词汇学 Chapter 5 Word-Meaning-and-Componential-Analysis
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
(完整word版)词汇学练习
Chapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.C 1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2.B_____is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships ____D_the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be __A_____.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5. Trumpet is a(n) ____C___motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD.etymologically6.Hopeless is a ____A__motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically7. In the sentence ‘He is fond of pen ’, pen is a _C_____ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a ___D___motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically9.Functional words possess strong __A___ whereas content words haveboth meanings, and lexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10.____B___is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s __C_____towards the person or thing in question.A. feelingB. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _B_____ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that D_______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ____D__.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different words15.Reference is the relationship between language and the __C____.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific country16.P olysemy is a common feature peculiar to ___C___.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages17.F rom the ___B___ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the resultof growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional18.___A____ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning standsat the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A .Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection19.. ____D_____ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation20. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their _____CA. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage21. ___B___refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms22. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is ___A____.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy23. _____B____ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms24. The antonyms: male and female are __A____.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms25. The antonyms big and small are ___B___.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD.connected terms26. The antonyms husband and wife are _____C_.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms27. Composition and compounding in lexicology are words of A__.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms28. As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly __B____, they are often employed in a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms29.F rom the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it wasendowed with only one meaning . The first meaning is called __A____.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning30.S ynchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core ofword-meaning called____C___.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggesttheir ______pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings ofmany are the sum total of the morphemes combined.3._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. Inother words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.5.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and_________.6.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms frompolysemants is to see their ____, the second principal consideration is ________.7.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one______whereas homonyms are listed as separate ______.8.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______,connotation ,and _____.9.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the _____terms and the more specific words are called the _____ terms.III. Match the words or expression in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) discrimination of synonyms 2) types of antonyms 3) sources of synonyms.A B1. difference in denotation A. dead/alive2. borrowing B. handy/ manual3. dialects and regional English C. old / young4. contradictory terms D. answer the letter / reply to the letter5. figurative and euphemistic use of words E. jim6. contrary terms F. want/wish/desire7. difference in connotation G. dreamer /star-gazer8. coincidence with idiomatic expressions H. employer / employee9. difference in application I. help/ lend one a hand10. relative terms J. foe / enemyIV. Define the following terms .1. motivation2. hoponymy 4. semantic fieldV.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.1. What is reference ?2. What are sources of synonyms ?VI. Question:1. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.2. Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.Key to exercises:I. 1. C 2.B 3.D 4.A 5.C 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.A 10.B 11.C12.B 13.D 14.D 15.C 16. C 17.B 18.A 19.D 20.C 21.B22.A 23.B 24.A 25.B 26 .C 27.A 28.B 29. A 30.CII. 1. meanings 2.multi-morphemic 3.Semantic motivation4.origins5.associative meaning6. etymology, semanticrelatedness 7.headword, entries 8.denotation, application 9.superordinate, subordinateIII.21. F 22.J 23.E 24.A 25.G 26.C 27.B 28.I 29. D30.H1. . Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, isoften associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, manywords have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards theperson or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquiresin its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.2. food________________________________________________________ _meat vegetable cerealpork beef turnip carrot breadcake cornflakes。
词汇学-Chapter-5-Word-Meaning-and-Componential-Analys
5.1.3 What is sense语义?
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. 词语的意义是它在语义关系系统中同其它词 语相对的位置。
5.1.3 What is sense语义?
The meaning of a word is decided not by the word itself, but by relationships with other words in the same semantic field, i.e. by its place in the system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
换言之，只有当语言符号与所指物---物体、现象、 人等之间建立某种联系，这个符号才获得意义。
Words work as symbols because people agree to accept them as standing for objects or concepts known to them through their experience.
(9) 红极一时（enjoy great popularity for a time; be all the rage）
(10) 红粉知己（beautiful woman who is a bosom friend）
(11) 红颜薄命（beautiful women suffer ill fates / are ill-fated）
词汇学第五章 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis 概要1
• Part of the word meaning is the reference under discussion.
• The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.
Which words can be said to be motivated?
• Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据
e.g. hiss, neigh, cuckoo
All the words based on the sounds made by birds, animals, insects and so on belong to
5.1.2 Concept 概念
• concept
meaning
➢Meaning belongs to language, so it is restricted to language use;
➢Concept is the result of human cognition.
Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
Ever word that has meaning has sense but
词汇学chapter1-8重点知识
Chapter 3 Morphology structure of English words3.1 MorphemesThe definition of a morpheme : The morpheme(词素) is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into smaller meaningful units. Words are composed of morphemes. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemesWords can have an internal structure, i.e. they are decomposable into smaller meaningful parts. These smallest meaningful units we call morphemes.One morpheme: nationTwo morphemes: nation-alThree morphemes: nation-al-izeFour morphemes: de-nation-al-ize确定语素必须满足两个标准, 一是含义相近, 二是发音相近.-ly 在 manly, princely, friendly 中属于同一个语素.-er 在 worker, teacher, speaker, swimmer 等词中意为"做…的人", 属于同一语素,但在 manner 一词并不是 man 和 -er 合起来的意思, 所以 manner 不能看作是由 man 和 -er 两个语素构成, 其中的 -er 也不能看作是与 worker 中的 -er 相同的语素.3.2 Classification of MorphemesMorphemes can be classified in various ways.Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes (自由词素), also called content morphemes(实义词素）, may constitute words by themselves. Bound morphemes （粘着词素）, known as grammatical morphemes （语法词素）, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound.3.2.1 Types of Morphemes —free vs. bound● Free morphemes(自由词素)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Therefore, we might as well say that free morphemes are content morphemes （实义词素）or free roots(自由词根).man, earth, wind, faith, red, write ….● Bound Morphemes(粘着词素)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning (un-kind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed). They are also called grammatical morphemes.3.2.2 types of morphemes —root vs. affixesMorphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). definition of root :A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word which conveys the fundamental meaning of the word.Two types of roots – Free roots: Morphemes are said to be free if they can stand alone as words (In English,many roots are free roots) black in black, blackboard, blacksmith, blackmail.Bound roots: They are so called because they are always bound to something else. Theycannot exist on their own ceive in receive, perceive, conceive, deceive. Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.(However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes.For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive. these roots cannot be used to form new words.) A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.therefore, that a knowledge of roots can help one to analyze and understand many words almost on sight. Although the Latin and Greek roots are usually bound morphemes and cannot stand alone, it is helpful to free boundroot affix inflectional derivationalrecognize some of the common ones, since thousands of English words are built on them. Knowing the meaning of these roots can help clarify the meaning of many English words.3.2.3 Two types of affixesAffixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional (曲折词缀）and derivational （派生词缀）affixes.Affixes can be divided into inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. This reflects two major morphological (word building) processes:Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.●Inflectional affixes: does not form a new meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change thepart of the word to which it is affixed.●Derivational affixes: when they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word.Many have a specific lexical meaning. Quite a number of them have more than one meaning. They have affective meaning3.2.3 affixes●Inflectional affixes(曲折词缀)Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. For example: cats, walked, walking, John’s book…●Derivational affixes(派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes Prefixes(前缀) ; Suffixes(后缀)Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest.●Derivational Morphemes-- either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached; or by changing the grammatical category (part of speech) of the baseDerivational Affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g. unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech. - en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g. darkness, worker.By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernizeBoth prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:1. Their linguistic origin: Native/foreign affixes1). Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-,be-,out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and –er.2). Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples:ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and –ize(F).A hybrid混合词is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.2. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words.Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand,and –ant or –ent as in servant, different, etc.Sum: Inflection and DerivationDerivational morphemes are used to create new lexical items (lexemes （词位）).Inflectional morphemes only contribute to the inflectional paradigm 词形变化 of the lexemes, which lists all the word-forms of the lexeme.3.2 Types of MorphemesDiagram of morphemesclassification of words on a morphemic levelOn this level, words, according to the number and type of morphemes they contain, can be classified into:(1) simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme, such as man, work, kind;(2) derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one (or more than one) bound morpheme, such as fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful, unfruitfulness;(3) compound words: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes, e.g. deep structure, spacesuit, forget-me-not, stick-in-the-mud, and jack of all trades.3.3 Morph and allomorphThe definition of morph(语素形式/词素形式)- phonological （音韵的）and orthographical （拼写的）forms used to represent morphemes. Morphemes can be represented in braces. For example, {big} is pronounced as /big/ and spelled as big, thus /big/ and big are respectively the phonological and orthographical morphs of {big} .Morpheme, Morph, AllomorphA morph is a physical form representing a certain morpheme in a language.Sometimes different morphs may represent the same morpheme; i.e., a morpheme may take different forms. If so, they are called allomorphs of that morpheme.An allomorph(词素变体) is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.区别：语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位、语素等)。
词汇学Chapter 5 Word-formation
* mis-: wrongly or astray. (+ v/ ed/ ing/ n) miscalculate, misbehaved, misleading… * pseudo-: false or imitation. (n / adj.) pseudoscience, pseudoclassic… (4) Prefixes of degree or size. * arch-: supreme, most (pejorative effect). (+n) archbishop, archenemy (Satan), archdove... * co-: joint, on equal footing. (+n /v) coexistence, coeducation, combine (vowel)...
