英语2Linguistics题目及答案
语言学练习题 Chapter 2 Linguistics
Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1)syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2)langue vs parole3)competence vs performance4)descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5)theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6)deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7)synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8)macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9)Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguisticsbecause it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user’sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.3)( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4)( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5)( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time.6)( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not withhow they can be improved.7)( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is a language”and “How does a language work”.8)( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which showsthe arbitrary nature of languages.9)( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning.10)( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker.11)( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas.12)( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13)( ) Hall iday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development oflanguage.15)( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject topersonal and situational constraints.16)( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)( ) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics18)( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of alanguage over a period of time.21)( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element inan utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belongingto the same sub-system of the language.22)( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rulesof a particular language.23)( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accountsfor the rules of language in general.26)( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directlyobservable.27)( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29)( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how asentence is formed.32)( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a languageat a particular point of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ______ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of somepractical problems, the study of such applications is knowns as ________.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof speech community.A. ParoleB. langue C speech D. writing4) Which of the following is not the major brach of linguisticsA. phonologyB. pragmaticsC. syntax D speech5) ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences amonglanguagesA. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. Comparative linguistics.7） ________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons8) The study of language as a whole is often called ---.A. general linguisticsB. sociolingyusticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics9) The study of language meaning is called--.A. syntaxB. semantics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The description of a language at some point in time is a – study.A synchronic B. diachronic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.2) is the actual realization of one’s linguistic knowledge inutterances.3) Modem linguistic is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover whatlanguage is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.5) Saussure put forward two important concepts, refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s .7) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2)(3) (4)8) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internalstructure of sentences.10) In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) andsignified (concept) is .11) is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interestsin language and society, including the social functions of language and thesocial characteristics of its users.12) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made bythe American linguist .13) The writing English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapanese as ___writing system.14) According to John Lyons, ___ linguistics_ deals with language in generaland _ linguistics is concerned with one particular language.15) In de Saussure’s term, _____ refers to the system of language and _____refers to the speaker’s speech.16) _____ is the science that deals with the sound system.17) Syntax studies two kinds of rules: _____ rules and rules18) Langue or competence is ______ and not directly observed, while parole orperformance is _____ and directly observable.19) A ________ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.20) ___ ___ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and soundpatterns of his language.21) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.22) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentenceis grammatical or not.23) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning oflanguage, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.24) ______ is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25) ______ examines word formation and the internal structure of words.5. Answer the following questions.1) What is the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics2) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics Is iteasy to draw a sharp line between them if we look at language closely3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differences between “competence” and “performance”7) What is the major difference between Saussure’s distinction of langue andparole and Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance what should be studies in linguistics in your opinion and why8) Explain “speech and writing”, and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1）syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or “strings’ as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination.It refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers” parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, ., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1)According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2)Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, t hough similar to, F. de Saussure’s language parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view toestablishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a languageas it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled” On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects ofa language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system fromtwo aspects —lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9）Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics. Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19th century, linguistics comes to be an independent discipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by means of comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)(F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptivelinguistics because it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)(T) Competencce and performance refer respectively to a languageuser’s underlying knowledge ab out the system of rules and the actualuse of language in concrete situations.3)(F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. (中国矿业大学，2004)4)(T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. (中国矿业大学，2004)5)(F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time. (中国矿业大学，2004)6)(T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, notwith how they can be improved. (中国矿业大学，2004)7)(T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is alanguage” and “How does a language work”. （南京师范大学，2002）8)(F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, whichshows the arbitrary nature of languages. （中国矿业大学，2002）9)(T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning. （中国矿业大学，2002）10)(T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker. （中国矿业大学，2002）11)(F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas. （中国矿业大学，2002）12)(F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.（中国矿业大学，2002）13)(F) Halliday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)(T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and developmentof language.15)(T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subjectto personal and situational constraints.16)(T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)(F) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics.18)(T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)(F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)(T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical developmentof a language over a period of time.21)(F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic elementin an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of the language.22)(F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describesthe rules of a particular language.23)( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)(F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)(F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory whichaccounts for the rules of language in general.26)(T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is notdirectly observable.27)(T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)(T) All the English words are not symbolic.29)(F) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)(T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)(F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition abouthow a sentence is formed.32)(F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)(F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state ofa language at a particular point of time.3. Multiple choice1) – 5): BCBDC 6) – 10): DBABA4. Word completion1) Langue 2) Performance3) descriptive 4) diachronic5) langue 6) competence7) (1) consistency (2) economy (3) objectivity (4) exhaustiveness8) Morphology 9) syntax10) arbitrary 11) socialinguistics12) Chomsky 13) syllabic14) general, descriptive 15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguisticsThe former deals with language in general, . the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between diachronic linguistics Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory;therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure’smost central ideas expressed in the form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees languageas a living whole; existing as a “‘state” at a particular moment in time; the latter sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to about X and Y. Correspondingly, a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated as Sanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set of chessmen is like a state of language. “The respective value of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms.” On the o ther hand, the value of each piece also;depends on the convention--the set of rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language. A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of language change. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next. This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language. The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with language changes. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before. Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state. Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of the speech community. Although prescriptivismis still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a language community the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ①The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normativein character, . “you should never use a double-negative”;“you should not split the infinitive” etc. People realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority, stipulated “standards!’. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is oris not correct in English. ② Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. The related social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will leadto artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. While prescriptivists would prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), it is very difficult to claim that everyone who uses “was” is wrong, especially are the majority in spoken language. While there are still traditionalist grammarians claiming that they are right and half the populationis wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it as formal register. ③ The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved over the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of languageThe four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis’of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be “inelegant” or “substandard”. Nor should he conceal facts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified; not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of different。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
