词汇学简论摘要笔记
词汇学 _ 《现代汉语词汇》笔记
词汇学 | 《现代汉语词汇》笔记第⼀章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语⾔中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语⾔学的分⽀之⼀词汇：语⾔中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语⾔中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词⼀样作为⼀个整体来运⽤的语⾔单位。
包括熟语和专⻔⽤语词汇学分类普通词汇学（⼀般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产⽣和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语⾔研究三“⼩学”—⾳韵学、训诂学、⽂字学古代语⾔学名著《尔雅》训诂学第⼀本义类词典《⽅⾔》⽤通⾔解释⽅⾔《释名》语⾔考理据《说⽂解字》第⼀本⽂字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建⽴与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建⽴：涌现了⼀批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究⽅法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单⾳节为主，词以双⾳节为主，但单⾳节词使⽤频率更⾼多⾳节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语⾔：咖啡巧克⼒沙发词语呈现双⾳化趋势为什么？内在驱动⼒：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的⽭盾社会发展：旧词新义、⾳变构词、两个词复合构词语⾳系统简化（避免同⾳）明确表意：新产⽣的双⾳词意义明确；原有单⾳节词部分义项被取代⽽减少审美追求（双⾳节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：⻓度增加，表义明确途径单⾳节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发⽑笔松⿏⽉亮眉⽑单⾳节语素的前⾯或后⾯添加⼀个不表示具体意义的附加成分：⽼⻁阿姨桌⼦⽯头意义相同、相近或相对的单⾳节语素联合起来使⽤：国家意义寻找⽛⻮⽪肤忘记停⽌单⾳节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单⾳节词替换成与原语素⽆关的双⾳节词：眼睛（⽬）筷⼦（箸）匣⼦（椟）⼤腿（股）三⾳节词省略其中⼀个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四⾳节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语⼤体⼀致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同⾳语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与⾮词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作⽤少量语素构成⼤量合成词缺少词形变化成语⼀般由四个⾳节组成⾳节相对⽽⾔较短量词、语⽓词丰富离合词多，使⽤频率⾼叠⾳词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语⾔学相关学科的关系（了解）与语⾳学：语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语⾳⼿段来表现，语⾳是词的⾳响形式。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
英语词汇学引论(笔记) chapter 1
Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and LexicologyI.Linguistics1.DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Scientific study method①observe②hypothesis③classify④test & conclude3.Features of scientific study①exhaustiveness②consistency③economy④objectivitynguage1.DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols by means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact and transmit their culture.2.Functions·interrogative·expressive·informative·evocative·directive·performative·phaticrmation transmissionSemantic encoding↓Grammatical encoding↓Phonetic & phonological encoding (pitch, loudness, length, quality)↓Sending↓Transmission4.Origins of the calendarBabylonian→Egyptian→Greek→(750 BC)Old Roman1)Months·750 BCMarch MarsApril Goddess of love May Goddess of spring June God of marriage ※Quintillis Five※Sextillis Six September SevenOctober Eight November Nine December Ten·500 BCJanuary ‘door’February ‘festival’·46 BCQuintillis→July Julius Caesar Sextillis→August Augustus Caesar 2)DaysSunday God of Sun (Babylonian) Monday God of Moon (Norse) Tuesday Chief of all gods (Nor.) Wednesday God of commerce (Nor.)Thursday God of Thunder (Nor.) Friday God of Love (Nor.) Saturday God of Harvest (Bab.)III.Lexicology1.Basic terms and definitionsword (OE): talk, speakvocabulary (MLat): ①all words in a certain realm②words in specific context lexicon (lexis): words in a special language lexicology: origins + development + meanings of words 2.English Lexicology·morphonological structures·formation·semantic structure relations·usages·lexicography3.A poem~Spring, the sweetest spring, is the year’s pleasant King Then blooms each thing, then the maids dance in a ring Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do singKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe palm and may make country houses gay Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day And we hear aye birds tune this merry layKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe fields breeze sweet, the daisies kiss our feet Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sitIn every street, these tunes our ears do greet Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
词汇学简论摘要笔记
1。
词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。
2。
词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。
因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。
据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。
即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。
现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。
既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。
这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。
3。
对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。
“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。
索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。
”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2）4。
个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。
前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。
自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。
（P2）5。
若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。
正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3)Contextualism语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
英语语言学笔记第三章
当人们在统计一篇文章或一段话中的频率时，看到一组名词如boy、boys或一组动词如check、checks、checked、checking，会分别把它们当作两个词、四个词计算。可是，在词典里它们各自被看作一个词，如这两个名词形式共用词根"boy"，四个动词形式全都共用词根"check"。因此，词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
为了减少"词"这一术语的含糊性，词位（lexeme）被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。例如，"write"和"fat"分别是例3－3中两组词的词位。
例3－3
write fat
writes fatter
wrote fattest
writing
written
ⅱ.助动词
以前习惯于把助动词（auxiliary）看作动词。因为其特有的性质，很难让人们将它们看作动词，现在语言学家倾向于把它们当作一个单独的词类。下面我们比较一下助动词和其他普通动词的用法：
例3－10
否定I（can't）come.
* I（wantn't）come.
倒置（Is he）coming?
*（Keeps he）coming?