c) Stem (词干)
A stem is a part of a word, made of a root or a root plus another part. (focus on the original
form, and case etc can be added. ) i) consist of one root morpheme. (= root) sour, sweet, bitter, hot… ii) consist of two root morphemes. (> root) motherland, motorman, dragonfly…(compound) iii) consist of one root morpheme and derivational affix(es). (>root) manly, unmanly, manliness…(complex word)
英语词汇学chapter5 Word meaning and semantic features
7
Conventionality
Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense/meaning.
features
2
1. An overview of word meaning
• Word Meaning • 1. Reference 所指, referent(所指物)
– It indicates which things are being talked about. Arbitrary, conventional ( dog)
The meaning of a bachelor: word—referent … concept?
5
2. Conventionality and motivation
• The debate over the connection between sound and meaning
– The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning.
– The conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
自考英语词汇学名词解释
词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。
Word Meaning and Componential Analysis5
your work
2. What is reference所指关系?
It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。
By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.通过这种相互关系， 说话人指称外界的事物或人。
It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. For example, the word ‘tree’ refers to the object ‘tree’.
Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
Conventionality（约定俗成）
What’s in a name? That we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. -----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet
词汇学5
e.g. good-looking, headache, daydream readable, unwise, dislike However, not all compounds are motivated. e.g. bigwig (very important person, wig假发), egghead (a learned person)
1) 2) 3) 4)
1) Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据
Phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.
eg: Cocks crow. Ducks quack. Flies buzz. Frogs croak. Goats bleat. Snakes hiss. Bears growl. Bulls bellow. Cats mew ( purr). Eagles scream.
Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.
Compounds and derived words are multimorphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person‟s mind. 指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义。
词汇学Chapter5归纳整理
The Main Process of English Word-formationThe main process of English word-formation is chiefly based on A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language by Randolph Quirk et al. Published in 1985.Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation.Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base.Affixation has played an active part in the course of the development of the English language.PrefixationAffixationSuffixationPrefixationWhat is prefixation?Prefixation is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base,sometimes with,but more usually without a change of word class.A.Negative prefixes:a- or an-The prefix a- or an-means “lacking in “or “lack of”amoral——nonmoral;not concerned with moralsdis-The prefix dis- means “not”,or “the converse of ”dishonest(ly)——not honest(ly)in-The prefix in- means “not”,or “the converse of ”incomplete——not completenon-The prefix non- means “not”non-black——white studentsun-The prefix un- means “not” or “the converse of ”unfriendly——not friendly,hostileB.Reversative or privative prefixes:de-a.The prefix de- means “reversing the action”deforest——to become unfrozen:to remove ice formb.The prefix de- means “depriving of ”decapitate——to cut off the head ofdis-a.The prefix dis- means “reversing the action”disown——to refuse to accept as one’s ownb.The prefix dis- means “lacking”discolored——becoming changed in colorun-a.The prefix un- means “reversing the action”unzip——to open by undoing a zipb.Thr prefix un- means “depriving of”unhorse——to dislodge from a horseC.Pejorative prefixes:mal-The prefix mal- means “badly” or “bad”maldepoly——to deploy faultilymis-The prefix mis- means “wrongly” or “astray”misdial——to dial a wrong numberpseudo-The prefix pseudo- means “false” or “imitation”pseudoscience——pretended scienceD.Prefixes of degree or size:arch-The prefix arch- means “supreme” or “most”archenemy——chief enemyco-The prefix co- means “joint” ,“jointly” or “on equal footing”coexistence——the state of existing togetherhyper-The prefix hyper- means “extreme”hyperslow——too slowmini-The prefix mini-means “little”and is currently used with the two meaning given below:a.Of very small size,duration.importance;miniature or minor minibike——a small motocycleb.Reaching well above the knee;very shortminicoat——a very short coatout-The prefix out- means “surpassing”outlive——to live longer thanover-The prefix over- means “excessive”overeat——to eat to excesssub-The prefix sub- means “below”subnormal——below normalsuper-a.The prefix super- means “more than” or “very special”supersecret——extremely secretb.The prefix super- means “on top ” or “hiterachially superior”superfreeze——to freeze to a very low temperaturesur-The prefix sur- means “over and above”surtax——an additional tax on high incomesultra-The prefix ultra- means “extreme” or “beyond”ultrasecret——highly secretunder-The prefix under- means “too little”underrespresentes——inadequately representedE.