.(T)Ⅲ. Fill in each blank with ONE word.1. There are two aspects to meaning: denotation and connotation .2. Phonology is the branch of theoretical linguistics concerned with speech sounds at a higher level thanPholotics i.e. their structure and organization in human languages.3. The fact that a word may have more than one meaning is called___ in semantics.4. There are at least 4 design features of language: Arbitrariness, , __________, and ___________5 Relational antonyms are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the otherdescribes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student.6 antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.7. F.de Saussure , founder of modern linguistics, taught linguistics in Geneva University during 1907-1911.His theory has put great influence on semiotics, humanities study and literary studies.8. Lexical semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning among words; and phrasal or semantics is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word.9. Reference theory in semantics holds the viewpoint that there is a___direct__ relation between forms of language and those the relevant language forms refer to.10.Nominalism refers to the idea that there is no conventional relation or link between the words that people choose and the objects that the words refer to. That is to say, language is .11. Complementery antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.12. 荀子（约公元前298～前238）在《正名篇》中说，“名无固宜，约之以命。
Modern Linguistics
Modern LinguisticsChapter 1 Introductionz What is linguistics (Or linguistics)?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” preceded implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, date and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.z Describes the process of linguistic studyThe process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows:First, certain linguistics facts are observed, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; next based on these generalizations, hypotheses are formulated to account for these facts; and then the hypotheses are tested by further observations; and finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.z The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.The study of all those bellowed aspects of language forms the core of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.Findings in linguistics studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.z Prescriptive vs. descriptiveDescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive. It differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar.”PrescriptiveIf it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be prescriptive. (i.e. to tell people what they should say and not.)Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is still basically prescriptive. It tellsthe learner what he should say, or what is supposed to be correct usage.Linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.z Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be a synchronic study.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language as it exists at the present day and most linguistic studies are of this type.DiachronicThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.z Speech and writing ( The two major media of communication.)Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written for a number of reasons.First, in any human society we know of, speech precedes writing. The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech. While quite a number of languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms, there are still many languages that have only the spoken form. And then in terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.z Langue and parole ( Who made these two words?)Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made them on this century’s early.LangueLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use.Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.For example, an English sentence must have a subject and a predicate. This is part of the langue.ParoleParole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.In Saussure’s opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole. ( to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.)Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.z Competence and performance ( Who put them on the table?)Both two forms are proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. CompetenceHe defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.PerformanceHe defines performance the actual realization of the knowledge in linguistic communication.According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, this enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. ( but a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. , slips of the tongue and unnecessary pauses.) Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.z What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.z Design featuresThe framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessThis means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.We can use different sounds to refer to the same object in different languages.Arbitrary by nature, not entirely arbitrary (imitate natural sounds): rumble, crash, cackle, bang, etc.Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while “photo” and “copy” are respectively arbitrary, the compound word “photocopy” is not entirely arbitrary.But, anyway non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number of words used in a language.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Productivity is unique to human language.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. For example, the grouping of the three sounds /k/, /a:/, and /p/ can mean either a kind of fish (carp), or a public place of rest and amusement (park).Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. , we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are NOT genetically transmitted, BUT instead have to have to be taught and learned.For example, an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted.Chapter 2 Phonologyz The reason of speech is more basic than writing.1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication of information conveyed.3) And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught at school.z The phonic medium of languageThe sounds produced by human are limited in number. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.z What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.There are three branches of phonetics:1) Articulatory phoneticsIt studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. , how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Of the three branches of phonetics, THE LONGEST ESTABLISHED, AND UNTIL RECENTLY THE MOST HIGHLY DEVELOPED, is articulatory phonetics.2) Auditory phoneticsIt looks at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. , how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3) Acoustic phoneticsIt studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from the person to another.Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues.z Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:1) The pharyngeal cavity ---- the throatLying across the glottis are the VOCAL CORDS, which are two membranes. (the most organ in the pharyngeal cavity.) Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing,” which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants, such as [b] [z], and [m]. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are not voiced; the are voiceless. Some consonants in English such as [t], [s], [f] are voiceless.2) The oral cavity ---- the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. Of all organs in the oral cavity, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. Obstruction among lungs’ streams result in the different pronunciation.3) The nasal cavity ---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity.Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed. But in some styles of speaking or in some dialects, partial opening may be observed, and the result is speech with a nasal coloring or “twang.”z What is diacritics?Diacritics is a set of symbols, which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters along make possible.z Broad transcription vs. Narrow transcriptionThe transcription with letter-symbols only is called Broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries ad teaching textbooks. Most language users find this an adequate way to transcribe sounds.The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called Narrow transcription. This is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.Clear [l] occurring before a vowel, no diacritic is needed to indicate it. leaf [li:f]Dark [l] occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used to indicate that it is a dark [l]. feel [fi:l], build [bild]Dental [l] the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental after it. In narrow transcription the diacritic is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. health [helθ]Aspirated [p] the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air. In narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration. pit [p h it]Unaspirated [p] the puff of air is withheld to some extent. spit [spit]z The difference between Vowels and consonantsAn initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.ConsonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.Manner↓ Place→Labial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal VL p t kStopsVD b d gVL f θ s F h FricativesVD v T z VVL (tF) tFAffricatesVD (dV) dVNasals VD m n NLiquids VD l,rGlides VD w jVowelsIn the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, but which sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:1) the position of the tongue in the mouth2) the openness of the mouth3) the shape of the lips4) the length of the vowelsThe openness of themouth→Position of the tongue↓Front (unrounded) Central (unrounded)Back (roundedexcept / B:/) i: u:Closei JSemi-close e E:Semi-open E C:A Q Copena B:DiphthongsIn English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.z Phonology and phonetics (What’s the difference between phonology and phonetics?) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a GENERAL nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a PARTICULAR language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The phonologists have found that the [l] sounds do not occur at random in English; their distribution follows a nicely complementary pattern.z Phone, Phoneme, and allophonesPhone ---- a speech sound, a phonetic unit.Phoneme ---- a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones ---- actual realizations of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.z Phonemic contrastThey might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phonemes. For example: rope [r EJ p], robe [r EJ b]. So we come to the conclusion that /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.z Complementary distributionpot [p C t], spot [sp C t]They are two allophones of the same phoneme /p/. They occur in different environments: when speakers of English pronounce a word which begins with /p/, they choose the aspirated allophone [p h]; and if the /p/ occurs after the sound /s/, they will choose the unaspirated allophone [p]. These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.z Minimal pair ---- Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.z Minimal set ---- A group of sound combinations with the minimal pair feature.By identifying the minimal pairs or the minimal set of a language, a phonologist can identify its phonemes.Some rules in phonologyz Sequential rules ---- rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.z Assimilation rule ---- rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one of its phonetic features.z Deletion rule ---- rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.z Suprasegmental features ---- phonological features above the sound segment level. The major suprasegmental features in English are word stress, sentence stress, intonation.Chapter 3 Morphologyz The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.z Morpheme ---- is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Types of morphemesz Free morphemesmate, sun, fame, likeThese words contain only one morpheme; they are called free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.z Bound morphemesBound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.Roots:A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning. For example, fin-, spect-, -cideAffixesAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.Inflectional affixes: -ing, -ed, -(e)sInflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational: prefix and suffixPrefixes: un-, dis-, de-, en-Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exceptions are the prefixes “be-“, and “en (m)- “Suffixes: -ly, -less, -tion, -izeSuffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.z Morphological rulesThere are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. The knowledge of the derivational affixes and the morphological rules is very helpful in our study of English especially for enlarging our vocabulary, but such a knowledge is not to be overused.z CompoundingIn terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.z Features of compounds1) Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. e.g. , armchair, follow-up, thunder bird2) Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. e.g. , icy-cold adj. Head-strong adj. greenhouse n.3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. e.g. , a hotdog is not a dog, a blackleg is not a leg that is black4) Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.Chapter 4 SyntaxThe definition of SyntaxSyntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. What that means is that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words.Syntax as a system of rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.Linguistic competenceSyntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.For any natural language, a set of syntactic rules are capable of yielding an endless number of sentences in that language.The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.Referring expression (subject) ---- refer to some entity, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, which is grammatically called subject.Predication ---- say something about the entity they refer to.Predicate ---- the part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.Types of sentencesThe simple sentenceA simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.e.g. , 1) John reads extensively. 