（4）词类
上面所说的类别似乎是普遍的。要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似性来给词分组。在传统语法中词类（part of speech）是封闭的。基于拉丁语法的传统，一般建立八个或九个词类，如"名词"、"代词"、"形容词"、"动词"、"副词"、"介词"、"连词"、"感叹词"和"冠词"。
自考英语词汇学稳过笔记
自考英语词汇学00832Chapter1【单词的角度】1.In visual terms: word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally in the peace of paper.2.In spoken language: word is a sound and combination of sound.3.In semanticists: a word is a unit of meaning .4.In grammarians: a word be a free form that can function in the sentences.【单词的定义】A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1)a minimal free from of a language;2)a sound unity;3)a unit of meaning;4)a form that can function alone in a sentence.【音和义的关系】The connection of the sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional, and \ * there is no. logical reJationshjp between sound and meaning. E.g woman-femme-funu【音和形不同的原因】Sound and form1.More phonemes than letters in English.2.Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling.3.Some of the differences are created by the early. scribes.识［记u二o\ .deliberately changed'not ended/n,v'+e)(printing&dictionary 选择题).4.Borrowing.【词汇的定义】Vocabulary not only can it refer to a total number of words in a language, but it can stand for all the words use in a particular historical period.(1,000,000)Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content.填空题【词汇的分类】①Use frequently----basic word stock：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated for centuries and forms the common core of language.l.all national character 2. stability 3.productivity 4.polysemy 5.collocability 选择题多/记例子*) nonbasic vocabulary：(1. terminology consist of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. E.g photoscanning.(2. jargon refers to specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,science,trades and professions communicate among themselves. E.g hypo.(3. slang : belongs to the sub-standard language. (colourful,blunt,impressive,expressive)e.g bear.(4. argot:jargon of criminals. E.g dip.(5. dialectal words: used only by speakers of the dialect in question. E.g coo(cow)(6. archaisms: were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use(7. neologisms:are newly-created words or expression ,or words that have taken on new meanings. E.g E-mail.*(选择题)All national character: natural phenomena/names of plant and animal/human body and relations/action,domain,size,state/num,pron,conj,prep)②Notion (多为选择题)content words =notional words (n/v/a/adj/num)：denotes clear notions and thus are known as notional words.functional words =empty words =form words (prep/conj/aux/art/人称代词)数量小且稳定③Origin--- native words('Anglo-Saxon words 5 万-6 万’)[5+2]6.neutral in style.(neither formal nor informal) E.g begin7.frequent in useborrowed words=loan words =borrowing : words taken over from foreign language.(1. denizens：words borrowed early in the past and well assimilated into the English language.E.g cup-cuppa./2 aliens :are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. E.g kowtow./ 3.translation-loans :words and expression formed from the existing material in the English language and modelled on the patterns from foreign language.E.g long time no see/ 4.semantic-loans : are not borrowed with references to the form,but their meanings are borrowed. E.g dream)Charter2【词汇时期分类】Indo-European family (Europe+the Near East+India 选择题)因An eastern set (BIAA ) [in B with PPBLCRS] [in I with PBHR]二/^选择题多 因An western set (CIHG ) [in G with NLDS.北欧语言.scandination+GDFE]Middle English /1150-1500/Modern English /1500-1700-now/ synthetic language to analytic language0 现代英语发展来源 l.the rapid development of modern sciences and technology. 2.social,economic and political changes.3.influence of other cultures and language.这两货容易混淆!简答题0 现代英语发展模式:1 creation: refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots,affixes and other elements. 2 semantic change : means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3 borrowing 主要贡献语言 E ,L ,G ,F ,S ).4.reviving archaic or obsolete words.常考Chapter 3【词素】 Morphemes : is the smallest functional unit in the composition of words.E.g. Denationalization .can. broken, into de-,nation,-al,-ize,-ation,each having meaning of its own,these fragments can’t be further divided,otherwise they would not make any sense.【单词素】monomorphemic words are morphemes that can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. (少考)【词素变体】Allomorph : realized by more than one morph according their position in a word. Free morpheme = free root“bound rootBound morpheme J _ prefix L affix derivational affix - suffixL Inflectional affix【自由词素】Free morpheme : morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free, these morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be use as free grammatical units in sentences.(free morpheme are free roots.)【复合词素】Bound morpheme:is a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morphemes. ( (Old English /450-1150 /full endings+Anglo-Saxonleveled endings【复合词根】Bound root carries the fundamental meaning just like free root, unlike free root,it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.