英语语言学练习(含答案)
Chapter 11.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language .(√)2.What first drew the attention of the linguistics were the rules used in language .(×)[What first drew the attention of the linguistics were the sounds used in language .]3The major branches of linguistics are phonetics ,phonedogy ,psycholinguistics ,morphology ,syntax ,semantics ,pragmat ic ,sociolinguistics ,and applied linguistics .(√)4.As linguist became interest in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branches of study related to sounds called phonetics .(×)[As linguist became interest in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branches of study related to sounds called phonology .]5.Linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use ,it is said to be descriptive and modern linguistics is mostly descriptive .(√)6.The description of a language at some point of time in history is a diachronic study ,but the description of language as it changes changes though time is a synchronic .(×)[The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study ,but the description of language as it changes changes though time is a diachronic .]ngue and parole are relatively stable ,it does not change frequently .(×) [Langue and parole varies from person to person ,from situation to situation .]8.Chomsky define competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ,and performance the actual realization of this language in linguistic communication .(√)9.Modern linguistics regards the written as primary .(×)[Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary .]nguage is a s ystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .(√)nguage is arbitrary ,this means that there is logical connection between meanings and sounds .(×)[Language is arbitrary ,this means that there is not logical connection between meanings and sounds .]nguage feature are arbitrariness ,productivity ,duality ,displacement ,cultural transmission .(√) nguage is arbitrary by nature ,and it is entirely arbitrary .(×) [Language is arbitrary by nature ,and it is not entirely arbitrary .]14.Productivity is unique to human language .(√)nguage is a system ,which consists of three sets of structures ,or three levels .(×)[Language is a system ,which consists of two sets of structures ,or three levels .]16.Three main functions of language are :the descriptive function ,the expressive,and the social function.(√)nguage cannot beautiful used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker .(×)[Language can beautiful used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker .]18."what cannot I do for you ,girl ?" This sentence illustrates the expressive function of language .(×)["what cannot I do for you ,girl ?" This sentence illustrates the social function of language .]19.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language ,but are not mutually intelligible . This indicates cultural transmission feature of language .(√)20The ideational function is indicate ,establish ,or maintain social relationships be tween people .(×)[The interpersonal function is indicate ,establish ,or maintain social relationships between people .]Chapter 21.Speech and writing are the two media order substances used by natural language as vehicle for communication .(√)2.Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language ;it is concerned with a part of the sounds that occur in the world's language .(×)[Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language ;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language .]3.The branches of phonetics are articulatory phonetics ,auditory phonetics ,and acoustics phonetics .(√)4.Phonetic similarly ,phonetic identity is the criterion with which were operatein the phonolgical analysis of langua ge .(×)[Phonetic similarly ,not phonetic identity is the criterion with which were operate in the phonolgical analysis of language .]5.When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart,letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in suc h a condition are voiceless. (√)6.The speech organ located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula，the soft palate （the velum）， the hard palate，the teeth ridge（the alveolus），the teeth and the lips.(√)7.Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are broad transcription and narrow transcription. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only，broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.（×）[Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are broad transcription and narrow transcription. broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only，Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.]8.In the case of sport，the [p] sound is said to be unaspirated，and in the case of speed，the [p] sound is said to be aspirated.（×）[In the case of sport，the [p] sound is said to be aspirated，and in the case of speed，the [p] sound is said to be unaspirated.]9.English consonants can be classified in two ways：one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.（√）10.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into six types：stops、fricatives、affricates、liquids、nasals、and bilabial. （×）[In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into six types：stops、fricatives、affricates、liquids、nasals、and glides . ]11.In terms of place of articulation，the English consonants can be classified into seven types：bilabial、labiodental、dental、alveolar、palatal、velar、and glottal. （√）12.Vowels may be distinguished as front，central，and back according to which part of the tongue is held lowest.(×)[Vowels may be distinguished as front，central，and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest .]13、We classify the vowels into four groups：close vowels，semi-close vowels，semi-open vowels， and open vowels. （√）14、In English，all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels，without rounding the lips，and all the back vowels are rounded.(×)[In English，all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels without the [a:]，without rounding the lips，and all the back vowels are rounded.]15.The main supranational features include stress ,intonation ,and tone .Stressc ontains word stress and sentence stress.(√)16.There are four tones .The first tone is level ,the second rise ,the third fall -rise ,and the fourth fall .(√)17."He is driving my car ",the words that are normally unstressed .i.e.is ,car ,can all bear the stress to express what the speaker intends to mean.(×)["He is driving my car ",the words that are normally unstressed .i.e.is ,my ,can all bear the stress to express what the speaker intends to mean.]18.The location of stress in English distinguishes me aning .(√)19When spoken in different intonation ,the same sequence of word may have different meanings.(×)[When spoken in different tones ,the same sequence of word may have different meanings.]20.A phoneme is a phonological unit ,it is an concrete unit . (×)[A phoneme is a phonological unit ,it is an abstract unit .]Chapter 31. Conjunctions,prepositions,articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" and "functional" words. (√)2. Linguisis use the term morphlolgy to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word and word structure.(√)3.Linguisis define the word as the smallest free form found in language. (√)4. The plural marking -s is a free form. (×) [The plural marking -s is not a free form]5. Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. (√)6. The word READER consists of two morphemes:read and -er. (√)7. The English plural and possessive morphems may be said to share a single morph,the suffix /-s/. (√)8. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a bound morpheme,whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a free morpheme. (×)[A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme,whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.]9. STEM is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. (√)10. AFFIX is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). (√)11. The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. (√)12. Unlike roots,affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always free morphemes. (×)[Unlike roots,affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes.]13. A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unit of meaning. (√)14. -en,-ate,and -ic are thus called derivational morphemes. (√)15.The morpheme BOY is free morpheme since it can be used as a word on its own;the plural -s ,on the other hand,is bound. (√)16. It is not always possible to assign a lexical meaning to some of the morphemes. (√)17. Compounding is a very common and frequently process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language. (√)18. Morphemes m ay have different forms. (√)19. The plural marking -s is not a free form since it never occurs in isolation and cannot be separated from the noun to which it belongs. (√)20.It is important to note that a morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of s ound joined together. (√)Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fullfill the different functiongs in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase order averb .(×)[Category refers to a group of linguistic items which f ullfill the same or similar functiongs in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase order a verb .]2.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences .(√)3.Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements :head and specifier .(×)[Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements :head,specifier and complement .]4.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule .(√)5.Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called sentences .(×)[Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases .]6.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase structure rule .(√)7.The words on the right side of the heads are said to function as specifiers . (×) [The words on the right side of the heads are said to function as specifiers . ]8.Major lexical categories are Non ,verb ,Adjevtive and Preposition .(√)9.The XP rules =(specifier )×(complement).(√)10.Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence . (×) [Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation .]11.The most central categories to the synthetic study are the word-level categories .(√)12.According to the XP rules ,the auxiliary is the tail of a sentence which takesa vp category as its complement on the right and an vp ,the subject ,as its specifier on the left .(×)[According to the XP rules ,the auxiliary is the head of a sentence which takes a vp category as its complement on the right and an vp ,the subject ,as its specifier on the right .]13.The words around which a phrase is formed is termed head .(√)14.Words which include the sentence complement are termed complementizers . (√)15.The construction in which the phrase is embedded a complement is called matrix clause .(×)[T he construction in which the complement phrase is embedded a complement is called matrix clause .]16.This classification reflects a variety of factors ,including the type of meaning that words express ,the type of affixes that they take ,and the type of structures in which they can occur .(√)Chapter 51.In semantic triangle， the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct，and it is mediated by concept. (√)2.The relationship of “flower”，“violet”，“rose” and “tulip” is hyponymy. (√)3. A referring expression can be used to refer to nonexistent things. (√)4.Pragmatics studies the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.(√)5.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true. The relationship6. “I bought some roses” entails “I bought some flowers”. (√)7. The naming theory was proposed by the Greek scholar Plato. (√)8.According to Behaviorist learning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the languag e of their community when their “bad” speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced. (√)9.The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context.(√)10.The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning;words that are opposite in meaning are antonymy. (√)11.Semantics can be defined as the study of naming.(×)[Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning.]12.Once the notion of meaning was taken into consideration， semantics spilled into pragmatics.(×)[Once the notion of context was taken into consideration，semantics spilled into pragmatics.]13.According to semantic triangle， there is a direct link between a symbol and referent， i.e. between a word and a thing it refers to.(×)[According to semantic triangle， there is no direct link between a symbol and referent， i.e. between a word and a thing it refers to.]14.Antonyms are divided into three kinds:gragable,relational,superordinate.(×) [Antonyms are divided into three kinds:gragable,relational,complementary.]16.The meaning of the word black consists in the two collocational of black hair and black coffee. (×)17.Words are identical in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exacyly the same in meaning.(×)[Words are different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exacyly the same in meaning.]18.Hyponyms is helpless in both receptive and productive processing of language.(×) [Hyponyms is helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language.]19.”Can I borrow your bike？"is synonymous with "You have a bike."(×)[”Can I borrow your bike？" presupposes "You have a bike."]ponential analysis can help explain the sense relations of words.(×) [Componential analysis cannot help explain the sense relations of words.]（注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