2) Mary decided to take a linguistics class the next semester.The coordinate sentenceA coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.e.g. , 1) John is reading a linguistics book, AND Mary is preparing for her history exam.2) John likes linguistics, BUT Mary is interested in history.The complex sentenceA complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.Embedded clauseThe two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause. SubordinatorMost embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that,” “if,” for,” etc. The subordinator does not merely mark the beginning of an embedded clause but more importantly, indicates the grammatical function of the embedded clause in the sentence.Matrix clauseThe clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.e.g. , 1) Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics.]2) Mary saw [John reading a linguistics book.]Linear and hierarchical structures of sentenceThe linear word order of a sentence (linear order)When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.1) The student likes the new linguistics professor.2) John, Mary and Susan went to the linguistics lecture.3) John suggested that Mary take the linguistics class.Hierarchical structureThe sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP1) The student // likes / the new linguistics professor.2) John, Mary and Susan // went to / the linguistics lecture.3) John // suggested / that Mary take / the linguistics class.Chapter 5 SemanticsSemanticsSemantics studies the nature of meaning and why particular utterances have the meanings they do. It is a technical term used to refer to the study of the communication of meaning through language.The naming theoryOne of the oldest notions concerning meaning, which proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.The conceptualist viewSuggested by Ogden and RichardsContextualismCo-text (linguistic context) and situational contextBehaviorist learning theoryA theory of psychology which, when applied to first language acquisition, suggests that the learner’s verbal behavior is conditioned and reinforced through association between stimulus and response.Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, abstract and de-cotextualized.Reference means that a linguistic form refers to a real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Sense relations between sentences1) X is synonymous with YX true, Y true; X false, Y false2) X is inconsistent with YX is true, Y is false; X false, Y true3) X entails YX true, Y true; X false, Y may be true or falseY true X may be true or false; Y false, X false4) X presupposes YX true, Y true; X falseY true X either true or false; Y false, X falseThe predication analysis proposed by linguist G. Leech.In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, and it is analyzed into such grammatical components as subject, predicate, and attribute. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An arguments is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Chapter 6 PragmaticsSpeech act theorySpeech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language, which is proposed by philosopher John Austin that is, a statement was used either to state a fact or to describe a state of affairs, he found some statements were not used to state or to describe, rather they were used by the speaker to do something. Thus he made a distinction between whtat he called “constatives” and “performatives”American philosopher-linguist John Searle has made is his classification of illocutionary acts. There are five general types of things we do with language.1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4) expressives: expxpressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethinggeneral principle: the maxim of quantity, of quality, of relation, and of mannerChapter 7 Historical linguisticsThe Indo-European language family is the first and most widely investigated lanauage family of the world, which began with the work of Sir William Jones.Jacob Grim’s major contribution to historical linguistics is his explanation of the relationships among cognates in terms of a sound shift, the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.Because these sound changes were so strikingly regular and law-like, they became known collectively as Grimm’s Law.CompetenceCompetence is the ideal use’s knowledge of his or her language: that is , of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. The knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.1) PerformancePerformance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. Performance means the actual saying of something, or the act of speech itself.2) AllophoneThe different members of a phoneme, sounds that are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are allophones. An allophone therefore is a predicable phonetic variant of phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [l], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.3) MorphemeMorpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. The morpheme is the smallest unit terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, re- is not a word, but it does carry meaning. Thus re- is a morpheme.4) Free morphemesFree morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely ally by themselves, such as “help”, “table”, “able”5) Bound morphemesThose morphemes cannot be used by themselves, but most be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be sued independently. They are called bound morphemes, such as –er, -en, dis-, bio-.6) SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Synonyms can be divided into dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms and semantic synonyms.7) Language familyA group of historically (or genetically) related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language. There are four main language families. that is, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family ,and the Afroasiatic Family8) MorphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.9) Lingua francaA lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.10) ParoleParole refers to the realization of langue in actual use, parole is concrete and varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
语言学Schools of Linguistics
exercise his linguistic faculty.”, “For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity.
opposed to LANGUE, which is a corporate, social phenomenon, existing apart from any particular speeches.
former is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.
These relationships are about how words and sounds are associated with each other and form part of the synchronic relationship within the language structure.
must start from the nature of the sign itself.