【词缀】Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function./according to the function, affixes can be grouped into the.....《答题技巧【曲折词缀】Inflectional affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.【派生词缀】Derivational affixes are affixes add to other morphemes to create new words.【词根】A root is that part of word-form that remains when all inflectional affixes and derivational affixes have been removed. E.g nation【词干】A stem can be defined as a form that affixes of any kind can be added. E.g internationalChapter 4一. 【词缀法】Affixation: defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem. This process also know as derivation.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stem. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem,but only modify its meaning. E.g ex-boyfriend (9个*见表格)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem, they mainly change the word class. E.g happy-happiness (4个*见表格)二 .【复合法】Compounding : also know as .composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.【复合词】Compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. E.g .silkworm,honey—bee,. easy chair (compound can be written solid,hyphenated. and open)Compound 和free phrase 的区别/不同1.phonet ic features. E.g a ‘fat head(c) a fat ‘head(p)2.Semantic features.. E.g a green hand当做一个单词的意思用，意思和短语不一样3.grammatical features. E.g bad-mouth can used as a verb“he bad-mouthed me” 短语不能用作动词三. 【转类法】Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Also known as functional shift.【零派生】Zero-conversion: conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word without the addition of an affix. E.g simple single；paper；round【形转名】Adjective converts to nouns: unlike verbs, not all adjectives which converted can achieve a. full .noun, status.（全部转类）Full conversion: a noun fully converted from adjective has all characteristics of nouns.E.g a white;finals.（部分转类）Partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjective do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles, what’s more, they retain some of the adjective features. E.g the poor=poor people, the poorer=【形转动】Most verbs converted from adjectives have both transitive and intransitive functions.E.g wet= ’make...wet’/ yellow =‘become yellow’【零派生和后缀法的区别】书本P56最后一段simple和single为例Both are adjectives, but single can be used as a verb without changing the form. In contrast, simple cannot function as a verb without adding an affix. The first instance is Zero-conversion which an item is adapted or converted to a new word without the addition of an affix. The second is Suffixation, the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem, they mainly change the word class.【转类其他三种变化】In some case, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution 重音. ’E.g use/s/n-/z/v, shelf/f/n-shelve/v/v, 'conduct（n）-con'duct（v）（少考）VA noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid. Concise and impressive （选择题）e.g elbow四.【拼缀法】Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. E.g somg=smoke+foghead+tail/head+tail/head+word/word +tail （记例子^）答题技巧medicare a. combination .of medical+care五.【截短法】Clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. E.g bus from omnibus,exam,plane (to save time ; economical in writing)Front clipping/back clipping/front and back clipping/phrase clipping (选择题/填空题)答题技巧flu is. the. shortened from, of influenza六.【首字母拼音法】Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters.(首字母拼写法)Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. E.g UFO BBC CCTV.(首字母拼音法)Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g AIDS BASIC B-day.七.【逆生法】Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, is considered to opposite process of suffixation. E.g beg from beggar. (informal)八 . 【专有名词】Words from proper name: sandwichWords that are commonized from proper nouns have rich cultural associations and thus stylistically vivid, impressive and thought-provoking.Chapter 5【词义的三层含义】The meaning of/meaning,选择题多1.Reference: is the relationship between language and the world. (the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional, this connection is the result of generalization and abstraction)2.Concept: which is beyond the language,is the result of the human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3.Sense:denotes the relationship inside the language. (it is also an abstraction. Every word that has meaning has sense not every word has reference. E.g but,if)-meaningWord form -pronunciation.Spelling【四大理据】Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.(选择题)1.Onomatopoetic motivation：in modern English some words whose sounds suggest, their meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. E.g bang2.Morphological motivation: concerned the words whose ,morphologicaj. structures suggest,their meaning, for generally speaking, the meaning of a derived word or a compound is based on the meaning of word-building elements. E.g airmail3.Semantic motivation: refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning ofa word. E.g pen-sword4.Etymological motivation: the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins, in other word, the history of a word explain the meaning of the word. E.g laconic(所有专有名词都是词源理据)【词义的类型】常考名词解释&填空题/8个1.Grammatical meaning： refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates the grammatical concept and relationship. (such as part of the speech of word,singular and plural meaning of nuns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word become important only when it is used in a actual context.)2.Lexical meaning.is that part of word meaning when grammatical meaning is removed. It embrace two components: conceptual and associative meaning.