英语语言学试题2及答案
英语语言学试题2及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The word "phenomenon" is derived from which language?A. LatinB. GreekC. GermanD. French答案：B2. Which of the following is not a branch of linguistics?A. PhoneticsB. LexicologyC. AstronomyD. Syntax答案：C3. The study of language change over time is known as:A. Historical LinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. PsycholinguisticsD. Neurolinguistics答案：A4. What is the term for the smallest unit of sound in a language?A. PhonemeB. MorphemeC. Syllable答案：A5. The process of using one language to explain another is called:A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. ParaphrasingD. Transliteration答案：A6. Which of the following is an example of a sociolect?A. Medical languageB. Legal languageC. Teenage slangD. All of the above答案：D7. The study of language in relation to the brain is known as:A. PsycholinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Computational Linguistics答案：B8. What is the term for the use of language to achieve a particular purpose?A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. SyntaxD. Phonology9. The study of the meaning of words is called:A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. Phonology答案：A10. Which of the following is not a component of a language's phonological system?A. PhonemesB. MorphemesC. SyllablesD. Tones答案：B二、填空题（每题1分，共10分）1. The study of language in its social context is known as________.答案：Sociolinguistics2. The smallest unit of meaning in a language is called a________.答案：Morpheme3. The branch of linguistics that deals with the structure of sentences is ________.答案：Syntax4. A dialect is a variety of a language that is characterizedby features of ________, grammar, and vocabulary.答案：Phonology5. The process of acquiring a first language is known as________.答案：Language acquisition6. The study of the relationship between language and thought is called ________.答案：Linguistic relativity7. The branch of linguistics that deals with the history of words and their meanings is ________.答案：Etymology8. A language family is a group of languages that are related through ________.答案：Common ancestry9. The process of analyzing the structure of words is known as ________.答案：Morphology10. The study of language in relation to culture is known as ________.答案：Anthropological linguistics三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. Explain the difference between a dialect and a language. 答案：A dialect is a variety of a language that is spoken by a particular group within a larger language community, whilea language is a system of communication that is used by a community of people. Dialects can be mutually intelligible, meaning speakers of different dialects can understand each other, whereas languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible.2. What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and how does it relate to language and thought?答案：The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity, suggests that the structure of a language affects its speakers' cognition and perception. It posits that different languages structure the world in different ways, leading to different thought processes and perceptions of reality.3. Describe the role of phonetics in linguistics.答案：Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, or phones. It is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds. Phonetics provides the foundation for understanding the sounds of a language and is crucial for the study of phonology, which is the study of the sound system of a language.4. How does sociolinguistics contribute to our understanding of language?答案：Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It explores how social factors such as age, gender, social class, ethnicity, and geographical location affect the way language is used. Sociolinguistics helps us understand language variation andchange, and it provides insights into the social meanings and functions of language.。
语言学练习题--Chapter-2-Linguistics
Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1)syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2)langue vs parole3)competence vs performance4)descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5)theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6)deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7)synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8)macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9)Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguisticsbecause it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user’sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.3)( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4)( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5)( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time.6)( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not withhow they can be improved.7)( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is a language”and “How does a language work”.8)( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which showsthe arbitrary nature of languages.9)( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning.10)( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker.11)( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas.12)( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13)( ) Hall iday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development oflanguage.15)( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject topersonal and situational constraints.16)( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)( ) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics18)( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of alanguage over a period of time.21)( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element inan utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belongingto the same sub-system of the language.22)( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rulesof a particular language.23)( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accountsfor the rules of language in general.26)( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directlyobservable.27)( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29)( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how asentence is formed.32)( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a languageat a particular point of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ______ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of somepractical problems, the study of such applications is knowns as ________.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof speech community.A. ParoleB. langue C speech D. writing4) Which of the following is not the major brach of linguisticsA. phonologyB. pragmaticsC. syntax D speech5) ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences amonglanguagesA. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. Comparative linguistics.7） ________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons8) The study of language as a whole is often called ---.A. general linguisticsB. sociolingyusticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics9) The study of language meaning is called--.A. syntaxB. semantics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The description of a language at some point in time is a – study.A synchronic B. diachronic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.2) is the actual realization of one’s linguistic knowledge inutterances.3) Modem linguistic is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover whatlanguage is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.5) Saussure put forward two important concepts, refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s .7) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2)(3) (4)8) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internalstructure of sentences.10) In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) andsignified (concept) is .11) is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interestsin language and society, including the social functions of language and thesocial characteristics of its users.12) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made bythe American linguist .13) The writing English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapanese as ___writing system.14) According to John Lyons, ___ linguistics_ deals with language in generaland _ linguistics is concerned with one particular language.15) In de Saussure’s term, _____ refers to the system of language and _____refers to the speaker’s speech.16) _____ is the science that deals with the sound system.17) Syntax studies two kinds of rules: _____ rules and rules18) Langue or competence is ______ and not directly observed, while parole orperformance is _____ and directly observable.19) A ________ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.20) ___ ___ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and soundpatterns of his language.21) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.22) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentenceis grammatical or not.23) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning oflanguage, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.24) ______ is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25) ______ examines word formation and the internal structure of words.5. Answer the following questions.1) What is the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics2) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics Is iteasy to draw a sharp line between them if we look at language closely3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differences between “competence” and “performance”7) What is the major difference between Saussure’s distinction of langue andparole and Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance what should be studies in linguistics in your opinion and why8) Explain “speech and writing”, and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1）syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or “strings’ as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination.It refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers” parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, ., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1)According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2)Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, t hough similar to, F. de Saussure’s language parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view toestablishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a languageas it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled” On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects ofa language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system fromtwo aspects —lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9）Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics. Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19th century, linguistics comes to be an independent discipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by means of comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)(F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptivelinguistics because it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)(T) Competencce and performance refer respectively to a languageuser’s underlying knowledge ab out the system of rules and the actualuse of language in concrete situations.3)(F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. (中国矿业大学，2004)4)(T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. (中国矿业大学，2004)5)(F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time. (中国矿业大学，2004)6)(T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, notwith how they can be improved. (中国矿业大学，2004)7)(T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is alanguage” and “How does a language work”. （南京师范大学，2002）8)(F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, whichshows the arbitrary nature of languages. （中国矿业大学，2002）9)(T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning. （中国矿业大学，2002）10)(T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker. （中国矿业大学，2002）11)(F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas. （中国矿业大学，2002）12)(F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.（中国矿业大学，2002）13)(F) Halliday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)(T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and developmentof language.15)(T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subjectto personal and situational constraints.16)(T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)(F) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics.18)(T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)(F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)(T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical developmentof a language over a period of time.21)(F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic elementin an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of the language.22)(F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describesthe rules of a particular language.23)( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)(F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)(F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory whichaccounts for the rules of language in general.26)(T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is notdirectly observable.27)(T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)(T) All the English words are not symbolic.29)(F) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)(T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)(F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition abouthow a sentence is formed.32)(F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)(F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state ofa language at a particular point of time.3. Multiple choice1) – 5): BCBDC 6) – 10): DBABA4. Word completion1) Langue 2) Performance3) descriptive 4) diachronic5) langue 6) competence7) (1) consistency (2) economy (3) objectivity (4) exhaustiveness8) Morphology 9) syntax10) arbitrary 11) socialinguistics12) Chomsky 13) syllabic14) general, descriptive 15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguisticsThe former deals with language in general, . the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between diachronic linguistics Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory;therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure’smost central ideas expressed in the form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees languageas a living whole; existing as a “‘state” at a particular moment in time; the latter sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to about X and Y. Correspondingly, a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated as Sanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set of chessmen is like a state of language. “The respective value of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms.” On the o ther hand, the value of each piece also;depends on the convention--the set of rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language. A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of language change. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next. This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language. The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with language changes. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before. Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state. Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of the speech community. Although prescriptivismis still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a language community the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ①The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normativein character, . “you should never use a double-negative”;“you should not split the infinitive” etc. People realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority, stipulated “standards!’. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is oris not correct in English. ② Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. The related social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will leadto artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. While prescriptivists would prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), it is very difficult to claim that everyone who uses “was” is wrong, especially are the majority in spoken language. While there are still traditionalist grammarians claiming that they are right and half the populationis wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it as formal register. ③ The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved over the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of languageThe four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis’of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be “inelegant” or “substandard”. Nor should he conceal facts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified; not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of different。
Linguistics2语言学练习及答案
Quiz of Lin guisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to convey meaning in com muni cati on. ( T )2. Voici ng is a phono logical feature that disti nguishes meaning inboth Chin ese and En glish. ( T )3. A pho ne is a pho netic un it that disti nguishes meaning. ( F )4. En glish is a tone Ian guage while Chin ese is not. ( F )5. Of all the speech orga ns, the lips are the most flexible. ( F )6. A pho neme can be represe nted by differe nt phones in specific phon etic con texts.(T )7. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in com mon, i.e, they are all bilabial. ( F )8. When pitch, stress and sound len gth are tied to the sentence rather tha n the word in isolati on, they are collectively known as inton ati on. ( T )9. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of palatal. ( T )10. In such sound comb in ati ons as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurri ng in the final positi on, is un aspirated,i.e. pronoun ced with the stro ng puff of air withheld to some exte nt. ( F )11. Multiple Choice Items1. Articulatory pho netics main ly studies BD__.A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the percepti on of soundsC. the comb in ati on of soundsD. the product ion of sounds2. The disti nction betwee n vowels and consonants lies in _B __A. the place of articulatio nB. the obstructi on of airstreamC. the positi on of the ton gueD. the shape of the lips3. What is the com mon factor of the three soun ds: p, k, t? AA. voicelessB. spreadC. voicedD. n asal4. What phonetic feature distinguishes the /p/ in please” and the /p/ in “peak” BA. voici ngB. aspiratio nC. roundn essD. n asality5. Which of the followi ng is not a disti nctive feature in En glish? CA. voici ngB. n asalC. approximatio nD. aspirati on6. The phono logical features of the consonant /k/ are _ _.A. voiced stopB. voiceless stopC. voiced fricativeD. voiceless fricative7. /p/ is differe nt from /k/ in _____ B_.A. the manner of articulatio nB. the shape of the lipsC. the vibrati on of the vocal cordsD. the place of articulati on8. Vibrati on of the vocal cords results in D .A. aspirati onB. n asalityC. Obstructio nD. Voici ng9. Of the three bran ches of pho netics, the Ion gest established, andun til rece ntly the most highly developed, is __ D__ phon etics.B. acousticC. articulatoryD. none of the above three10. I n terms of the place of articulatio n, the followi ng sounds [t][d][s][z] [n] share the feature of A .A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dentalIII. Term Explanation1. pho neme A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2. alloph one The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophone.3. phono logy Phonology aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these soundsare used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. phonetic Phonetic is a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.5. Supersegme ntal Features The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called super segmental features.IV. Short-answer Questions1. Compare and con trast phon etics and phono logyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of langua—ethe speech sound. But while both are related to the study of sounds, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetic is a generl nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these soundsare used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related toa phon eme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phone.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sounds, but rather it is presented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
linguistics exercise 2
Chapter oneI.选择题1.The famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet “A rose by anyother name would smell as sweet”” well illustrates_____.A.the arbitrary nature of languageB.the creative nature of languageC.the universality of languageD.the big difference between human language and animal communication2.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is_____.A.ArbitraryB.Non-arbitraryC.LogicalD.Non-productive3.Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.A.A particular languageB.The English languageC.Human languages in generalD.The system of a particular language4.Chomsky uses the term ____ to refer to the actual realization of a language user’sknowledge of the rules of his language in linguistics communication.ngueB.ParolepetenceD.Performance5.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ____ study.parativeB.DiachronicC.Up-to-dateD.DescriptiveII.填空题1.In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close links withother branches of s__ studies, such as sociology and psychology.nguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a languageat some point of time is called a s___ study of language.3.As the first step of their scientific investigation of language, linguists have toobserve and collect linguistic f___ before they can do anything else.4.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be d___.III.判断题1.In the history of any language, the writing system always came into being beforethe spoken form.2.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with theability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.3.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists intheir study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language use.4.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech;thus there are still many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written.5.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.。
Lexicology2词汇学练习及答案