3. The sequence which a sign forms with those it is in a syntagmatic relation is sometimes called a STRUCTURE. Any structure is formed by two principal types of relations which Saussure identified
b. 1917 Members fleeing Moscow due to October Revolution
modern linguistic自考现代语言学
第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?∙什么是语言学？∙Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics∙语言学的研究范畴∙The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)∙The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. [fəˈnetɪks]（语音学）∙ The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. [fəu ˈnɔlədʒi] （音系学）∙ The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. [mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi]（形态学）∙ The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. [ˈs ɪnˈtæks]（句法学）∙ The study of meaning in language is called semantics. [sɪˈmæntɪks]（语义学）∙ The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. [præɡˈmætiks]（语用学）∙ The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）∙ The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）∙The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）∙But in a narrow([ˈnærəu] adj. 狭隘的；狭窄的；) sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.∙Other related branches include anthropological([ˈænθrəpəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 人类学的) linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological [ˈnjʊərəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational [ˈkɔmpju(:)ˈteiʃ(ə)n(ə)l] linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics∙语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive [priˈskriptiv] and descriptive [dɪˈskrɪptɪv]∙描写与规定∙If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.∙Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.∙Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.∙The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic [siŋˈkrɔnik] and diachronic [ˈdaiəˈkrɔnik]∙共时和历时∙The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing∙口头语与书面语∙Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.∙Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. ∙Reasons:∙1. Speech precedes([ˈpriˈsi:d] vt.& vi.在……之前发生或出现，先于；在……之上，优于；给……作序；处于……前面的位置) writing;∙2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;∙3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load ([ləud] n. 负荷；负担；装载；工作量)of communication than the written.Langue [lɑ:ŋɡ] and parole [pə'rəul]∙语言和言语∙The Swiss linguist( [ˈlɪŋgwɪst] n.通晓数国语言的人；语言学家)F. de Saussure made thedistinction between langue and parole early 20th century.∙Langue refers to the abstract ([ˈæbstrækt] adj. 抽象的，理论上的)linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community( [kəˈmju:niti] n. 社区；社会团体；共同体；[生态] 群落), and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.∙Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用∙Competence( [ˈkɔmpitəns] n.能力；技能；相当的资产)and performance∙Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.∙He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify( [ˈspesifai] v.指定；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性)the language rules.4/ What is language?∙语言的定义∙Language is a system of arbitrary([ˈɑ:bitrəri] adj.随意的，任性的，随心所欲的;主观的，武断的；霸道的，专制的，专横的，独断独行的)vocal( [ˈvəukəl] adj. 声音的，嗓音的；由嗓音发出或产生的；有声音的，能发出声音或语言的；畅所欲言的n.元音；[音乐]声乐作品)symbols used for human communication.∙Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.∙Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.(purely [ˈpjʊəlɪ] adv.完全地，十足地；纯粹地；纯洁地，贞淑地) (institution[ˈɪnstiˈtju:ʃən] n.（大学、银行等规模大的）机构；惯例，制度，规定，建立；社会事业机构；<口>名人，名物)∙Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features∙语言的甄别性特征∙Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication.∙American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.1) Arbitrariness [ˈɑ:bitrərinis]n.∙任意性（和约定俗成性）∙ It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.∙For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.( instance [ˈinstəns] n. 例子，实例；情况；要求，建议；[法]诉讼手续vt.举…为例)∙Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely ([enˈtaɪəli:] adv.完全地，彻底地)arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation( [ˈɪmiˈteiʃən] n. 模仿，仿效；仿制品；赝品；[生]拟态)of sounds by sounds are motivated [ˈməʊtɪveɪtɪd] adj. 有动机的，有目的的；有积极性的v. 作为…的动机，激发，诱发（motivate的过去式和过去分词）in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source [sɔ:s] n. 根源，本源；源头，水源；of expressions.2) Productivity( [ˈprɔdʌkˈtiviti] n.生产率，生产力；[经济学] 生产率；[生态学]生产率)∙能产性∙Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation( [ˈɪntə:priˈteiʃən] n.解释，说明；翻译；表演，演绎；理解)of an infinitely [ˈɪnf ɪnɪtlɪ]adv.无限地,无穷地；极其large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality ([dju(:)ˈæliti] n.二元性)∙结构二重性∙It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation([ɑ:ˈtikjuˈleiʃən] n. 清晰度，咬合，关节；发音；接合) of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement∙语言的移位性（突破时空性）∙It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary([iˈmædʒinəri] adj. 想像中的，假想的，虚构的；[数]虚数的；幻；虚幻) world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate([iˈmi:diət] adj. 立即的；直接的，最接近的；目前的，当前的；直觉的) situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission∙文化传播性∙While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically ([dʒe'netikəli] adv. 创始；遗传学；生殖；基因)transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew([əˈnu:, əˈnju:] adv. 再，重新).Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic([ˈfəunik] adj. 声音的，有声的，声学的) medium of language∙语言的声音媒介∙Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles([ˈvi:ɪklz] n. 运载工具；传播媒介；车辆；传播媒介；手段) for communication.∙Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior([ˈpraiə] adj. 优先的；占先的；在……之前) to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech whe n the need arises(arise [əˈraiz] vi.& vt. 产生；出现；起身，起立；起源于，产生于).∙For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.∙The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .∙The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics([fəˈnetɪks] n. 语音（学）；发音学；语音学)?∙什么是语音学？∙Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all thesounds that occur([əˈkə:] vi. 发生；出现；闪现) in the world’s languages.∙语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第12章.docx
精品文档Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 常考点：各学派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为的关系。
1.索绪尔和现代语言学1.1.观点语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统；符号是形式和意义的结合；符号是语言事实的核心。
1.2.概念能指 &所指语言 &言语共时研究 &历时研究2.布拉格学派2.1.代表人物V.Mathesius---Firbas2.2. 主要观点和贡献① 强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。
② 强调语言的系统性，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。