①Conceptual meaning: (know as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of the word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basic for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. E.g sun 太阳②Associative meaning：is the secondary supplemented of conceptual meaning. It differs form conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate.a.Connotaive meaning: refers to the overtone or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning. E.g home, motherb.Stylistic meaning : many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate fordifferent context. E.g charger 战马/horse [formal-neutral-informal]c.Affective meanin g :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards person or thing in question.E.g dog [appreciative:famous / pejorative:notorious]d.Collocative meaning : consists of associations a word acquires in its collocation. E.g.pretty/handsome, green-grammatical meaningmeaning le lexical meaning「conceptual meaning一「connotative meaning-associative meaning stylistic meaningaffective meaning一collocative meaningChapter 6词与词的关系一. 【一词多义】Polysemy：words that have two or more than two sense.1.【历时法】Diachronic approach: from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of the growth and development of the semantic structure of one and some word.'primary meaning:is the only first meaning that a word had when it was created.'derived meaning:with the advance of time and the development of language,it took more and more meanings.E.g face2.【共时法】Synchronic approach: synchronically, polysemy is viewed as a coexistence of various meaning of the same word in the certain historical period of time.' secondary meaning 选择题' central meaning: the basic meaning of a wordE.g gay【一词多义G发展方法】常考！1 .【辐射型】Radiation：it means each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning. E.g neck,face2 .【连锁型】Concatenation : it refers to a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. E.g treacle【1 和 2 的不同点和关系】unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning,concatenation it refers to a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the origin there is no direct connection in between.Radiation and concatenation are closely related, being different stages of developmentleading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many case, the two processes work together, complementing each other.(分析题)二.【同形同音异义】Homonymy : word different in meaning, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.【类型】1.perfect homonyms: are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.E.g bear 熊,bear 忍受2.homographs: are words identical only in spelling but different in both sound and meaning.E.g bow /ba。
00832自考英语词汇学重点笔记整理1
自考英语词汇学笔记整理Chapter 11 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1 词定义包括以下几点：（ 1 ）一门语言中最小的自由形式; （ 2 ）一个声音的统一体（ 3 ）一个意义单位;（ 4 ）在一个句子中独立起作用的一个形式。
词是一门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式2- Sound and Meaning:symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three lettersthat make up the word just automatically suggest the animalin question.2 -声音和意义：象征性联系几乎总是任意和约定成俗的狗称为狗不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就能自动表示这种动物。
3- Old English, the speech ofthe time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters mustdo double duty or work together in combination.3 –古代英语，随着语言的发展，声音和形式之间的差异越来越大。
大三英语词汇学引论笔记
大三英语词汇学引论笔记英语词汇学引论笔记英语词汇学引论笔记之“名词解释篇”1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of “say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).英语词汇学引论笔记14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally definedas the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)--to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone--phone, professional--pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation英语词汇学引论笔记Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。
英语词汇学笔记整理
英语词汇学笔记整理Part 1 前缀(Prefixes)1.Negative prefixesa-;an-缺少、缺乏amoral(缺德) asexual(雌雄同体的) asymmetry(不均匀的)anarchy(无政府的)dis-否、不dishonestnon-非、否non-black(非黑人区的) non-science non-smoker nonresistant(非抵抗)in-；i-；im-；ir-complete——incomplete correct——incorrect小结：清辅音[k],[f],[t]前的前缀加in-;唇音之前加im-;“l”前加il-;“r”前加ir-。
所以加什么样的前缀由单词的首字母决定。