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti-The prefix anti- means “against”antibacterial——directed or effective against bacteria contra-The prefix contra- means “opposite” or “contrasting”contradistinction——the distiction by contrastcounter-The prefix counter- means “against” or “in oppositing to”counterclaim——an opposing claim,especially in lawpro-a.The prefix pro- means “for” or “on the side of”pro-student——favoring or siding with studentsb.The prefix pro- means “on behalf of” or “deputizing for”pro-consul——deputy consulF.Locative prefixes:fore-The prefix fore- means “front part of “ or “front”forename——a name that precedes one’s surnameinter-The prefix inter- means “between” or “among”interview——to ask questions of (somebody) in an interviewsub-The prefix sub- means “under”subhuman——of less than human qualitiessuper-The prefix super- means “above”superstructure——an important arrangement system,etc.,which has grown from a certain base.trans-The prefix trans- means “across”transoceanic——beyond or crossing an oceanG.Prefixes of time and order:ex-The prefix ex- means “former”ex-husban——former husbandfore-The prefix fore- means “before”forewarn——to warn in advancepost-The prefix post- means “after”post-election——relating to a period after election pre-The prefix pre- means “before”prefight——prior to a fightre-The prefix re- means “again” or “back”redesign——to design againH.Number prefixes:bi-,di-The prefixes bi- and di- mean “two”biped——a two-footed creature dimerous——consisting of two partsmulti-,poly-The prefixes multi- and poly- mean “many”multi-lateral——having many sides polysyllabic——having more than three syllablessemi-,demi-,hemi-The prefixes semi-,demi-,and hemi- mean “half”semicircle——half a circledemitasse——a small cup of black coffe hemidemisemiquaver——sixty-fourth notetri-The prefix tri- means “three”triaxial——having three axesuni-,mono-The prefixes uni- and mono- mean”one”unique——being the only onemonorail——a railway with a single trailI.Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes:auto-The prefixe auto- means “self”autocrat——a ruler with unlimited powerextra-The prefix extra- means “exceptionally”extrasolar——found or existing outside the solar system neo-The prefix neo- means “new” or “revived”neo-classism——new classismpaleo-The prefix paleo- means “old” or “ancient”paleomagnetic——of or relating to palemagnetismpan-The prefix pan- means “all” or “world-wide”Pan-Africanism——a movement for the political union of all the African nationsproto-The prefix proto- means “first” or “original”protomartyr——the first martyr in a cause or regiontele-The prefix tele- means “distant”telest——a television receiving setvice-The prefix vice- means “deputy”vice-chairman——an officer next in rank to a chairmanJ.Conversion prefixes:a-The prefix a-combines chiefly with verbs to form predicative adjectives.asleep——sleepingbe-a.It means “wearing” or “surrounded by”beforgged——surrounded by fogb.It intensifies the force of verbsbestir——to stir up;to rouse to actionc.It combines with nouns to become transitive verbs bedevil——to trouble greatly;to confuseen-,em-The prefixes en- and em- mean “to put into” or “to provide with”enmain——to get into a trainembitter——to fill with painful or bitter feelings;to make sad and angrySuffixationWhat is suffixation?Suffixation is a main type of word-formation,putting a suffix after the base,sometimes without,but more usually with a change of word class.The primary function of suffixes is to change the word class of the base,although suffixes have only a samll semantic role.Therefore suffixes may be classified into four categories according to the word class.A.Noun suffixes:1．Denominal nouns:abstract:-ageThe suffix -age means “measure of” or “collection of ”percentage——an amount stated as if it is part of a whole which is 100-domThe suffix -dom means “the state of being”officialdom——officials as a class-ery.-ryThe suffix -ery and -ry has three meanings:a.It means “the condition or behavior associated with”. devilry——action performed with the help of the devilb.It means “location of”.nunnery——a building in which nuns live togetherc.It combines with concrete nouns to form nouncount,collective nouns.gadgetry——gadgets generally-fulThe suffix -ful means “the amount contained”tubful——an amount that a tub holds-hoodThe suffix -hood means “the state or time of being(something) widowhood——the state of being a widow-ingThere are two meaning of the suffix -inga.It means “material of”Matting——rough material for matsb.It means “activity connected with”blackberrying——the act of planting blackberry-ismThe suffix -ism means “docterine of “ or “practice of”absenteeism——regular absence without good causes，especially from work or duty-ocracyThe suffix -ocracy means “government by”demovracy——government of the people,by the people and for the people-shipThe suffix -ship means “the state