③ 它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。
2.3.功能句子观（FSP）功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用信息论的原理来分析话语或文本。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。
2.4.主位&述位主位：话语的出发点，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息。
述位：话语的目的，是说话人要向听话人传递的信息。
1欢迎下载2.5.交际能力（communicative dynamism）费尔巴斯用交际能力表示句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。
他把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。
3.伦敦学派3.1.代表人物B. Malinovski---Firth---M. A. K. Halliday3.2. B. Malinovski的理论① 语言是一种行为模式。
② 话语意义来源于话语发生的上下义之间的关系。
3.3. Firth的理论弗斯认为语言是种社会过程。
语言是参与社会生活的工具，是自己做事和使他人做事的手段，是一种行为和生活手段。
3.4. M. A. K. Halliday与系统-功能语法韩礼德的系统 - 功能语法是一种具有社会学倾向的功能语言学方法。
①系统语法系统就是存在于语法中的一系列选择。
2011-2012学年语言学下册Saussure
What is Structuralism?
Structuralists are interested in the interrelationship between UNITS, also called "surface phenomena," and RULES, which are the ways that units can be put together. In language, the units are words; the rules are the forms of grammar which order words.
Langue
is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
Thirdly, traditional grammar has been restricted mainly to SYNTAX, that is, the way of words making patterns to form sentences, while linguistics has a boarder scope for researching, eg. pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ect. which, accordingly, are out of the scope of traditional grammar. The modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framewrok. It is wrong to judge one language by standards of another
语言学复习
I.Choose the best answerChapter 1 Introductionnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human________.（B）A.contact.B. communicationC. relationD. community2.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by the time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?(C)A.TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness3.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the function oflanguage? (B)--- A nice day, isn’t it?--- Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal4.________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules ofhis language in utterance.(A)A.PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole5. has been widely accepted as the fore father of modern linguistics.(B)A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John LyonsPart 2 Phonology5.Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.(C)A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme6.Which one is different form the others according to places of articulation?(A)A. /n/B./m/C. /b/D. /p/7.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?(B)A. /i:/B. /u/C./e/D. /i/8.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?(B)A. voicelessB. voicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant9.Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative?(A)A./f/B./v/C. /s/D./z/10.is one of the suprasegmental features(D)A.StopB. V oicingC. DeletionD. Tone11.V elar refers to .（B）A. larynxB. soft palateC. alveolarD. pharynxPart 3 Morphology12.Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called________ morpheme.(A)A.inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational13.There are ________ morphemes in the word denationalization. (C)A. ThreeB. fourC. fiveD. six14.The word UNESCO is formed in the way of ________. (A)A.acronnymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending15.NA TO is a/an .(A)A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping16.The relation between words “rose” and “flower” is that of . (D)A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy17.“Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a . (D)A. hyponymyB. polysemyC. AntonymyD. tautology18.“Wide/narrow” is an example of . (A)A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. conversenessD. complementarityPart 4 Syntax19.________ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.(B)A.MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics20.The phrase “my small child’s cot”is an ambiguous phrase, which can be revealed by________ tree diagrams.(C)A. oneB. twoC. threeD. fourPart 5 Semantics21.C old and hot are a pair of ________antonyms.(A)A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converseness22.________ describes whether a proposition is true or false.(B)A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood23.Bull: [BOVINE] [MALE] [ADULT] is an example of ________. (A)A. componential analysisB. predication analysisC. compositionalityD. selection restriction24.The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word________. (A)A.is interpreted through the mediation of concept.B.is related to the thing it refers to.C.is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakers.D.is the image it is represented in the mind.25.When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b), and falsity of sentence(b)guarantees the falsity of sentence (a), we can say that ________.(B)A.sentence(a) presupposes sentence (b)B.sentence(a) entails sentence (b)C.sentence(a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D.sentence(a) contradictss sentence (b)26.“Socrates is a man” is a case of ________.(B)A.two-place predicateB.one-place predicateC.two-place argumentD.one-place argumentPart 6 Pragmatics27.________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.(B)A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics28.________ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperativeprinciple.(C)A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William James29.______proposed that speech act can fall into five general categories.(B)A.AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky30.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the ________. (C)A.declarationsB. expressivesC. commissivesD. directives31.The illocutionary point of the________ is to express the psychological state specified in theutterance.(B)A. declarationsB. expressivesC. commissivesD. directives32.Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of ________.(C) X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner33.The violation of one or more of the conversational maxims of the Cooperative Principle can,when the listener full understands the speaker, create________, and humor sometimes.(A)A. conversational implicatureB. conversational breakdownC. locutionary actD. illocutionary act34.The maxim of quantity requires that the speaker.(D)A.contribute as informative as requiredB.do not contribute more than is requiredC.do not say what has little evidenceD.both A and B35.According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action are called________.