英语专业-语言学考点汇总

合集下载

语言学知识点概括

语言学知识点概括Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rul es of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学知识点

语言学知识点语言学是研究语言的科学，旨在理解人类语言的本质和语言的使用方式。

它涉及语音学、语法、语义、语用学等多个领域。

本文将介绍语言学的一些基本知识点。

1. 语音学（Phonetics）语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和接收。

语音学家使用国际音标来表示语音。

国际音标包含了各种音素的符号，用以表示特定的语音。

2. 语音语调（Intonation）语音语调是对词语和句子的声调、强弱和节奏的研究。

它包括音高（pitch）、音量（volume）、语速（tempo）等方面的表达。

语音语调可以影响对话的意义和情感。

3. 语法（Grammar）语法是语言学中研究句子结构的学科。

它研究句子如何组成、如何变化以及如何表达语义。

语法分为句法（Syntax）和词法（Morphology）两个方面。

4. 句法（Syntax）句法研究句子内部成分的组合规则。

它关注句子的结构、语序以及成分之间的关系。

研究句法可以帮助我们理解和构建正确的句子。

5. 词法（Morphology）词法研究词的内部结构和变化规律。

它关注单词的构成要素（词根、词缀等）以及单词形态的变化。

6. 语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词义和句义的学科。

它关注语言符号与现实世界之间的关系，研究词语和句子的意义。

语义学可以帮助我们理解语言的意义和表达的方式。

7. 语用学（Pragmatics）语用学研究语言在具体语境中的使用和解释。

它关注的是说话人的意图、听者的理解以及背后的非字面意义。

语用学帮助我们理解语言的社交功能和交际规则。

8. 语言变体（Language Variation）语言变体指的是同一语言在不同社会群体之间产生的差异。

这些差异可以体现在发音、词汇、语法以及语用等方面。

语言变体是语言学中一个重要的研究领域。

9. 二语习得（Second Language Acquisition）二语习得研究的是学习第二语言的过程和条件。

它包括语言输入、语言输出和语言环境对第二语言学习的影响等方面。

英语语言学知识点总结

英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。

以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。

其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。

2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。

3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。

4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。

5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。

6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。

7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。

8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。

以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。

英语语言学复习资料

英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words arenot usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Languageis human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught late r when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。

语言学复习重点

语言学复习重点文件排版存档编号：[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]C h a p t e r1绪论1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay downrules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There arestill many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes whatlinguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.is language 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech ismore basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

教师资格证高中英语考点总结(语言学+句法)

英语学科知识与教学能力考点总结教师资格证•高级中学第一部分语言学知识一、语言学绪论考点一语言的定义特征语言是言语交际（verbal communication）的一种方式，是人类用于交流的一种任意的声音符号系统（a system of arbitrary vocal symbols）。

语言的定义特征（Design Features）1.任意性(Arbitrariness):语言符号的形式与其所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

2.二层性(Duality)：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成。

3.创造性(Creativity)：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子。

4.移位性(Displacement)：语言可以表达在当前时间和空间上不存在的物体、事件和观念。

考点二语言的功能语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.信息功能(Informative Function):主导功能。

2.人际功能(Interpersonal Function)：最重要的社会功能。

3.施为功能(Performative Function)：判刑、咒语、命名等。

4.感情功能(Emotive Function)：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句。

5.寒暄功能(Phatic Function):应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”6.元语言功能(Metalingual Function):用语言讨论语言本身。

7.娱乐功能(Recreational Function):婴儿的咿呀学语等。

考点三语言学的分支1.微观语言学(Microlinguistics)语音学(Phonetics)：研究语音(speech sounds)，包括发音语音学(articulatory phonetics)，声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)和听觉语音学(auditory phonetics)。