Lexicology2词汇学练习及答案Test of Lexicology 2I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket.1. Which words belong to the functional words? ( A )A. prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunctionsB. articles, adjectives, pronounsC. adverbs, conjunctions, nounsD. prepositions, auxiliaries, verbs2. ___ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.（C ）A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds3. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be( C).A．affixational B．derivational C．free D．bound4. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single ( C ) morpheme.A. formalB. concreteC. freeD. bound5. Which of the following is NOT true? ( B)A. A word is a sound unityB. A word has a given meaningC. A word is the smallest form of a languageD. A word can be used freely in a sentence6. The following words have derivational affixes Except________. ( D )A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks7. Which of the following is not a compound? ( B)A. swimming poolB. king-heartedC. greenhouseD. International8. The suffix “-tion” is a ____ suffix. ( D )A. adjectiveB. verbC. adverbD. noun9. From the sent ences “Hand in your papers.” and “She papered the room green.”, we can see such a means of word formation as________. ( C )A. affixationB. compoundingC. conversionD. acronymy10. “mis-“ in “misunderstand” is a ____________ prefix. ( C )A．negative B. pejorative C. reversative D. locative11. Which of the following is not a major word-formation process? ( D)A. CompoundingB. DerivationC. ConversionD. Coinage12. “Anti-” in “antihero” means______. ( A )A. “against”B. “unconventional”C. “of or belonging to the hypothetical world of antimatter”D. “not”13. “-able” in “fashionable” is a(an) _____ suffix. ( D )A. denominalB. deadjectivalC. deverbalD. noun-formingII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions.1. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and ____derivational______affixes.2. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and ___affixes______.3. Words may fall into ___content _____words and functional words by notion.4. Generally, prefixes only modify the ___lexical meaning_____of the stem.5. Sometimes a word may undergo ____multiple______ conversion, which enables it to function as a member of several word-classes.6. Affixation can be subdivided into ____prefixation_________ and ____suffixation________. III. Term explanation/doc/5f2252356.html,pounding Compounding is a word-formation progress consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compoundword.2.Derivation Derivation is generally defined as word-formation process bywhich new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. Derivation may be defined as process of forming new words by theadditional of word element, such as prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.3.Conversion Conversion is a word formation process whereby a word of acertain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.4.Word-formation rules The rules of word-formation define the scope andmethod whereby speakers of a language may create new word.。
《英语语言学概论》配套练习题（二）（判断题）
《英语语言学概论》配套练习题（二）（判断题）Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics1. Duality is one of the charateristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.3. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.6. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.7. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.8. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.2. Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.3. The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modificaiton to acquire the quality of a speech sound.4. [p] is voiced bilabial stop.5. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.6. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.7. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.8. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.2. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.3. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all infletional affixes are removed.4. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.5.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.6. The word, whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomapoeia.7. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.8. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Application of the transformational rules yields deep strucutre.2. Move-a rule itself can rule out ungrammatical forms and result in grammatical strings.3. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronounn.4. A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is a morpheme, and a construction which is not at the same time a constituent is a sentence.5. IC analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures.6. A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of diacourse.7. Syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.8. S-structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.Chapter 5 Semantics1.Interrogative and imperative sentences do not have truth value.2.The raltionship between “human body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.ponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into menaing components, called semantic features.4.One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.5.Hyponymy is a matter of class membership, so it is the same as meronymy.6.“Either it is raining here or it isn’t raining here” is empirically true.7.Two sentences using the same words may mean quite differently.8.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.2. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.3.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.4.The utterance meaning of the sentence variees with the context in which it is uttered.5.While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly.6.Inviting, suggesting, warnign, ordering are instances of commissives.7.Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and thehearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implications arise.8.Of three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.Chapter 7 Language Change1.Pre-Indo-European languages are not attested whereas Proto-Indo-Europeanlanguages are attested.2.Some modern words come from the morphological change of the Old English. Forinstance, move comes form movement and teach comes from teachable.3.With the semantic broadening or narrowing, the meaning of a word is beingchanged constantly, although with one generation such difference is hardly obvious.4.The sentence I hate thee not was considered normal form of negation in OldEnglish.5.Both Chinese and Japanese have a logographic writing system; English and Greekhave an alphabetic writing system.6.In Old English, the affixation of the prefix Y an- to an adjective would change theword into a causative verb.7.In 1200, the official language in England was Old English.8.All case forms of Old English nouns have been lost in Modern English.9.In Old English, a verb precedes the subject instead of following it. Chapter 8 Language and Society10.In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situatio nsknown as domains.11.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety ofthat language.12.A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.13.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he isconverting one mode of thinking into the other.14.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.15.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker’sperceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.16.The sentences “He crazy”and “He be sick all the time”are both acceptible inblack English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English.17.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regionaldialects.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisitionnguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation.2.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.3.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA.4.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.5.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification.6.Children’s grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult’s grammar.7.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical.8.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1. The right ear advantage (REA) is true no matter whether people have the left hemispheric dominance for speech or the less common right hemispheric dominance.2. In general, the left hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.3. The left hemisphere is superior to the right hemisphere.4. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantly from child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.5. At the multiword stage, simple prepositions, especially those that indicate positions such as “in”, “on” and “up”, begin to turn up in children’s speech.6. Children acquiring their first language simply beyond the critical age are hardly successful, such as the case of “Genie.”7. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.8. Modern linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案word文档，精心编排整理，均可修改你的满意，我的安心《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be includedin a good, comprehensive definition of language答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Thisis what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibrationof the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used indictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Thelatter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound thatfollows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spitthe puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p]sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims todiscover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation;in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motionpictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamp les: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “withoutsex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”di shonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “oppose d or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those inte nded”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phraseis called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category isinflection. Words of different categories take different inflections.Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories thatcan appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head,specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles.Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of thehead. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide informationabout entities and locations whose existence is implied by themeaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formedby the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement(against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement(thewindow)NP d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses thatfunction as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition ora noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each ofthese sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structureof each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the partyHelen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the windowwho broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.。
语言学（Linguisitics）经典例题详解
语言学（Linguisitics）经典例题详解语言学（Linguisitics）经典例题详解（导言）一、填空题1. 中国、印度、古希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言的三大发源地。
2. 文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。
3. 研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇和语义、语法四个部分。
4. 运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个过程。
5. 专语（具体）语言学可以从纵向和横向研究语言，由于研究角度不同，所以又分为历时语言学和共时语言学。
6. 历史比较语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。
7. 布隆菲尔德的代表著作《语言论》，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作。
8. 索绪尔被称为现代语言之父，其代表作有《普通语言学教程》二、问答题1. 古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？① 究对象不同：古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究，而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究，如制定语言规范，确立共同语的各方面标准等，都要依据口语的研究成果；② 研究目的不同：古代语言学研究语言，主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解，比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的，而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律。
2. 语言交际过程分哪几个阶段？请举例具体说明答：可分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。
编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句；发送就是把思维成果变成话语，通过发音器官表达出来；传递就是通过空气振动形成声波，把话语传达给受话人；接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话；解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言，理解对方话语的含义，从而完成信息传递接收。
如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈，那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍，只是发话人与受话人调换了。
3. “语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学；既与社会科学有密切的联系，有与自然科学有密切的联系。
二语习得 思考题答案