un-不unhappy unfriendly infamous2.Pejorative prefixes 表贬义mal-不好的，坏的maltreat(虐待) malformed(畸形的) malnutrition(营养不良的)malfunction(功能紊乱)mis-错误的misdial(拨错号) misleading(误导) misbehaved(行为不规范) misconception(错误的认知) pseudo-错，假的pseudoscience(伪科学) pseudo teaching(实习)3.Reversative prefixes 表逆转的前缀de-defrost(除霜) deplane(下飞机) deindustrialization(非工业化的) decode(解码)dis- 表示动作的逆转disconnect(切断) dishearten(泄气) disown(抛弃)4.Prefixes of degree or sizearch- means “most”\”supreme”常带有贬义archenemy archbishop(红衣大主教) arch monetarist(拜金主义者)co- “joint”or “equally”coexistence(共存的) combine colleague correspondence(通信联系)小结：co-这个前缀根据所跟单词的首字母而发生变化在元音前加co-；-b\-p之前用com-;-l之前用col-;-f\-c\-g前用con-;-r之前用cor- hyper-means “extreme”hyperactive(过于活跃的) hyper cautious(过分小心的)mini-means “little”minibus miniskirt ministered minimalmaxi-means “big”maxi coat maxi skirtout-means “surpassing”,程度多，超过outclass(优质的) outlive(长寿的) outgrowover-means “excessive”相当的，带贬义overeat overweight overestimate(高估) overwork overjoyed(欣喜若狂的) overflow(溢出) sub- 亚，次的subculture(亚文化) subtext(潜台词) subconscious(潜意识)subsonic(低音速)super- 超级supernatural(超自然的) supermansur- means “over and above”超surcharge(额外收费) surtax(附加税) surreal(超现实)ultra- 相当，非常ultramodern ultraconservative(非常保守的) ultrasonic(超音速)ultraviolet(紫外线)under- 低于undercharged underestimate(低估)5.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti- means “against”反……anticlockwise(逆时针) anti-aging(抗衰老的) antibacterial(抗菌的) antineutron(反中子) contra- means “opposite”, “contrasting”contradiction conrafactualcounter- means “against”, “in opposition to”counterattack counterexample countercurrent(逆电流)pro- 支持，站在……一方pro-European pro-student6.Locative prefixes 表示方位的前缀fore- 前部forearm foreground forehead forewordinter- means “between”, “among”在……之间international intermarry(近亲结婚) internetsub- means “under”submarine(潜水艇) subway sublet(转租)super- means “above”superstructure(上层建筑物)trans- means “across”transform(变形) transplant transcontinental(跨州的)7.Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序的前缀ex- means “former”以前的ex-husband ex-presidentfore- 表时间foresee(预见) foretell(预言)post- means “after”postmodernism(后现代的) postwar(战后) posttretment(复建)pre- 在……之前preschooler(学龄前儿童) prehistory(史前史) pre-liberation(解放前)8.Number prefixesbi-;di- means “two”双bimonthly(双月的) bicycle(自行车) bilingual(双语的) bigamy(重婚) dioxide(二氧化物) disyllable(双音节)multi-;poly- means “many”多，几个multi-national polygamy(一夫多妻制) polyandry(一妻多夫制)semi-;demi-;hemi- means “half”半semiliterate(半文盲) demigod(半人半神) hemisphere(半球) semivowel(半元音)tri- 三triangle(三角形) tricycle(三轮车) trinity(三维一体) trilingual(三语的)uni-; mono- means “one”单一的uniform monogamy(一夫一妻制) monologue(独自)9.Neo- Classical prefixes 与科技有关的auto- means “self”autobiography(自传) autosuggestion(自荐) autocrat(独裁)extra- 超的extraordinary(特殊的) extraterrestrial(外星的)neo- means “new”新的neo-Nazi(新纳粹党) neo-impressionism(新映像派)pan- means “all”, “world-wide”pan-Americanism 泛美主义proto- means “first”, ”original”原始的，最初的protohistory(史前人类学) prototype(原型，典型)tele- means “distant”远程的telescope telegram televisionPart 2 Suffixation 后缀1.Noun suffixes[1] noun + noun suffixes, abstract 由此类词缀构成的名词表示抽象的概念-age means “measure of”or “collection of”Baggage luggage percentage(集合名词，百分比，不能和数字直接连用) mileage(里程)-dom means “the state of being”kingdom officialdom(官僚) stardom(明星地位)-ery, -ryslavery nunnery(尼姑庵) nursery refinery(精炼)-ful means “the amount contained”handful mouthful spoonful-hood means “the state”or “time of being something”childhood boyhood brotherhood neighborhood widowhood-ing means “material of”or “activity connected with”carpeting matting tubing blackerring-ism means “doctrine of”Impressionism(映像派) optimism pessism idealism materialism-ocracy means “government by”democracy(民主)-shiprelationship friendship dictatorship(独裁主义)[2] noun + noun suffixes, concrete 由此类词缀构成的名词表示具体的概念-eer means “skilled in”auctioneer(拍卖师) engineer mountaineer-er means “having doininant characteristics ”teenager villager Londoner cooker roaster-ess means “a female”actress hostess lioness tigress在masculine(阳性)名词后加- essauthor : authoress 女作家heir : heiress 女性继承人host : hostess 女主人lion : lioness 雌狮例外：actor : actress 女演员hunter : huntress 女猎人tiger : tigress 母老虎negro : negress 女黑人master : mistress 女主人/情妇（concubine 二奶）prince : princess 公主murderer : murderess 女杀手masculine(阳性) 与feminine 完全不同bachelor 单身汉——maid 少女bull 公牛——cow 母牛cock 公鸡——hen 母鸡dog 狗——bitch 母狗gentleman 男士——lady 女士horse 马——mare 母马king 国王——queen 王后monk 和尚——nun 尼姑nephew 外甥——niece 外甥女在名词前后加上性别名词man-servant——maid-servantcock-sparrow——hen-sparrowhe-goat——she-goattom-cat——she-catpeacock——peahen-let means “small”小booklet piglet starlet-ling means “minor”or “off spring of”小，后代duckling princeling-ster means “involved in”gamester(means a person who plays a game for money)gangster(黑帮)[3] verb + noun suffix 加在动词后的名词后缀-ant means “a person or thing”informant consultant(顾问) inhabitant lubricant(润滑剂)-ee means “one who is object of the verb”interviewee nominee(被提名者) trainee-er, -or means “a person or thing”Driver teacher silencer(消音器) computer-al means “the action on result of”arrival refusal revival-ation means “the process or state of”classification(分类) interpretation(分析) explanation globalization(全球化) explorationPart 3 转类法——词形不变，词性改变Assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.eg: 1. He designed to be a scientist.1.He had a desire to be a scientist.Zero derivation 零派生eg: smokeThe smoke from the chimney. (noun.) ——He smokes a pipe. (verb.)——Let’s have a smoke. (noun.)英语词类的转化一般是简单词补充：breakfast 的来历在阿拉伯，fasting为斋月，从breakfast的结构看来，意为“打破斋戒”的意思，在晚餐和早餐之间的时间较长，而吃早餐就像打破了一个小型的斋戒。
现代汉语词汇(第一节 词汇概说)读书笔记
现代汉语词汇（第一节词汇概说）一、词汇学的分科词汇学是以词和词汇为研究对象的一门语言学科。
可分为普通词汇学与具体语言词汇学两大类。
1、普通词汇学又称一般词汇学，是普通语言学的一个组成部分。
它以多种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象，从而总结出一般性的规律。