音系学（Phonology）：研究出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律。

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。

英语语言学知识整理

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学问题: What are the major branches of linguisticsWhat does each of them study→phonetics语音学→the study of sounds→phonology音位学→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology形态学→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax句法学→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics语义学→the study of meaning→pragmatics语用学→ the context of language useSociolinguistics社会语言学：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics语言心理学：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics应用语言学：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive规定性/descriptive描写性②synchronic共时/diachronic历时③speech口语/writing书面语④langue语言/parole言语the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics⑤competence语言能力/performance语言应用the American linguist N. Chomsky⑥traditional grammar 传统语法/modern linguistics现代语言学问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronicWhyIn modern linguistics, a synchronic 不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的 approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic 探求现象变化的, 历时的 one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writingFrom the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language7个识别特征①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson6种首要因素,结构主义语言学家①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使权力功能①ideational②interpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationships③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanceThe distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, ., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: 语音学①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatoryphonetics发音语音学Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics声学语音学③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palatevelum/hard palate/teeth ridgealveolus/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet IPA①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription宽式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription严式标音→the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation ③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⒈criteria :monophthongs单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded/ei //ai //au //u //i //i //ε// u /Phonology 音韵学,语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.Phone音素: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立Complementary distribution音位变体的互补分布Minimal pairs最小对立体：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set最小对立集：is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis音位分析Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus often a vowel with optional initial and final margins often consonants单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中,单词由音节构成,音节由音位构成;句子里读重音的词：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns②tone词汇层面English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall③intonation句子层面English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题：What are the two major media of communicationOf the two, which one is primary and whySpeech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题：What is voicing and how is it causedVibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds phonologyConstructions syntaxMeanings semanticsForms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副 are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new wordsare added3 词素有关Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位,包括声音和意义,abstract units任意性Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes① Free morpheme自由词素: A morpheme which can be a word by itself② bound morpheme粘着词素：A morpheme that must be attached to another one③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes派生词素,包括前后缀: They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④ inflectional morphemes屈折词素：词类不发生变化5 单词定义：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme词位. A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构：StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong toa lexical category.7 单词合成：Word formation①morphological rules→productive morphological rules②derivation③compounds 几点注意：When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不总是这样The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 单词合成过程：①compounding②affixation or derivationBlends 混合词Abbreviation 缩略语③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials 按字母拼读的单词Clippings 缩写词④backformation 逆构词法9 要点Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定义It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派别①traditional syntax 传统学派②structural syntax 结构主义学派索绪尔③transformational syntax 生成学派乔姆斯基本书重点学习④functional syntax 功能学派哈里德3 范畴CategoriesMajor lexical categoriesAdjective APreposition P限定词/成分程度词修饰语助词Conjunction Con 连词Syntactic categories句法范畴的定义：①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.②注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories主要词汇范畴 play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化Distribution 分布It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.↓The phrase is built around the word category.↓The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成;短语→单词→词素→音节→短语层面任何短语都有2个层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分:The word around which a phrase is formed②specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则定义：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP→Det N PP …VP→Qual V NP …AP→Deg A PP …PP→Deg P NP …XP ruleX’ Theory X 标杆理论①X’: The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.②X’ Theory: specifier X’ wordX’=X complementCoordination rule 并列规则Coordinate structures 并列结构Coordination 并列,并列关系Four important properties of coordination：①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.②a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.③coordinated categories must be of the same type.