思考题Unit 11. What is applied linguistics?The term 'applied linguistics' refers to a broad range of activities which involve solving some language-related problem or addressing some language-related concern. The problems applied linguistics concerns itself which are likely to be:1) How can we teach languages better?2) How can we diagnose speech pathologies better?3) How can we improve the training of translators and interpreters?4) How can we write a valid language examination?5) How can we evaluate a school bilingual program?6) How can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population?8) How can we helpfully discuss the language of a text?9) What advice can we offer a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new medium of instruction?10) How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian language?11) What advice should we give a defense lawyer on the authenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a suspect?2. What is the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics?1)Linguistics deals with theory2)Applied linguistics is simply not in the business of developing new theories. Its concern is with newdata.3)Both sides of the linguistics/applied linguistics relationship ought to be accountable to and in regulardialog with each other with regard to theories as well as practices.3. What are the domains of applied linguistics?Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, language assessment, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, second language acquisition, language planning and policies, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation.4. What are the research methods in applied linguistics?Progress in understanding cognitive developmental change mechanisms requires methods that yield detailed data about particular changes. The microgenetic method is an approach that can yield such data. It involves (a) observations of individual children throughout the period of the change, (b) a high density of observations relative to the rate of change within that period, and (c) intensive trial-by-trial analyses intended to infer the processes that gave rise to the change. This approach can illuminate both qualitative and quantitative aspects of change, indicate the conditions under which changes occur, and yield otherwise unobtainable information about short-lived transition strategies. The cost in time and effort of such studies is often high, but the value of the information about change can more than justify the cost.5. What is the trend of the development of applied linguistics?Kaplan suggests that in the future "applied linguistics is likely to be marked by a more powerful version of descriptive linguistics as the central linguistic resource for research," and he refers particularly to the development of corpus linguistics in this respect. He mentions, too, the increasing importance of technology inmany branches of the field. Applied linguists will increasingly need to participate in interdisciplinary research projects, he believes.Unit 21. Is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics, hierarchy or partnership?Yes, because Applied linguistics can not only test the applicability and replicability of linguistics and its application, but also question and challenge them where they are found wanting. (p.4)Both sides of the linguistics/applied linguistics relationship ought to be accountable to and in regular dialogue with each other with regard to theories as well as practices.Accountability will center on set of responsibilities failing on the shoulders of linguistics and applied linguistics in turn.2. Should applied linguistics be theoretical? Why?Yes, I think so. Because ‘Being theoretical’ is a desirable thing. But theoretical stance is more useful as a motto than theoretical allegiance. Encountering problems and adopting a convincing stance towards them is what defines applied linguistics as a discipline.3. What is the disciplinary nature of applied linguistics?1) Applied linguistics has many of the markings of an academic discipline: professional journals, professional associations, international recognition for the field, funding resources for research projects, a large number of individuals who see themselves as applied linguists, trained professionals who are hired in academic institutions as applied linguists, students who want to become applied linguists, and a recognized means for training these students to become applied linguists.2) Applied linguistics recognizes that linguistics must be included as a core knowledge base in the work of applied linguistics, although the purpose of most applied linguists’ work is not simply to “apply”linguistics to achieve a solution.3) Applied linguistics is grounded in real-world, language-driven problems and issues (primarily by linkages to practical issues involving language use, language evaluation, language contact and multilingualism, language policies, and language learning and teaching). There is also, however, the recognition that these practically driven problems have extraordinary range, and this range tends to dilute any sense of common purpose or common professional identification among practitioners.4) Applied linguistics typically incorporates other disciplinary knowledge beyond linguistics in its efforts to address language-based problems. Applied linguists commonly draw upon and are often well trained in psychology, education, anthropology, political science, sociology, measurement, computer programming, literature, and/or economics.5) Applied linguistics is, of necessity, an interdisciplinary field, since few practical language issues can be addressed through the knowledge resources of any single discipline, including linguistics.6) Applied linguistics commonly includes a core set of issues and practices that is readily identified as work carried out by many applied linguists (e.g., language teaching, language teacher preparation, and language curriculum development).7) Applied linguistics generally incorporates or includes several further identifiable sub-fields of study: second language acquisition, forensic linguistics, language testing, corpus linguistics, lexicography and dictionary making, language translation, and second language writing research. Some members of these fields do not see themselves as applied linguistics, though their work clearly addresses practical language issues.8) Applied linguistics often defines itself broadly in order to include additional fields of language-relatedstudies (e.g., language pathology, natural language processing, first language literacy research, and first language composition studies). The large majority of members of these fields do not see themselves as applied linguistics, but the broad definition gives license for applied linguists to work with and borrow from these disciplines for their own goals.4. What is the successful way of applying linguistics?1)Identifying and defining problems.2)Contextualizing those problems with linguistic study and developing a theoretical stance.3)Harnessing appropriate resources for the exploration of possible solutions.4)Evaluating the proposed solutions5. How to be a good applied linguist?The good applied linguist not only starts from day-to-day practical problems and looks for solutions in description, models and theories of language, but also develops his or her own models and theoretical stance.Unit 31. Is it necessary to draw a division between a general, abstract view of human language and the study of the different, specific languages spoken by human beings? Why?A division between a general, abstract view of human language and the study of the different, specific languages spoken by human beings should not over stressed.2. Of what does the historical perspective on applied linguistics remind us?The historical perspective on applied linguistics reminds us that scholars of languages and language over the centuries have combined the study of individual languages with comparison across languages and with debates about language as a whole.3. What are the key points concerning the nature of human language?The professional community as a whole would agree on a number of key points concerning the nature of human language in general:1)All normal human acquire a first language with little or no formal tuition.2) Humans can learn one another’s language.3) All human languages have forms and meanings. Forms are reflected in syntax, vocabulary and phonology.4) All languages function are realized in substance, whether sound alone or sound and writing.5) All human languages function adequately in their social settings6) All languages function within social contexts.7) All languages reflect and are integrally bound up with some sort of psychological, social and cultural reality for their speakers.4. What should cross-linguistic comparison be seen as?Cross-linguistic comparison should not be seen as merely error or difficulty-driven, but problem-driven in the true sense.Problem includes: curiosity, enquiry, comparison, evolution and questioning, trouble-shooting errors, obstacles and difficulties and sorting out failure.5. What is the most significant influence that discourse analysis has on linguistic comparison?Discourse analysis has had a profound effect on how languages are compared.The most significant influence: providing a new set of parameters within which to carry out the comparisons, which are independent of the traditional levels of analysis such as sentence grammar and semantics.Unit 41. In what ways can language be viewed as abstract system?Abstract system, existing independently of its contexts of use, as associated with “mental constructs”.1) Innate capacity of acquiring human language. That all normal human beings acquire human language of some sort, whille other animal species do not.2) Universal features of languages.3) Native speakers can say of their own languages by intuition and retrospectiono4) Competence and performance, which are two characteristics of language proposed by Chomsky.2. In what ways can language be viewed as social phenomenon?The forms and meanings of languages have evolved in social contexts.Language itself contributes to construct social and cultural realities.Language is acquired in social contexts.Performance constitutes the most important evidence for how language works and what it is.Performance is best observed in real language phenomena such as written text.Linguistic evidence is external.“Meaning” is only an abstraction from the actual communicative achievements3. What is the role of sentence in grammar?The use of sentences as a theoretical and descriptive unit lie a number of basic assumptions. Sentences recur across many different models and in descriptions of many different languages:1) Sentences have meaning. They are often traditionally defined as ‘completed thoughts’ or units of meaning.2) Sentences express fundamental meanings found in all languages. In other words, sentence is the universal of human language.3) Sentences are formed in individual language according to rules.4) Sentences are formed from other, lower-level grammatical units.5) Sentences exist in both spoken and written language.4. What is item and paradigm approach?According to McCarthy, it is the way individual words( e.g. nouns, verbs), inflect or combine to create the paradigms of tenses, number, person, etc. The item and paradigm approach has a good deal of usefulness in modeling languages in relation to one another.But the weakness of the item and paradigm approach is that it does not always bring together into formal paradigms items that learners may have to make genuine choices from when constructing real texts.5. What is the place of lexis in different views of language?Lexis has been the poor relation of features and it has had something of a struggle to establish itself as an independent, yet systematic level of linguistic encoding. Vocabulary was usually seen to be a lower prioritythan the learning of structure.Unit 51. When did the term SLA first appear as a sub-discipline of applied linguistics ?The notion of ‘acquiring’ a second language through the mediation of an efficiently ordered methodology is not new. For centuries, language pedagogues have claimed to offer the most effective methods for acquiring foreign tongues. Parallel with the methodological debates, high-level theoretical concerns have emerged, such as the differences between first and second language acquisition, etc.2. What are the questions and issues addressing SLA?1) Is second language acquisition like or different from first language acquisition?2) Is conscious ‘learning’ the same as ‘acquisition’?3) Are there universal features of second language acquisition regard less of which L2 is being learned?4) What role do the first or other languages play in the ease or difficulty encountered when learning asecond language?5) What non-linguistic factors affect SLA?6) What is the difference between SLA in a naturalistic setting compared with a formal setting?7) Can learners’ language be described systematically at various stages of development or is learnerlanguage erratic and unsystematic?3. What is interlanguage?