2、具体语言词汇学又称个别语言词汇学，以一种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象。
从历时与共时角度划分，又分为历史词汇学、历史比较词汇学与描写词汇学等。
（1）历时词汇学主要研究词汇在语言发展过程中的的演变规律。
比如汉语词汇史主要研究汉语词汇在上古、中古、近古不同历史阶段中的发展情况。
而上古词汇史则研究汉语词汇在殷商、先秦、两汉时期的演变规律，一般以文献记载的材料或所发掘的相关出土文物为研究对象。
（2）历史比较词汇学主要是运用历史比较方法，研究有亲属关系的多种语言中的词汇问题。
比如汉藏词汇比较研究，则侧重于考察不同词汇词语间的共源关系以及各自不同的演变规律。
（3）描写词汇学是研究语言词汇在一定阶段，一般指现阶段的特点。
现代汉语描写词汇学的研究对象主要涉及以下几个方面的内容：词的性质，词的造词与构词，词义的类型，词义的特征，词义的类聚，词义的发展，词汇的构成与演变等。
二、语素、词、词汇（一）语素1、什么是语素定义：语素是语言中最小的音义结合体。
特点：（1）有声音：好/ 人（2）有意义：蝴蝶玻璃新加坡麦当劳（3）最小：桌子（2 个语素）巧克力（1 个语素）（4）功能是构词：好：好看/ 好吃；人：人民/ 人情2 ．语素的分类按语音形式划分（1）单音语素：手灯/ 走观/ 红绿/ 男女/ 一千/ 条个/ 吗的（2）多音语素：乌鲁木齐新加坡香港（源自莞香装运地/ 源自海盗香姑的名字）按语言功能划分（1）成词语素指可以独立成词的语素，也叫自由语素。
该类语素独立成词后可在句中单独使用。
例如：“人”可在句中单独出现：人来了；也可构词：客人。
（2）非词语素不能独立成词的语素，包含半自由语素与不自由语素两种类型。
词汇学 笔记
NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点（包括基本词汇的5大特点）① Neutral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部：巴尔特-斯拉夫语系，印度伊朗语系，亚美尼亚，阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系：普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系：波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（后三种语言源于已消失的梵文）西部：凯尔特语系，意大利语族，古希腊语言，日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系：苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布列塔尼语意大利语族：葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语（拉丁语）日耳曼语系：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语，瑞典语（北欧语言）德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式：创词，旧词新义，借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素：粘附词根，词缀：内部曲折词缀，派生词缀：前缀，后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀，加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ‟ is perhaps what is termed …sense‟.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义：内涵意义，文体意义，感情意义，搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法：历时方法，共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式：辐射型，连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义（异形异音同义）Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别：绝对同义词，相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别：外延上，内涵上，应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two polesor extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。
自考_00832_英语词汇学-自考本科词汇学重点笔记
自考本科词汇学重点笔记Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),styl istics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost ar bitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound rootbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory) 3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music) 6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It‟s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. …The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.‟Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather Types of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning. Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondarymeanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from itsfirst sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, eachof the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiationprecedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listedas separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning inall aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, butembrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one‟s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy,work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Somewords share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. Theyform different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of …fruits‟)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy 6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details 8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced 2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）slang （俚语）2）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out] （3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one‟s pen （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one‟s bread （5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber‟s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary>（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。
汉语词汇学笔记
汉语词汇学主讲：杨吉春Yangjichun6411@单位：中央民族大学文学与新闻传播学院8次课3小时，课时量减半一、二十世纪汉语词汇学著作提要.论文索引苏新春主编两个部分著作提要350余种，11000余条，论文下限2002年底。
二、汉语词汇计量研究作者：苏新春内容共14章，研究材料：96版现代汉语词典，录入为数据库。
三、词汇计量及实现作者：苏新春，数据库分析研究四、现代汉语词汇学作者：葛本仪共7章，对词汇的再认识、词和词素、词的形成和结构形式等，是对20世纪50年代词汇学建立伊始直至21世纪初词汇学研究成果的总汇五、汉语词汇学作者：葛本仪内容共6编涉及到古代汉语，内容非常丰富六、汉语描写词汇学作者：刘叔新南开大学，过去的教材，但难度较大。
现代汉语词汇的体系性。
从词汇本身着手，研究词汇内部结构及词语与词汇的关系问题。
七、词义的分析与描写作者：符淮青借鉴了国外的语义学特别是语素分析法，对颜色词等的搭配等进行了研究。
也是90年代词汇学的代表作。
八、现代汉语词汇学导论作者：周国光，共9章。
难度适中，将词语分为四大系统，功能、结构、意义、语法，来说明汉语词汇当中的词并不是如王力老师说的一盘散沙。
七、八十年代，语音的研究队伍很大，语法研究到90年代末，转为修辞学。
第一章词汇学概说教学目的：了解汉语词汇学的分类、功用、形成和发展。
理解汉语词汇学与其他学科之间的关系，把握汉语言词汇学研究的对象、范围和内容。
第一节汉语词汇学的类别和功用一、汉语词汇学的类别语言学普通具体普通：语音学、词汇学、语法学具体：汉语、英语、法语汉语：汉字学、汉语音韵学、汉语语法学、汉语词汇学汉语词汇学：广义、侠义广义：汉语语义学、汉语词源学、汉语词典学、汉语修辞学侠义：词的内部构造、词的形成发展、词义系统结构、词汇组合结构、词汇规范形式等语言学和汉语语言学分支学科图词汇学：普通具体具体词汇学：英语词汇学。