④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.;中心成分决定补充成分时,决定着是否需要补充成分,需要什么样的补充成分,以及补充成分的位置问题;The XP Rule revisedComplementizers Cs: 补语化成分Words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause: 补语从句The sentence introduced by the complementizerComplement phraseCP:补语短语Matrix clause 主句Modifiers 修饰成分,修饰语The Expanded XP rule:9 sentencesThe S rule: S→NP VP4种短语1种句子为屈折短语10 transformations 转换规则Yes-no questionSyntactic movement wh-questionPassive voiceTransformation/Inversion倒置定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Inversion倒置：All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not. Inversion revised:If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e”表示Head movement 中心语移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in anotherInversion→一般疑问句+显性助词Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position11 Two levels of syntactic structureDeep structure D-structure:The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure S-structure:The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate tansformationsThe XP Rule↓Deep structure subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓Transformations↓Surface structure12 Wh Movement:Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceWh Movement revised：Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP13 Move α and constraints on transformationsthere is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha”is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theoryancient Greek scholar PlatoA→BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.3The conceptualist view概念论There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. Semantic triangle/triangle of significance Ogden and Richards 1923年提出Thought/referenceSymbol/form ……………………………...referent4Contextualism 语境论J. R. Firth——British linguistMalinowski Polish anthropologistWittgenstein German philosopherThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context:The situational contextThe linguistic context/co-textThe main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation:The placeThe timeThe speakerThe hearerThe actionsThe various objects and eventsThe linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’sco-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论American BloomfieldThis theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论：Jill JackS------------------r………..s-------------------R6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary compilers are interested in每个单词都有它的意义senseReference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义referenceMajor sense relations:synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词British English and American EnglishGirl------lass/lassie Scottish dialectLiquor-------whiskey Irish dialectB AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality . old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/floatpolysemy 一词多义homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound homophones: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceleak/leek②identical in spelling homographs: Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling complete homonyms: Fast/fastscale/scalehyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/setteeantonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词不能共存,非此即彼③relational opposites 反向反义关系相反的两个极端但可共存7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.X真,Y真；X假,Y假②X is inconsistent with Y.X 真,Y假；X假,Y真③X entails Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y可真可假④X presupposes Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y仍为真⑤X is a contradiction. X永远假⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaningcomponential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析Semantic features语义特征：The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions选择限制.constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of arguments变元and predicate谓词. TOMSMOKEKID, APPLELIKEBE HOTSNOWArguments变元定义：It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.Predicate谓词定义：It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:①two-place predication②one-place predication③no-place predicationChapter 6 Pragmatics语用学Origin 起源：1938, American philosopher Charles MorrisFoundation of the Theory of SignsSemiotics:符号学 a science of signs3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics√Pragmatics 定义：It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:①the Anglo-American tradition:Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena②the European continental tradition:It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.√Pragmatics VS. SemanticsWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Five concepts: 五个概念整理First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930sIt is essential to the pragmatic study of languageIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speakerand the hearer.Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.Various components of shared knowledge:Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of what has been said before属于linguistic contextKnowledge about the world in generalKnowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is takingplaceKnowledge about each other和进行比较The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of thesentence itself in terms of predication. abstract/decontextualizedA sentence is a grammatical concept.Concrete/context-dependentAn utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence.注：the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning.Speech act theory 言语行为理论理论基础：when we are speaking, we are performing actionsdoing somethingof the 20th century.It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language ”Constatives: 述事话语表述句定义They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语施为句定义They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.√①locutionary act言内行为The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonologyThe act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses②illocutionary act言外行为语言学家最感兴趣The act of expressing the speaker’s intentionThe act of performed in saying something③perlocutionary act言后行为主要与听话人有关The act performed by or resulting from saying somethingIt is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something.Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.①representatives/assertives阐述类:stating or describing, saying what the speakerbelieves to be true②directives指令类: trying to get the hearer to do something③commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course ofaction.④expressives表达类：expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state⑤declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.√When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather his is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.A traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.We know of there exist three basic sentence forms, the declarative sentence, the imperative sentence, and the interrogative sentence.√Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act, which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.Primary speech act主要言语行为It is the speaker’s goal of communicationSecondary speech act次要言语行为It is the means by which he achieves his goalThe relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The recognition of the real purpose of the speaker through want he says is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principles.。