of quality of”membership——the state of being a member of a club,society,etc.2.Denominal nouns:concrete-eerThe suffix -eer means “skilled in” or “engeged in”pamphleteer——a person who writes panphlets-erThe suffix -er means “having dominan characteristic”or “denizen of”north-wester——a strong northwest wind-essThe suffi x -ess means “a female(of the stated kind)”lioness——a female lion-etteThe suffix -ette has trhee meanings.a.It means “compact”.dinette——a small space usually off a kitchen used for informal diningb.It means “imitation”.leatherette——a cheap material made to look like leatherc.It means “a feminine marker”usherette——a woman or girl whose job is in a cinema-letThe suffix -let means “small” or “unimportant”piglet——a young pig-lingThe suffix -ling means “minor” or “offspring of”duckling——a small young duck3.Deverbal nouns-antThe suffix -ant means “a person or thing”contestant——one that participates in a contest-erThe suffix -er means “a person or thing”driver——a person who drives-ageThe suffix -age means “action of” or “instance of”shrinkage——an act or amount of shrinking-ingThe suffix -ing means“what results fro the action of the base”opening——a hole or clear space-mentThe suffix -ment means “the result of”amazement——the quality or state of being amazed4.De-adjectival nouns:-ityThe suffix -ity means “the quality or an example of”rapid——the qualit or state of being rapid5.Noun/adjective suffixes:-eseThe suffix -ese has two meanings:a,It means “in the language of” or “in the style of”Chinese——a native or an inhabitant of Chinab,It means “in the language of” or “in the style of”Chinese——the Chinese language;of or related to China,its people on their languageB.Adjective suffixes1.Denominal suffixes-edThe suffix -ed means “having”walled——having walls-fulThe suffix -ful means “full of” or “providing”delightful——highly pleasing2.Deverbal suffixes:-ableThe suffix -able means “of the kind can be done”printable——fit to be printedC.Adverb suffixes:-wardThe suffix -ward is used to form nongradable directional acverbs where the basw may be a noun,a prepositional adverb or a directional adverb.earthward——toward the erathD.Verb suffixes:-ateThe suffix -ate combines with mainly neoclassical noun bases hyphenate——to join with hyphen-izeThe suffix -ize combines freely with adjectives and nouns. legalize——to make lawful。
《英语词汇学》
Lectures on English Lexicol ogyMain Sections for the Lectures:Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1What Is a Word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and MeaningA word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to a certain thing with a cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.1.3 Sound and FormIt is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form.The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans.In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns.1.4 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary.The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.1.5 Classification of Words1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Non-basic V ocabularyBasic words have the following characteristics:1.All national character: they denote the most common things and phenomena ofthe world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language.2.Stability: as these words denote the commonest things necessary to life, they arelikely to remain unchanged.3.Productivity:as they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, they caneach be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes4.Polysemy:words of this kind often possess more than one meaning becausemost of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use andbecome polysemous.5.Collocability: most of these words enter quite a number of set expressions,idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings.“All national character” is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.Non-basic words include the following:1.Terminology（术语）: technical terms used in particular disciplines andacademic areas.2.Jargon（行话）: the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.3.Slang（俚语）4.Argot（黑话）5.Dialectal words（方言词语）6.Archaisms（古语）7.Neologisms（新词）1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsContent words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words（实义词）. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.Functional words do not have notions of their own. They are also called empty words. The chief function of these words is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences. They are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.Content words are numerous and the number is ever growing whereas the functional words which make up a small number of vocabulary，remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words: words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language.Native words have two other features:1.Neutral in style: since native words denote the commonest things in humansociety, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times.Stylistically, native words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.2.Frequent in use: Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech andwriting. The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent.Borrowed word: words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.The loan words can be classified into four classes:1.Denizens（同化词）are words borrowed early in the past and now are wellassimilated into the English language. eg: pork----porc(F) cup---cuppa(L) 2.Aliens（非同化词）are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling. eg: bazzar (per) intermesso( IT)3.Translation loans（译借词）4.Semantic loans（语义借词）Questions and Tasks on P20: 1—6Chapter 2: The Development of the English VocabularyThe English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles.A Historical Overview of the English vocabularyThe first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family—Celtic（克尔特语）.The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles and were to occupy the land until about 410.When the Roman empire began to crumble, the Germanic tribes came in. they are Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.2.2.1 Old English (450—1150)The Germanic tribes took permanent control of the land, which was to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. People generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.2.2.2 Middle English (1150--1500)Old English began to undergo a great change when the Normans invaded England from France in 1066. the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of Frenchwords into English. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9,000 words of French origin poured into English. 75 percent of them are still in use today.2.2.3 Modern English (1500—up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance.In the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion, yet more words are created by means of word-formation.Growth of Present-day English VocabularyGenerally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages.Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.1.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet thenew need.3.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularlyin earlier times.Questions and Tasks on P33: 3, 4, 10Chapter 3: Word Formation IThough borrowing has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary, vocabulary is largely enriched on an internal basis.boys boy+schecking check+ingchairman chair+manMorphemes（词素）the smallest meaningful unit of language Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical, e.g. boys---boy+-s indicates pluralitychecking---check+-ingdisappointment词是由一个或一个以上的词素构成的。
英语词汇学Chapter 05.2
II. Main Types of Lexical Meaning
• • • • • • Conceptual Meaning Associative Meaning Connotative Meaning Stylistic Meaning Affective Meaning Collocative Meaning
(textbook p107---126)
e.g. singular and plural meaning of nouns (girl, girls); tense meaning of verbs (worked, teaching, gotten, etc.) and other inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word is important only when used in actual context. Most empty/form words have only grammatical meaning.
Expressions like “daddy”, “father”, “male parent” have obviously different stylistic features.
• Let’s commence the class. (too formal and unacceptable) • Standing there and hearing the holy song from the distant church she saw a new hope in her mind and felt her soul was ascending. (formal, proper)
• dragon in Chinese;
词汇学Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis
• Concept According to the ideational theory, the relation between a linguistic form and what it refers to in the world is established with concept. Concept is the result of human cognition. It is the mental reflection of entities, events, or relations in the objective world. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. It belongs to a non-language category.
• Every word that has meaning has sense, but not every word has denotation/ reference. • Linguistic forms with the same reference may have different sense. e.g. President of the People‘s Republic of China The general secretary of the Communist Party of the China
For example, ―dog‖, when used decontextually, always denotes the same class of animals, or the defining property of the class whenever it is uttered. In contrast, on different occasions of utterance, ―dog‖ often refer to different members of the class. The dog is a good pet. His dog nosed me, and then let me in. He chased the dog out of the garden.
lecture 5 word meaning and componential analysis
splash whisper glimmer, glint, glisten, glitter
sniff, snore, snort 1. breath-noise snip, snap, snatch 2.quick separation or movement snake ,snail, sneak 3.creeping
It refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
Motivation
1. Onomatopoeic Motivation 2. Morphological motivation 3. Semantic Motivation 4. Etymological motivation
5.2.1. Onomatopoeic Motivation
Some words, called onomatopoeia, whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.