汉语词汇学：汉语历时词汇学、汉语描写词汇学汉语历时词汇学：汉语词汇学史汉语词汇史汉语词汇研究史纲汉语描写词汇学：古代汉语词汇学、近代汉语词汇学、现代汉语词汇学、汉语词义学、汉语实用词汇学二、汉语词汇学的功用（一）实践意义1、有助于深入了解古代社会的发展变化的过程2、有助于反映当代社会的发展变化的面貌3、有助于分析和理解文学作品的语言艺术4、有助于提高语文教学质量和第二语言教学5、有助于现代汉语词汇规范化工作（方言词、文言词语、外来词、生造词、普通话词汇用法的规范问题、术语的统一问题、编纂现代汉语词汇词典）6、有助于提高语言的能力7、有助于辞书编纂朗文当代英语词典（Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English）只用2000词来释义8、有助于语言信息处理义项（词典学）——义位（词汇学）（二）理论意义1、无理性约定俗成，任意性2、有理性语文角度、文化角度第二节汉语词汇学的形成和发展一、汉语词汇学的前身中国古代语言研究的三大学科：音韵学、文字学、训诂学训诂体式：1、随文释义的注疏2、通释语义的专著毛亨注，郑玄笺，孔颖达疏二、古代语言学四大名著尔雅（第一本义类词典，著者不明）、方言（以通言解释各地方言，杨雄）、释名（以语音拷理据，刘熙）、说文解字（第一本文字学书，字形拷理据，许慎，后段玉才著《说文解字注》）三、“五四”至40年代末的汉语词汇研究1、1898年马建忠《马氏文通》问世。
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of struc ture) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Ch omsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like t he dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a humanlanguage but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this fun ction, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction to o, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of thespeaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good ex amples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform action s. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, a nd more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a sp eech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confusedfacts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue isinvisi ble but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies t he characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in whicha speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the st udy of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are suppose d to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophonesof[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g.,indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographicall y represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonologica l properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology?“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology andlexical/derivational morphology.1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affix es, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?(1) The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relati onship between expression and content, a。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记3
Chapter 7Changes in Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词义变化的种类，词义变化的原因。
通过对本章的学习考生应该了解词义变化的必然性，词义变化的主要方式和原因。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，填空题，搭配题和名词解释题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. Extension(词义扩大) of meaning is also known as generalization.2. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.3. Of the modes of word-meaning change, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.4. Degradation（降格）or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.5. The degraded meaning “sexual desire ”of the word “lust ”comes from its old meaning “ pleasure”.6. The name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo is extension.7. There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning: Extra-linguistic Factors and Linguistic Factors.（非语言因素和语言因素）8. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.9. The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the Language system.10. The meanings of “lip”and “tongue”in “the lip of a wound”and “the tongue of a bell”have experienced associated transfer.（联想转移）11. The so-called “King’s English”serves as a class reason（阶级原因）in word-meaning change.12. The change of word-meaning is brought about by following internal factors: the influx of borrowing, shortening, analogy.13. Generalization is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.14. The four major modes of semantic change are: extension（扩大）, narrowing（缩小）, elevation （升华）and degradation（降格）.名词解释：1.extension（词义的扩大）: It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. In other words,the term has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.2.narrowing（词义的缩小）: it is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general meaning becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.3.elevation（升华）: Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.4. degradation（降格）: Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It’s a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.5. transfer（转移）: Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.论述问答题：1.What are the linguistic factors(语言因素) that have caused the changing of meaning? Try to explain it.答：Linguistic Factors that have caused the changing of meaning cover four:1) One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole。
2019自考语言学概论笔记第五章(语义)
2019自考语言学概论笔记第五章（语义）第五章语义1. 简答语言的理性意义和非理性意义。
答：语言是交流思想和感情的工具，语义也就必然包含这两方面的内容，即一是思想，就是所谓的“理性意义”，二是情感，就是所谓的“非理性意义”。
理性意义也叫逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的理解。
在词语平面上，它是与概念相联系的那一部分语义，在句子平面上它是与判断和推理相联系的那一部分语义。
理性意义是语义的基本要素。
非理性意义是说话人的主观情绪、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上。
2. 解释“语义”。
答：语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。
3. 解释“语言意义”答：语言意义是一般的、稳定的意义，是语言形式本身表达的意义。
4. 解释“语境意义”。
答：语境意义是个别的、临时的意义，是语言形式在特定的交际场合、知识背景等语境音素作用下所表达的意义。
5. 解释“词义”。