语言学概论知识汇总(英文)

第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。

英语专业语言学期末复习资料

Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。

英语专业-语言学考点汇总

Chapter 1三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s langu ages. Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Synta*-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics---the study of meaning in conte*t of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical e*ample to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为根底。

英语语言学-语言学知识点

sound
word
sentence
meaning
Phonetics (语音学)
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
（形态学）（句法学）（语义学）
Phonology （音系学）
Pragmatics (语用学)
考点: 1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定
Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
situations.
5. Scope of Linguistics (语言学的研究范围) 1）按研究内容来分 2）按研究导向来分
语言学分类-按研究内容分
Linguistics
Microlinguistics
语言内部问题
Macrolinguistics
语言与外部世界关系问题
语言学分类-按研究内容分
Roman group 罗曼语族
Slavic group 斯拉夫语族
West Branch 西日耳曼语支
英语，德语
North Branch 瑞典语，丹麦语--
North Celtic group 北凯尔特语支
爱尔兰语，盖尔语
South Celtic group 南凯尔特语支威尔士语
West Roman Group 西罗曼语支
语言学知识点
I 语言学导论 II 语言学主要分支学科 III 语言学的流派和理论

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

英语专业考研-语言学各章节常考知识点

《英语语⾔学》是⽬前各⾼校的英语专业考研必考的科⽬之⼀，由于各⾼校的语⾔学考试所指定的参考书⽬种类数⽬繁多、难易繁简程度不⼀，给考⽣们的复习带来了许多不便。

不少考⽣觉得语⾔学晦涩难懂，不知从何下⼿。

北京环球时代学校根据历年英语专业考研语⾔学专业试卷进⾏汇总，归纳出语⾔学各章节常考的知识点，希望备考2008年英语专业考研的学⽣抓住重要考点，顺利通过英研考试。

⼀、语⾔学部分：什么是语⾔学；语⾔学研究的基本⽅法；语⾔学的学科结构。

⼆、语⾔部分：语⾔的定义；语⾔本⾝的特点；语⾔的功能
三、语⾳学部分：语⾳学的分类；发⾳语⾳学中对元⾳与辅⾳的划分；研究⽅法（宽式标⾳；严式标⾳）
四、⾳位学部分：概念；与语⾳学的区别；什么叫⾳位；⾳位理论有哪些；超⾳段⾳位学
五、形态学部分：语素的定义与分类；构词法（要会运⽤）
六、句法学部分：语法范畴（定义；分类）；语法关系有哪些；⽣成语⾔学（TG）；结构主义语⾔学是如何研究句⼦的；功能语⾔学是如何研究句⼦的
七、语义学部分：意义的分类有哪些；词义关系的分类及其定义；句义关系；语义学研究的两种⽅法（成分分析法；述谓分析法）
⼋、语⽤学：什么叫语⽤学；语⽤学与语义学的区别；⾔语⾏为理论；会话含义理论（要会运⽤）
另外，语⾔学主要出题形式有：名词解释、选择题、填空题、正误判断题和问答题。

希望同学们能借此了解语⾔学最精要的框架，把握英语专业考研语⾔学的脉络，最终考取理想院校。

（王进）。

英语语言学知识点整理

英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。

2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。

3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。

二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。

2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。

3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。

语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。

三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。

它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。

2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。

3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。

四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。

2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。

词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。

3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。

同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。

语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。

以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。

英语语言学语言学知识点

英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。

它涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。

下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。

一、语音学（Phonetics）语音学是研究语音的学问。

它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。

在语音学中，语音被分为音素（phoneme）和音位（allophone）。

音素是语言中最小的语音单位，可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。

而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式，即同一音素的不同发音形式。

在语音学中，还有一些重要概念，如元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。

元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类，它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。

而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。

二、语音语调学（Phonology）语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。

它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。

在语音语调学中，音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。

此外，在语音语调学中还有音变（phonological variation）的概念。

音变指的是在其中一种语言中，一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。

音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。

三、语法学（Grammar）语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。

在语法学中，句子是一个重要的研究对象。

句子结构可以划分为短语（phrase）和句子成分（sentence constituents），如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。

语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。

在语法学中，句法树（syntactic tree）是一种图形表示方式，用于描述句子的结构。

句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。

四、语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。

它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。

在语义学中，可以通过语义角色（semantic role）和逻辑关系（logical relation）来描述词语和句子之间的关系。

专八语言学复习要点[1]

英语专业八级语言学总结来源：谢萌Fighting的日志一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。

如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological li nguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。

语言学知识点+整理

第一单元 What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics 语音学\Phonology 音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax 句法学\Semantics 语义学\Pragmatics 语用学\Sociolinguistics 社会语言学\Psycholinguistics 心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics 语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology 音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology 形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax 句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of ling u istics st u diesSemantics 语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics 语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics 社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics 心理语言学：Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics 应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics. Some important distinctions in linguistics 人类学/神经语言学/数理语言学/计算语言学1.1.Prescriptive vs Descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavio.rModern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language1.5ynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.6peech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1)speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languagenguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual usepetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of hi s languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language?什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”) Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1)arbitrariness 武断性2)productivity 创造性3)duality 二重性4)displacement 移位性5)cultural transmission 文化传递性单元二Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Chapter 1三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s lang uages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。

4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。

除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons:⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky’s ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal u ser’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.7.What are the main feature of human language that have been specified by C Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Design feature:It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness:There is no logical connection between meanings and soundsProductivity :Animals are quite limited in the message they are able to send.Duality:Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels. Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmission:Human capacity for language has a genetic basis,but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system,This showed that language is culturally transmitted ,not by instinct.Animals are born with the capacity to produce the se of calls peculiar to their species.Chapter Two Phonology三、问答题1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute tothe study of speech sound?Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。

英语专业-语言学考点汇总

语言学知识点概括

语言学知识点

英语语言学知识点总结

英语语言学复习资料

语言学复习重点

教师资格证高中英语考点总结(语言学+句法)

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳

英语语言学知识整理

语言学概论知识汇总(英文)

英语专业语言学期末复习资料

最新语言学基础知识常考点

英语专业-语言学考点汇总

英语语言学-语言学知识点

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

英语专业考研-语言学各章节常考知识点

英语语言学知识点整理

英语语言学语言学知识点

专八语言学复习要点[1]

语言学知识点+整理