Proper nouns, once they become common nouns, can be explained by their origins only.
chapter Five Changes in Word Meaning 英语词汇学 教学课件
Types of Changes
Word-meaning changes by 5 modes Extension Narrowing Degradation Elevation Transfer Of these, extension and narrowing are by
far the most common.
poisonous drink a married woman unfortunate event female young person
Example III
When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed:
Butcher goat-killer
animals-killer
Companion one who shares a company
bread
Example 3
Extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use
Extra-linguistic Factors Linguistic Factors
Extra-linguistic Factors
As time passes, changes keep taking place in society and our daily life and new concepts, ideas and new things emerge continuously. Man has come to know more and more about the world around. All this is reflected in language.
英语词汇学第5章课件
5. 3.1. Grammatical and Lexical Meaning
2. The same word may have different grammatical meaning:
forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting
5. 3.1. Grammatical and Lexical Meaning
different types of meaning.
5. 3.1. Grammatical and Lexical Meaning
Grammatical meaning Examples: --singular and plural meaning of nouns --tense meaning of verbs and their
The figurative meaning is suggested by the literal meaning.
5. 2. 4. Etymological Motivation
Examples:
pen = feather → quill pen → any writing tool 笔=bamboo + hair → modern writing tool quisling = Quisling → traitor braille = Braille → language for the blind
Concept is beyond language. It is the result of human cognition,
reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
5. 1. 1. Concept
（完整word版）词汇学练习
（完整word版）词汇学练习Chapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.C 1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2.B_____is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships ____D_the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be __A_____.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5. Trumpet is a(n) ____C___motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD.etymologically6.Hopeless is a ____A__motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically7. In the sentence ‘He is fond of pen ’, pen is a _C_____ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a ___D___motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically9.Functional words possess strong __A___ whereas content words haveboth meanings, and lexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10.____B___is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s __C_____towards the person or thing in question.A. feelingB. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _B_____ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that D_______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ____D__.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different words15.Reference is the relationship between language and the__C____.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific country16.P olysemy is a common feature peculiar to ___C___.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages17.F rom the ___B___ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the resultof growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional18.___A____ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning standsat the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A .Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection19.. ____D_____ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation20. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their _____CA. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage21. ___B___refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms22. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is ___A____.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy23. _____B____ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms24. The antonyms: male and female are __A____.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms25. The antonyms big and small are ___B___.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD.connected terms26. The antonyms husband and wife are _____C_.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms27. Composition and compounding in lexicology are words of A__.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms28. As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly __B____, they are often employed in a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms29.F rom the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it wasendowed with only one meaning . The first meaning is called __A____.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning30.S ynchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core ofword-meaning called____C___.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggesttheir ______/doc/6614936110.html,pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings ofmany are the sum total of the morphemes combined.3._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. Inother words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.5.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and_________.6.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms frompolysemants is to see their ____, the second principalconsideration is ________.7.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one______whereas homonyms are listed as separate ______.8.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______,connotation ,and _____.9.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the _____terms and the more specific words are called the _____ terms.III. Match the words or expression in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) discrimination of synonyms 2) types of antonyms 3) sources of synonyms.A B1. difference in denotation A. dead/alive2. borrowing B. handy/ manual3. dialects and regional English C. old / young4. contradictory terms D. answer the letter / reply to the letter5. figurative and euphemistic use of words E. jim6. contrary terms F. want/wish/desire7. difference in connotation G. dreamer /star-gazer8. coincidence with idiomatic expressions H. employer / employee9. difference in application I. help/ lend one a hand10. relative terms J. foe / enemyIV. Define the following terms .1. motivation2. hoponymy 4. semantic fieldV.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.1. What is reference ?2. What are sources of synonyms ?VI. Question:1. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.2. Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.Key to exercises:I. 1. C 2.B 3.D 4.A 5.C 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.A 10.B 11.C12.B 13.D 14.D 15.C 16. C 17.B 18.A 19.D 20.C 21.B22.A 23.B 24.A 25.B 26 .C 27.A 28.B 29. A 30.CII. 1. meanings 2.multi-morphemic 3.Semantic motivation4.origins5.associative meaning6. etymology, semanticrelatedness 7.headword, entries 8.denotation, application 9.superordinate, subordinateIII.21. F 22.J 23.E 24.A 25.G 26.C 27.B 28.I 29. D30.H1. . Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, isoften associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, manywords have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards theperson or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquiresin its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.2. food________________________________________________________ _meat vegetable cerealpork beef turnip carrot breadcake cornflakes。
词汇学第五章
2008-9-21
English Lexicology chapter 5
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5.1.2 Blending
Blending: the formation of new words by combining
parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. Blending is a process of both compounding and abbreviation.