答：词义是同词的语音形式结合在一起的人们对一定对象的概括反映和主观态度。
6. 解释“词的理性意义”。
答：同词的语音形式结合在一起时，对一定对象的区别性特征的理解就是词的理性意义。
7. 解释“义素”。
答：义素是从义项中分析得到的词义的语义特征。
8. 解释“义项”。
答：义项是词典释义的最小单位，是从词语的各种用例中概括出来的共同的、一般的、稳定的意义。
9. 简答义素和语素之间的区别。
答：义素和语素不是同一个概念，它们是两种性质上根本不同的单位。
义素是对一个词的语义特征实行分析后所得到的最小语义单位;语素则是最小的音义结合体。
义素是一种从理论上分析出来的语义单位，就不是一种自然语言的单位，义素不直接与语音相结合。
语素不但有一定的意义而且有一定的读音，是人们能够直接感受到的自然语言的单位。
10. 简答义素和义项之间的关系。
答：一个词能够同时有几个理性意义，其中一个意义在语言学上叫一个义项。
现代语义学把分析音位的区别特征原理用于词义分析，把义项进一步分析为若干语义特征，这些语义特征就是义素。
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1。
词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。
2。
词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。
因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。
据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。
即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。
现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。
既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。
这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。
3。
对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。
“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。
索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。
”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2）4。
个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。
前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。
自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。
（P2）5。
若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。
正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。
”有时候在缺乏其他史料的情况下，语言材料(主要是词汇材料)就成了研究古代历史上某一个问题的重要依据甚至是唯一依据。
（P7）6。
把语言材料应用于古代历史的研，在西方创始于德国语言学家雅各·格林(JakobGrimml785—1863)。
他的著名论点是：“我们的语言也就是我们的历史。
”（J。
Grimm：《K1einere Schriften》 (小品集)第1册，1864，页290.转引自阿巴耶夫：《语言史和民族史》，《民族问题译丛》1957年第12期，页13。
）（P7）7。
分别来说历史词汇学的知识能够帮助解决古代民族史上如下三方面的问题：1)民族起源，即一个民族的起源和形成过程如何，它跟哪些别的民族有亲属关系；2)民族文化历史，即一个民族在各个历史阶段上的文化水平及其主要特点如何；3)民族间互相交往和影响，即一个民族在历史上跟哪些别的民族发生过关系，它受到过它们哪些影响，又对它们有过哪些影响。
解决头一个问题主要依靠基本词汇的材料，而解决后两个问题就还要利用一般词汇的捞料，因为一个民族的物质生活和精神生活的特点及变化都会在语言的词汇中留下它们的痕迹。
（P8）8。
总括词的语言外部联系和语言内部联系两个方面，就可以看出一种语言的词汇是在历史上形成并不断发展的社会现象，它本身构成一个完整的体系；词和词之间、词和语言的其他要素之间以及词和客观现实之间都存在着不可分割的多种多样的联系。
P149。
任何事物或现象都具有多种特征或标志，可是人们给一个事物或现象命名，却只能选择它的某一种特征或标志作为依据。
由于这种选择在一定程度上是任意的，所以在不同的语言里同一事物获得名称的依据都可能有所不同。
这就是说，在不同的语言里表达同一概念的词可能具有不同的内部形式。
P2710。
P28由于语言里的某些词汇成分在历史发展过程中的消亡或者它们的语音、意义和形态的演变，一个词常常会跟它所由形成的词失去语义上的联系而“孤立”起来，从而它的内部形式也就变得模糊不明，甚至完全被人们遗忘。
这种现象就叫做词的内部形式磨灭或词源中断(de-etymologisation)。
虽然如此，我们借助于历史语言学和历史比较语言学的方法(如古音的重建、音变规律的确立、同族词或同根词的系联、亲属语言里同源词的比较)，已经模糊的词的内部形式往往是可以重新揭示出来的。
11。
P31词的内部形式在中国训诂学中叫做“名义”。
历代训诂学家，特别是清代学者段玉裁、王念孙、王引之和现代学者刘师培(1884一1920)、杨树达(1885—1956)等人，在这方面作过很多研究，取得了很好的成绩。
他们根据“音义相关”、“声近义通”的道理来探求事物的“得名之由”，这实质上就是我们现在所说的依据古音，系联同族词或同根词去揭示词的内部形式。
他们运用这种方法重新发现了许多词的业已模糊的内部形式。
如上所述词的内部形式的消亡会使本来互相关联的词失掉联系，那么词的内部形式的再现自然就意味着这些词之间的联系重新被我们认识。
显然这对于我们理解语言词汇的系统性和发展史是大有稗益的。
过去的训诂学家留结我们的这一份语言学遗产是值得我们很好地继承的。
12。
词义和概念P43。
词义是具有民族特点的语言范畴，而概念一般说来是各民族共通的逻辑范畴。
P44。
词义和概念的关系和区别。
(1)词是概念产生和存在的必要条件，但是并非每一个词都有概念作为自己的基础，尽管每一个词都具有意义。
(2)概念是一个思维的范畴，不带感情色彩；与此相反，许多词的意义却不仅反映客观事物，而且还表现对客观事物的态度。
这种蕴涵在词义里的对客观事物的感情态度(如尊重、羡慕、喜爱、赞许、轻蔑、厌恶、憎恨等)就叫做词义的感情色彩。
(3)属于思维范畴的概念一般说来各民族是共通的，而属于语言范畴的词义则具有明显的民族特点。
P45 (4)词义和概念的非同一性还表现在：一方面，一个概念可以由几个词构成的词组来表达，即一个概念由几个词的意义来表现，如“高元音”、“低元音”；另一方面，几个彼此联系的概念可以由一个词来表示，多义词的情况就是如此。
(5)一个词的意义跟语言里其他相关的词的意义共同形成—个意义体系；由于各个词义的互相制约，一个词的意义范围可能跟相应的概念的外延或内涵不相一致。
(6)许多概念本是界限分明的，但表达这些概念的词却可能把这些界限打破，使词义变成模糊的了。
13。
P50总括起来，词的词汇意义的类型可以列表表示如下A．历时的分类基本意义——引申意义词源意义——现行意义B．共时的分类a．语义学的分类直接意义——转移意义具体意义——抽象意义中心意义——边缘意义b．风格学的分类中性意义——带风格色彩的意义14。
P56。
词义变化有各种不同的分类法，其中最通行的是发生学分类法，即根据引起词义变化的原因来分类的方法。
按照这种分类法，词义的变化可以分为由语言外部的原因(如社会历史的原因)引起的变化和由语言内部的原因引起的变化两大类。
词义既然是表现概念的，它就不能不随着概念的变化而变化。
这就是说，人的思维的发展变化和词义的发展变化有着直接的联系。
人的思维从具体到抽象、从特殊到一般的发展都反映在语言里，反映在词义的变化里。
思维从具体到抽象的发展和从特殊到一般的发展是紧密联系的，抽象化的过程往往同时就是一般化的过程。
P57。
物质文化的发展、人对客观事物和现象的新的认识也是导致词义变化的原因。
随着文化和认识的发展，有的概念变得陈旧了或者消亡了，于是表示这些概念的词有的改变了自己的意义……有的就干脆死亡了。
人类在改造世界的过程中不断有新的发现和发明。
语言里反映这些新事物的手段除了创造新词以外就是赋予旧词以新的意义。
由于功能相同或相似而引起的名称的转移也因人类的创造发明有着联系。
达就是说，一种事物被另一种起着同样或类似作用的事物所代替，旧事物的名称就会转移到新事物上来。
例如，“布”：麻布或葛布——棉布，灯；油灯——电灯；……生产方式和社会状况的改变也会引起词义的变化。
此外，词义的变化或名称的转移还有人类心理的原因。
15。
P58。
词义变化的内部原因，即语言学的原因，是多种多样的，但是也可以归结为一条，这就是：任何一个词无论在语言里或言语里都不是孤立的，而是跟别的有关的词彼此联系着的；语言的词汇不是词的偶然的堆积，而是构成一定的体系：每当一个新词或新义加入语言的词汇体系，它就要跟词汇里已有的相关助词或词义相互影响，从而导致词义的变化。
16。
关于词义变化有三种分类法（1）发生学的分类法（2）心理学的分类法（3）逻辑的分类法17。
P60词义变化的逻辑分类法是德国语言学家赫尔曼．保罗(Hermann Paul l846——1921)在他的《语言史原理》(Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte，1880)里首先提出来的。
稍后法国语言学家布勒阿尔在他的《论语义学》(Essai de semantique，1897)里也有类似的论述。
到了本世纪，语义变化的这一种分类法又通过汪德里耶斯的《语言论》(Le langage，1921)等比较通俗而影响巨大的著作而得到了广泛的传播。
按照这种分类法，词义的变化分为四类：1)意义的缩小。
2)意义的扩大，3)意义的易位或转移，4)其他类型。
18。
所谓意义缩小就是指词义所表示的概念内涵增加，外延缩小，即旧意义相当于属概念而新意义则相当于种概念。
所谓意义扩大就是指词义所表示的概念内涵减少，外延扩大，即旧意义相当于种概念而新意义则相当于属概念。
19。
P68。
根据词的这种语义分类的原则从词所表达的概念出发来编制的词典，也就是按照词的意义分组编排的词典，叫做“概念词典”(conceptual dictionary)或“义典”。
我国最早的一部训诂书《尔雅》可以说就是一部雏形的概念词典。
20。
P94。
外来词按借用的来源和时代分类：1)先秦两汉时代来源于中亚诸语言的外来词；2)魏晋南北朝时代来源于梵语的外来词；3)唐宋元时代来源于突厥语、蒙古语的外来词；4)戊戌政变(1898)至辛亥革命(1911)时期来源于日语的外来词，5l) “五四”运动(1919)以后来源于英语的外来词；6)中华人民共和国成立以后来源于俄语的外来词；7)其他来源于南海诸语言和国内少数民族语言的外来词；等等。
21。
P98关于外来词还有一种特殊现象值得一提。
这就是甲语言借用了乙语言一个词，后来乙语言又把这个词重新借回去；由于在借用过程中发生了词义的变化和语音的传讹，这个“归侨”的声音面貌也就跟原来不一样了。
22。
P100。
所谓术语就是用来准确地表达某个知识部门、生产部门或文化部门所特有的概念的词和词组。
作为一类特殊的词，术语的特点首先表现在它的意义结构上。
即术语只包含具有明确的语义范围的称谓意义(自由意义)或直接意义。