‘Interlanguage’, often abbreviated to IL, was introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) to refer to L2 learner’s independent language system. The theory claimed that learners construct a series of interlanguages (i.e. mental grammars that are drawn upon in producing and comprehending sentences in the L2) and that they revise these grammars in systematic and predictable ways as they pass along an interlanguage continuum.4. What is connectionism and connectionist approach?Connectionism is the general metaphorical construct in associative models. It is the idea that important information about language can be extracted from ‘ probabilistic patterns of grammatical and morphological regularities’. The mind makes connections among multiple nodes of processed information; the mor e connections, the stronger the trace in acquisition.While connectionist approaches do not only help to explain emergent approximations to target behavior.5. What is ‘zone of proximal development and its implication?The zone of proximal development defines functions that have not matured yet, but are in a process of maturing, that will mature tomorrow, that are currently in an embryonic state; these functions could be called the buds of development, the flowers of development, rather than the fruits of development, that is, what is only just maturing.Unit 61. What is the significance of understanding the differences between speech and writing?It is useful to better organize the skill-based language teacheing and offer a window into the immerse variety of discoure-types that exit in our complex societies.2. What is the difference between text and discourse?Texts are products of language use (e.g.. novel, article, etc). It attempts to account for how sentences are linked together using linguistic resources.Discourse is the process of meaning-creation and interaction, whether in writing or in speech. It concerns with the distribution of linguistic elements in extended texts, and links between the text and its context.3. What is discourses analysis?Discources analysis exmines patterns of language across texts and considers the relationship between langaueg and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used. Discourse analysis also considers the ways that the use of languaeg presents different views of the world and different understandings. It examines how the use of language is influenced by relationships between participants as well as the effects the use of languaeg has upon social identities and relations. It also considers how views of the world, and identities, are constructed through the use of discourse.4. What is conversation analysis?The study of talk in interaction. CA generally attempts to describe the orderliness, structure and sequential patterns of interaction, whether this is institutional (in the school, doctor's surgery, courts or elsewhere) or casual conversation.Conversation Analysis prefers to work with individual conversations analyzed in depth rather than multiple conversations analyzed more quantitatively.5. How can the speech genre be realized?Speech gener is a high-order feature of speech events (Hymes, 1972).Genre is something separate from the speech event itself. A genre may coincides with a speech event, but genres can also occur within speed events, and the same genre can show variation in different speech events.Some genre-type studies focus more on variability and mixing of activities. Duranti(1983) argues that the same genre can be realized in different ways according to the nature of the speech, even, depending on who the speakers are, what the purposes are, etc.Unit 71. What is the role of theory in SLA research?There are at least 40 theories of SLA.Two forms of theories:1. Set-of-laws form2. Causal-process formNativist theoryEnvironmentalist theoryInteractionist theoryTheory building is concerned with Explanation as well as Description.Two approaches to theory building:1.Theory-then-research2. Research-then-theoryStudy of SLA involves both approaches.Both have strengths and weaknesses.Different researchers may use different approaches.2. What is Acculturation Model? Any implications?The process of becoming adapted to a new culture.Acculturation/SLA is determined by the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target language.Such distance influences SLA by determining the amount of contact with the target language and the degree to which the learner is open to that input which is available.3. What are the similarities and differences between Acculturation Model and Accommodation Model?Schumann’s Pidginization Hypothesis and Acculturation Model of Second Language Acquisition (1976) is a composite of eight major variables that, according to research, help to enforce, or altogether extinguish, the process of second language learning.Contrastingly, the Giles's Accommodation Theory of Second Language Acquisition (1991) is, as the term states, a theoretical framework that illustrates how individuals do not have a set and defined way of using a second language. Instead, individuals tend to switch, change, intone, and mold the language depending on who they are speaking with, what they are talking about, or also depending on the circumstances of the discourse.Now, if we semantically analyze the terms "acculturation" (assimilation) and "accommodation" (fitting the language "in") both terms would almost amount to the same thing, which is the acquisition of the target language.Some similarities include:Acculturation and Accommodation are complimentary processes and both aid in the SLA process.They are both related to how students learn languages.Both process take place simultaneously through social interaction.Both form what Piaget referred to as "equilibrium".In both processes there is a form of problem-solving taking place; in acculturation the ELL has to "beat the odds" of the social variables; in accommodation, the ELL has to decide how to use the target language.However, some possible points to consider when it comes to stating main differences include: Acculturation is a model of social and cognitive language learning, while Accommodation is a theory of language learning adaptation.Acculturation contends that the language can be acquired if the majority of the eight possible variables are effectively infused. Accommodation entails that language is already nearly mastered enough to add variations to it.Acculturation presents a number of SLA scenarios to consider when researching about ELLs. Accommodation is a scaffolding system of learning used by ELLs where they add on information as they go along the learning process.4. What is the Monitor Model?The Monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance.It utilizes ‘learnt’knowledge by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ‘acquired’knowledge.Three conditions for its use:1. there must be sufficient time2. focus must be on the form3. must know the rule5. What is Universal Hypothesis?The universal hypothesis states that language acquisition is governed by the way in which natural language are organized. That is, certain universal linguistic properties influence the order in which the rules of a specific language are acquired. According to the universal hypothesis, then, it is linguistic rather than general cognitive factors that determine acquisition.Unit 81. What are external factors in SLA?Social factors: social demand and language policy2. Give examples to indicate social factors’ influence on SLA.1) Females are more successful in L2 learning in classroom settings.2) Females benefit from more and better input as a result of their superior listening comprehension skills.3) Middle class children achieve higher lever of L2 proficiency than lower class & working class children.4) Females have more positive attitudes to learning an L2 than males.5) Women nearly always outstrip males in the standardness of their speech and use of prestige forms, and yet they also tend to be in the forefront of linguistic change.3. Why are women more capable to succeed in language acquisition?1) Women nearly always outstrip males in the standardness of their speech and use of prestige forms, and yet they also tend to be in the forefront of linguistic change.2) Women might be better at L2 learning than men; they are likely to be more open to new linguistic forms in the L2 input and they will be more likely to rid themselves of interlanguage forms that deviate from target-language norms.3) Females have more positive attitudes to learning an L2 than males.4) Women tackle the task of learning an L2 different from men. Men use the opportunities to interact to produce more output. Whereas women use it to obtain more input. Bacon (1992) found that men reported using translation strategies more than women, while the women reported monitoring their comprehension more.5) Females are more successful in L2 learning in classroom settings.6) Females benefit from more and better input as a result of their superior listening comprehension skills.4. What is the role of explicit teaching?Explicit instruction must usually take place in the learner's first language, many have argued that it simply starves learners of input and opportunities for practice. Research on this at different levels of language has produced quite different results.5. What advantages do children have in acquiring second language?Chambers and Trudgill (1980) suggests that younger speakers are subject to social pressures from their peer group, while middle-aged speakers have less cohesive social networks and are more influenced by mainstream societal values. In older, retired people, social pressures lessen and social networks again become narrow.Unit 91. What are internal factors in SLA?1) Motivatio n:InstrumentalIntegrative2) Age3) Learning strategya. CognitiveRepetitionTranslationNote-takingb. MetacognitiveOrganizingSelf-monitoringSelf-evaluation4) Personality5) Attitude2. What is language transfer in SLA?Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. (Odlin 1989:27)3. What are the six general constraints on L1 transfer?1) Language level2) Sociolinguistic factors3) Markedness4) Language distance and psychotypology5) Developmental factors4. What is interlanguage theory?In 1972, Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage, which built upon Pit Corder's previous work on the nature of language learners' errors.5. What is universal grammar?Linguist Noam Chomsky made the argument that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. In turn, there is an assumption that all languages have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.Unit 101. What is interlanguage?‘Interlanguage’, often abbreviated to IL, was introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) to refer to L2 learner’s independent language system. The theory claimed that learners construct a series of interlanguages (i.e. mental grammars that are drawn upon in producing and comprehending sentences in the L2) and that they revise these grammars in systematic and predictable ways as they pass along an interlanguage continuum.2. What are the characteristics of interlanguage?Dynamic, permeable and systematic.3. What is the relationship between interlanguage and errors?In 1972, Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage, which built upon Pit Corder's previous work on the nature of language learners' errors.Interlanguage is characterized by errors which are thought to be a learning strategy.4. What is the development of interlanguage?The starting point of interlanguage is the learner’s L1. The L2 learner builds up his interl anguage by gradually replacing his L1 with L2 features. But this does not necessarily mean that the learner has to forget his L1 in order to learn L2. Cognitive theories believe that human brain process information in the same way a computer works.Within the cognitive capacity, a new language can be built systematically in our brain without exclusively conflicting with other already existed language. Interlanguage develops in its own way towards target language.5. What is fossilization?Fossilization has been used to label the process by which non-target forms become fixed in IL.Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL relative to a particular TL, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL. (Selinker 1772: p.215)Unit 111. What is Universal Grammar?Linguist Noam Chomsky made the argument that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. In turn, there is an assumption that all languages have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.2. What does poverty of the stimulus suggest?As they considered issues of the Argument from poverty of the stimulus is to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The contrasting school of thought is known as functionalism.3. How does Minimalist Theory shed light on UG in SLA?Minimalist Theory proposes that languages are based on simple principles that interact to form often intricate structures. The Language faculty is not redundant and can still be the basis for grammatical mapping integration of UG principles in the grammar of the specific target language.4. What is learnability?Learnability refers to the ability to acquire one state of knowledge to another from language input.. 5Which branch does learnability theory belong to?Learnability is a constraint on Universal Grammar.Unit 121. What is corpus?A corpus is a collection of written or spoken texts (Oxford). It is a large collection of written or spoken。