E.g. VOA, BBC, CNN, TV, CCTV, UN, WHO, UK, USA, PRC, IT, PC, IQ, ABS; MA, BA, PHD; CAD ……
2008-9-21
English Lexicology chapter 5
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3 Types of Initialisms
4 types of clipping:
back clipping : the deletion occurs at the end. This is the most common type of clipping
e.g. dormitory dorm; discotheque disco; bicycle bike; chimpanzee chimp; examination exam; gymnastics gym; mathematics math; trigonometry trig (三角); luncheon lunch; taxicab taxi; advertisement ad; laboratory lab; professional pro; exposition expo; memorandum memo; technology tech; homosexual homo
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In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i.e., an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful.
casa (Spanish)
かおく (Japanese)
maison (French)
Concrete (具体的) meanings
Some referents for words exist in the physical world and are the kinds of objects that we can see, touch, hear, or smell, such as books, houses, cars, chairs, and trees, and their meanings are concrete (具体的).
(7) 红人（favorite (with sb in power)
(8) 红得发紫（(of a person) be extremely popular; be all the rage; (of an official) be at the height of one’s power and influence）
5.1.3 What is sense语义?
The meaning of a word is decided not by the word itself, but by relationships with other words in the same semantic field, i.e. by its place in the system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
Semantic triangle (Ogden & Richards) p.78
Semantic/Semiotic Triangle (p.53)
plane
11
5.1.1 What is reference所指关系?
It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。
casa (Spanish)
かおく (Japanese)
maison (French)
The debate over the connection between sound and meaning
(between name and sense)
Naturalists (自然派): There was an intrinsic connection between sound and sense.
5.1 Word Meaning 词义
Word
Word-form
Word meaning
pronunciation
spelling
what the form stands for
It not as simple as it seems to be!
“Triangle of Reference” (语义三角) of Ogden and Richards (1923: II) P.80
What’s the difference between reference and sense?
Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. 指语言内部的关系。
Reference denotes the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for.
Conventionality （约定俗成）
house (English)
fang zi (Chinese)
Arbitrariness (任意性): the fact that the same object in reality has different names in different languages.
换言之，只有当语言符号与所指物---物体、现象、 人等之间建立某种联系，这个符号才获得意义。
Words work as symbols because people agree to accept them as standing for objects or concepts known to them through their experience.
一个词语的意义，不是由它自身来决定， 而是由它和同一语义场里其它词语的关系 来决定，即由它在此种语言里和其它词语 的语义关系系统中的位置来决定。
如，汉语词汇”红”（英语词汇red）的语义在下列句子 里的意义是由句子中其它词语的意义来决定和限制的。
(1) 红蛋（red eggs ─ eggs dyed red to celebrate the birth of a child, and distributed among friends and relatives）
(2) 红白喜事（red and white affairs ─ weddings and funerals）
(3) 红媒（matchmaker; go-between）
(4) 开门红（get off to a flying start）
(5) 红角（popular actor / actress）
In this sense, the relationship between a word-form and its meaning is conventional and arbitrary (任意的).
5.1.2 What is concept?
It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person’s mind. 指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义。
2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
5.1.3 What is sense语义?
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. 词语的意义是它在语义关系系统中同其它词 语相对的位置。
( the origin of the word or how the name comes from)
Conventionality and Motivation
• Triangle of significance（词义三角） Meaning (Concept)
Word
Form…………. Referent
(9) 红极一时（enjoy great popularity for a time; be all the rage）
(10) 红粉知己（beautiful woman who is a bosom friend）
(11) 红颜薄命（beautiful women suffer ill fates / are ill-fated）
3. But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
Conventionality （约定俗成）
house (English)
fang zi (Chinese)
Arbitrariness (任意性): the fact that the same object in reality has different names in different languages.
Chapter 5
Word Meaning and Componential Analysis
Objectives:
• Discuss meanings of ‘meaning’; • Explain types of meaning.
Teaching focus:
• Meanings of ‘meaning’; • Motivation of meaning; • Types of meaning; • Components of word meaning.