(A)missivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives.36.An illocutionary act is identical with . (B)A. sentence meaningB. the speaker’s intentionC. languageD. social convention37.is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. (C)A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SemanticsPart 7 Language ChangePart 8 Language and Society38.________ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations.(C)A.SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varietiesA. domainB. situationC. societyD. community39.________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by sharedlinguistic system.(D)A. A countryB. A raceC. A societyD. A speech community40.________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammaticalrules, used as a medium of communication.(C)A.Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language41.________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speakercomes from.(A)A.RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal42.Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is________.(C)A.British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English43.________ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually range on a continuum from casual toformal according to the type of communicative context.(D)A.Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variationPart 9 Language and Culture and Society44.In the present day, the stability of seems to be decreasing. (D)A. social-class dialectB. idiolectC. tabooD. regional dialectPart 10 Language Acquisitio n45.Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ________.(D)A.acculturationB. interlanguageC. fossilizationD. interference46.Besides the genetic predisposition for language acquisition, language________ is necessaryfor successful language acquisition.(D)A.instructionB. correctionC. imitationD. input and interaction47.________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second languageusually obtained in school settings.(C)A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition48.________ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had nocontrol.(C)A.error analysisB. performance analysisC. contrastive analysisD. discourse analysisPart 11 Second AcquisitionPart 12 Language and BrainSchools of Modern Linguistics49.The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is ________.(B)A.FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. ChomskyII.Fill in the following blanksIntroductionnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of ________ communication.(verbal)nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is________.(metalingual function)3.Modern linguistics is ________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language israther than lay down some rules for people to observe.(descriptive)4.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.(diachronic)5.Saussure put forward two important concepts. ________ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all members of a speech community (langue)6.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent(in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as . (displacement)7.Phonetics and phonology8.________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds ofspeech.(articulatory)9.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without________.(obstruction)10.In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two/f/and /v/. This is an example for illustrating.(minimal pairs)Morphology11.All words may be said to contain a root ________.(morpheme)12.Nouns, verbs and adjectives are words rather than function words.(lexical)13.As a result of , the negative morpheme in imperfect and impossible in “im-” ratherthan “in-”.(assimilation)14.A morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.(bound)15.Antonyms like “husband” vs. “wife” are antonyms.(relational)16.Terms like “desk” and “stool” are of the term “furniture”.(hyponyms)Syntax17.XP may contain more that just X. For example, the “NP”the girl who is watering the flowersconsists of Det, N and Sen, with Det being the ________ , N the head, and S the complement.(specifier)18.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonlytermed ________ structure.(deep structure)19.The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internal structure ofsentences.(syntax)20.IC is the short form of immediate used in the study of syntax.(constituent) Semantics21.C harge and accuse are said to be ______synonyms.(Collocational)22.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: ________ and________.(argument, predicate)23.We call the relation between animal and cow as ________.(hyponymy)Pragmatics24.In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe iscalled the ________ Principle proposed by P. Grice.(Cooperative)25.While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an ________ isconcrete and context-dependent.(utterance)26.A________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.(locutionary)27.________ are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some futurecourse of action. (Commissives)28.The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to ________; otherwise it would be impossible for them to go on with the talk. The general principle is called the________.(cooperate, Cooperative Principle )29.In the light of Cooperative Principle, four maxims are specified. They are maxim of quantity,maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of . (manner)30.The speech act theory explains the nature of linguistic communication. It says that a speaker,while making an utterance, is performing three acts simultaneously: a locutionary act, an _________act, and a perlocutionary act.(illocutionary)Language, Culture and Society31.The ______ language is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.(standard)32.A________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native languagein some speech community. (creole)33.Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on ________.(language)34.In terms of sociolinguistics, ________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person’slanguage.(idolect)Language Acquisition35.In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge. Thisprocess is called language ________.(transfer)36.The ________ of the learner’s interlanguage is believed to be major source of incorrect formsresistant to further instruction.(fossilization)37.________ holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur; wherethey are different, negative transfer, or interference, would result.(Contrastive analysis)III.True or False(Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false) Introduction1.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.(T)2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.(F)petence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.(T)ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.(T)5.Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teachingand learning.(T)6.Descriptive linguistics is concerned with how languages work, not with how they can beimproved.(T)7.Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.(F)Phonetics and Phonology8.Sound /p/ in the word spit is an unaspirated stop.（T）9.[p] is voiced bilabial stop.(F)10.Broad transcription represents phonemes of a language whereas narrow transcription denotesits particular allophones.(T)11.The hard roof of the mouth is called hard palate.(T)12.In English, we have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.(C stands for Consonant and Vstands for V owel)(T)Morphology13.In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change theword-class of the base.(T)14.All roots are free and all affixes are bound.(F)15.All words contain a root morpheme.(T)16.Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound.(F)17.If a word has sense, it must have reference.(F)18.“Tulip”, “rose”and “violet”are all included in the notion of “flower”, therefore they aresuperordinates of “flower”.(F)Syntax19.Application of the transformational rules yields deep structure.(F)20.Transformational rules do not change the basic meaning of sentences.(T)21.Major syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, andword-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.(T)22.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessarysyntactic movement.(T)Semanticsponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic feature.(T)24.Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between linguistic form and what it refersto. This view can be seen by the Semantic Triangle.(T)Pragmatics25.If the context of use is considered, the study of meaning is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics.(T)26.A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.(F)27.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement orgiving a description which he himself believes to be true.(T)28.The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.(T)29.Only when maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows thatit is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.(T)30.Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kindof speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.(T)31.Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of asentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.(T)Language, Society and Culture32.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of thatlanguage.(F)33.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker’sperceptions and patterns their way of life.(T)34.Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either byan individual or by a group of speakers.(T)35.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects.(T) Language Acquisition36.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of Second Language Acquisition.(T)37.In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, andmore attention is paid to developing learners’ communicative skills.(T)38.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in different way.(F)39.Regardless of their ethnic and cultural background, children of all colors and societies followroughly the same route/order of language development, though they may differ in the rate of learning.(T)40.IV. Match each of the following linguistic terms with its corresponding definitions Introduction1.Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.2.Parole: It refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.petence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage: that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rule.4.Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.Phatic function of language: It refers to the social interaction of language. For example: Mrs.P sneezes violently.Mrs. Q: Bless you.Msr. P: Thank you.6.Diachronic linguistics: It is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore,it is also called historical linguistics.7.Descriptive linguistics: It is to discover and record the rules to which the members of alanguage-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Phonetics and phonology8.Minimal pair: When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except in onesound element that occurs in the same position in the string, the two forms are said to orm a minimal pair.9.Suprasegmental feature: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments arecalled suprasegmental features; These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation,and tone.10.allophones: two or more variants of the same phoneme that do not distinguish meaning arecalled allophones of the same phonemes.plementary distribution: When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur inthe same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.12.Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. Morphology13.Allomorph ：it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position oradjoining sounds.Syntax14.Phrase structure rules: They are rewrite rules that allow for the possible combinations ofwords to form phrases ad sentences.15.IC analysis: IC analysis (Immediate constituent analysis) is a new approach of sentence studythat cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This sort of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.What remain of the first cut are “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut are “ultimate constituents”.16.Deep structure : It is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surfacestructure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence —an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Semantics17.Sense: It is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection ofall the features of the linguistic form; It is abstract and decontextualized.18.Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of therelationship between the form and the reality.19.Conceptualism: It is the view which holds that there is no direct ling between a linguistic formand what it refers to ; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.20.Synonymy : It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.21.Homonymy: It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, e.g. different words re identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Pragmatics22.Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsicproperty of the sentence itself in terms of predication.23.Utterance meaning: It is the meaning a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in aparticular context situation.24.illocutionary act: It is using a sentence to perform a function. For example, Shoot the snakemay be intended as an order or a piece of advice.Sociolinguistics25.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: It is a belief that our language helpsmould our way of thinking and,consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.26.Diglossia: When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community andeach one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.27.Standard language(standard variety): It is the variety of a language which has the higheststatus in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.Language acquisition28.Instrumental motivation: It refers to the learner’s desire to learn a language because it is auseful functional instrument, such as getting a job, passing an exam.29.Fossilization: It refers to a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in chichincorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.30.Error analysis: It is an approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by secondlanguage learners, which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules.31.Interlanguage: It refers to a separate linguistic system based on the observable out-put whichresults from a learner’s attempted production of a target language form. It is formed when he attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first and the second language but is neither.D: It is posited by Chomsky in the 1960’s as a device effectively present in the minds ofchildren by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.33.An Innativist view of language acquisition: It is proposed by Noam Chomsky, which statesthat the human species is prewired t acquire language and that the kind of language is also determined.IV.Answer the following questions1.What does productivity means for language?2.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?3.In which two ways may consonants be classified?4.Please use examples to explain the definitions of phones, phonemes and allophones.5.What is sentence meaning? What is utterance meaning?6.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?7.What is the difference between langue and parole?8.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?9.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?10.What is standard language?11.What are design features of language?12.What is the difference between langue and parole?13.What do minimal pairs refer? Use an example to illustrate this linguisticphenomenon.14.Illustrate what hyponymy is?15.What is Cooperative Principle and its four maxims?。
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• Example:
• • • • The book is on the desk. Subject Predicate Theme Rheme Known New On the desk is the book. Predicate Subject Theme Rheme Known New
Phonology and phonological oppositions 音位学和音位对立
Phonology and phonological oppositions 音位学和音位对立
• 1 Language is a system of signs that evolves constantly. Sounds counts as language only when they serve to express or communicate ideas.
• signifier vs. signified • Sign
• These oppositions can be summarized as follows: • 1) bilateral opposition双边对立: if the features two phonemes share belong only to them如果两个音位所 共有的语音特征只属于这两个音位, they are bilateral opposition. In other words, the features they have in common do not occur simultaneously in any other phoneme. /p/ and /b/ share the feature of “bilabial”. • 2) Multilateral opposition多边对立: /a/ and / i / are alike only to the extent that both are vowels, a quality shared by any other pairs of vowels. It is a more loosely established relationship. • 3) Proportional opposition均衡对立: Two phonemes are proportional if the same contrastive features also
Signifier
Signified
sound image
entity
• 2 The nature of the linguistic signs: • langue vs. parole • syntagmatic vs. paradigmatic relations • synchonic vs. diachronic linguistics
Phonology and phonological oppositions
• FSP (Functional Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances(texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. • Some functional linguists believe that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer—it is the ground on which they meet, This is called the Theme
Saussure’s linguistic concepts
• His ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology. • Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. Noises count as language only when they serve to express or communicate ideas，otherwise they are nothing but noise。To communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which he called the signifier and the signified. They seems to be separate entities，they exist only as components of the sign
• The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phoneticsand phonology. The most influential scholar is Trubetzkoy。following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole,he argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme” as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning
• Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language。No element of any language can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated if viewed in isolation; assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition • Third, language was looked on as functional , as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks of the community using it.
The European Functionalism/Structuralism
• The Prague School • The Prague School views language as a combination of structure and function
• Under the leadership of V. Mathesius马泰休斯, this school practised a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics in that it sees language in terms of Function. It has great influence on other linguistics. • Of the many ideas developed in Prague School, three points are of special importance. First, it is stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretic barrier is erected to separate diachronic study.
Language
Langue
Paract system shared by a community
actual speech made by an individual
S i g relation
n
Syntagmatic (linear)
positioning
Paradigmatic