linguistics练习题
linguistics练习题一、语音学与音系学2. 描述元音和辅音的分类方法。
3. 解释音素与音位之间的区别。
4. 举例说明音位变体。
6. 识别并标注下列句子中的音素：The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.8. 描述声母和韵母的概念。
9. 分析英语中的元音和谐现象。
10. 解释语音学与音系学的区别与联系。
二、形态学与词汇学12. 举例说明词根和词缀的作用。
15. 描述英语中的名词、动词和形容词的屈折变化。
16. 解释形态学与词汇学的关系。
18. 举例说明词义扩大、词义缩小和词义转移。
19. 解释词义与语境的关系。
20. 描述英语中的词义分类。
三、句法学24. 描述英语中的主谓一致规则。
25. 解释并列句与复合句的区别。
27. 描述英语中的被动语态结构。
29. 解释句子类型：简单句、并列句、复合句。
30. 描述英语中的疑问句、否定句和祈使句的结构。
四、语义学与语用学33. 解释语义学与语用学的区别与联系。
34. 描述英语中的情态动词及其意义。
36. 解释语境对句子意义的影响。
38. 描述英语中的礼貌用语及其功能。
39. 解释隐喻和转喻的概念。
五、语言习得与语言学应用41. 描述儿童语言习得的过程。
42. 解释二语习得与母语习得的差异。
44. 描述语言教学中的交际法、任务型教学法等。
45. 解释语言测试的类型及其功能。
47. 描述跨文化交际中的语言障碍。
48. 解释语言规划与语言政策的概念。
50. 描述语言与认知、情感、社会等因素的关系。
六、历史语言学51. 描述语言变化的主要类型及其原因。
52. 解释语言演化的连续性与非连续性。
53. 分析英语历史上的重大语言变革。
54. 识别并解释古英语与现代英语之间的差异。
55. 描述语言学中的比较法及其在历史语言学中的应用。
56. 解释历史语言学与历时语言学的区别。
58. 描述语言接触对语言变化的影响。
59. 解释语言死亡的概念及其原因。
语言学Linguistics习题含答案
语言学Linguistics习题含答案Quiz for linguistics:Chapter 1: Linguistics and Language语言和语言学1. Which of the following is the most important function of language?a. Interpersonal functionb. Performative functionc. Informative functiond. Recreational function2. ______ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc..a. Phonologyb. Phoneticsc. Morphologyd. Pragmatics3. ______ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.a. Performativeb. Interpersonalc. Phaticd. Metalingual4. ______ means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.a. Creativityb. Dualityc. Arbitrarinessd. Displacement5. By ______ it means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.a. arbitrarinessb. dualityc. creativityd. displacement6. ______ distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual production of speeches.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Gilmand. Brown7. ______ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.a. Competenceb. Performancec. Eloquenced. Action8. ______ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.a. Psycholinguisticsb. Sociolinguisticsc. Anthropological linguisticsd. Computational linguistics9. ______ studies the rules governing the combination ofwords into sentences.a. Pragmaticsb. Semanticsc. Syntaxd. Phonetics10. ______ is a branch of linguistics concerned in principle with the physical representation of language or linguistic processes in the brain.a. Anthropological linguisticsb. Psychological linguisticsc. Computational linguisticsd. Neurolinguistics11. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is ______ (大纲样题)a. morphologyb. general linguisticsc. phonologyd. semantics12. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年真题)a. language functionb. sentence structuresc. textual organizationd. word formation13. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language? (2005年真题)a. arbitrarinessb. productivityc. cultural transmissiond. finiteness14. The distinction between parole and langue was made by______. (2006年真题)a. Hallidayb. Chomskyc. Bloomfieldd. Saussure15. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年真题)a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics16. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? (2008年真题)a. Arbitrarinessb. Displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity17. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is ______.(2009年真题)a. corpus linguisticsb. sociolinguisticsc. theoretical linguisticsd. pysholinguistics18. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “Highway Closed” on a highway serves ______. (2010年真题)a. an expressive function.b. an informative function.c. a performative function.d. a persuasive function.19. ______ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind. (2011年真题)a. Semanticsb. Pragmaticsc. Cognitive linguisticsd. Sociolinguistics20. Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as ____a. paroleb. languagec. systemd. langue语音学1. ______ is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.a. Acoustic phoneticsb. Articulatory phoneticsc. Auditory phoneticsd. Pragmatics2. When ______ is produced, complete closure of the articulators is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth.a. fricativeb. stopc. affricated. lateral3. In the production of vowels, air is ______ as is the case with consonants.a. not obstructedb. obstructedc. semi-obstructedd. half-obstructed4. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the ______ grammarian Otto Jespersen in 1886.a. Englishb. Americanc. Danishd. French5. The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in the ______ by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones and his colleagues at University of London.a. 1910sb. 1920sc. 1930sd. 1940s6. To be specific, ______ deals with how speech sounds are produced.a. articulatory phoneticsb. acoustic phoneticsc. auditory phoneticsd. phonological phonetics7. All the following are the description of [P] EXCEPT ______.a. stopb. bilabialc. alveolard. consonant8. If a single movement from one element to a second element of the tongue is involved, the combine vowels are called ______.a. monophthongsb. triphthongsc. cardinal vowelsd. diphthongs9. The most famous cardinal vowel system put forward by Daniel Jones defines ______ primary cardinal vowels.a. 7b. 8c. 9d. 1010. The followings belong to affricates EXCEPT ______.a. [ts]b. [l]c. [D]d. [tr]11. According to the part of the tongue which is raised, the vowels can be divided into the following three kinds, EXCEPT for ______.a. frontb. middlec. centrald. back12. A vowel is different from a consonant in English because of _______. (2011年真题)a. absence of obstructionb. presence of obstructionc. manner of articulationd. place of articulation13. If the air stream meets with no obstruction when a sound is pronounced, it is a(n) ______.a. voiced consonantb. voiceless consonantc. voweld. explosive14. The internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is ______.a. I.P.Ab. I.A.P.Sc. I.S.Sd. S.S.I.P音位学1. ______ refers to two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.a. Ahonemeb. A minimal pairc. Allophoned. Free variation2. Phonology is the study of ______.a. how speech sounds are madeb. the sound system of languagesc. speech sounds are transmittedd. how speech sounds are received3. The following are the principle suprasegmental features EXCEPT _______.a. syllableb. stressc. toned. phoneme4. Which aspect does NOT belong to the phonological process?a. A set of sounds to undergo the processb. A set of sounds produced by the processc. The length of the sounds in the processd. A set of situations in which the process applies5. ______ refers to the sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language.a. Phoneb. Allophonec. Phonemed. Morpheme6. The open syllable refers to the syllable that has no ______.a. codab. onsetc. nucleusd. rhyme7. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. Which of the following is tone language?a. Englishb. Chinesec. both English and Chinesed. Neither English nor Chinese8. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a ______.a. minimal pairb. complementary distributionc. phonemic contrastd. minimal set9. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature inEnglish phonology?a. aspirationb. plosivenessc. bilabialityd. voicelessness1. ______ is a unit that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.a. Phonemeb. Morphemec. Lexemed. Phone2. The words such as dog, nation and close are ______.a. affixesb. free morphemesc. bound morphemesd. compounds3. The words such as “smog” and ”brunch” are called ______.a. abbreviationb. acronymc. back-formationd. blending4. For example, the word bead originally means “prayer”, but later it refers to “the prayer bead”, and finally “small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood”. It is called ______.a. meaning shiftb. broadeningc. narrowingd. borrowing5. “Kodak” is a/an ______.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clipping6. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are ______.a. grammatical wordsb. lexical wordsc. both grammatical words and lexical wordsd. neither grammatical words nor lexical words7. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are ______.a. open-class wordsb. closed-class wordsc. both open-class words and closed wordsd. neither open-class nor closed-class words8. In terms of ______, words can be divided into closed-class words and open-class words.a. meaningb. variabilityc. qualityd. membership9. _____ refers to any morphemes or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.a. affixb. rootc. stemd. suffix10. In the following words foot/feet, goose/geese, the affixesbelong to ______.a. suffixb. infixc. prefixd. root11. Which of the following is NOT a compound word? （大纲样题）a. Landladyb. Greenhousec. Upliftd. Unacceptable12. The word holiday originally meant “holy day”; but now the word signifies “any day on which we don’t have to work”. This is an example of ______. （大纲a. meaning shiftb. widening of meaningc. narrowing of meaningd. loss of meaning13. The word “m otel” comes from “motor + hotel”. This is an examp le of ______ in morphology. (2010年全真)a. backformationb. conversionc. blendingd. acronym14. ______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (2007年全真）a. Phonologyb. Morphologyc. Semanticsd. Sociolinguistics1. ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentence.a. Morphologyb. Syntaxc. Phoneticsd. Semantics2. Which one of the following does NOT belong to English cases?a. Nominativeb. Accusativec. Genitived. Dative3. When a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of category, it is referred to as _____.a. generationb. governmentc. transformationd. negation4. ______ refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.a. C-commandb. Immediate constituent analysisc. Deep structured. Communicative dynamism5. ______ is a general term for verbal category that distinguish the status of events, etc. in relation to specific period of times, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past, or future.a. tenseb. timec. moodd. aspect6. The relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc., e.g. between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts is called ______.a. syntagmatic relationb. paradigmatic relationb. positional relation d. relation of subsitutablity7. In English, theme and rheme are expressed by ______.a. subject and objectb. subject and predicatec. predicate and objectd. object and predicate8. Classical Creek and Arabic have a third number: ______, something like the English “both”.a. singleb. pluralc. duald. trial9. Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is ______, which is proposed by J. Firbas.a. C-commandb. immediate constituent analysisc. deep structured. communicative dynamism10. Those constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant and the other constituents being modifiers, are ______.a. endocentric constructionsb. exocentric constructionsc. deep structured. surface structure11. What type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.”? (2008年真题)a. a simple sentenceb. a coordinate sentencec. a complex sentenced. none of the above12. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年真题)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic13. Syntax is the study of ______. (2005年全真)a. language functions.b. sentence structures.c. textual organization.d. word formation.语义学1. More specifically, _____ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.a. pragmaticsb. semanticsc. syntaxd. phonology2. In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL or FORM refers to ______.a. the linguistic elements (words, phrases)b. the object in the world of experiencec.conceptd. idea3. The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called ______.a. dialectal synonymsb. collocational synonymsc. stylistic synonymsd. complementary antonymy4. The word “table” has at least the six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called ______.a. polysemyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy5. The rela tion between “dog” and “animal” is that of _____.a. synonymyb. antonymyc. homonymyd. hyponymy6. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called _____. (2009年真题)a. dialectb. idiolectc. pidgind. register7. The phenomenon that words having different meaningshave the same form is called ______. (2008年真题)a. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy8. The word tail once referred to the “tail of a horse”, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal”. This is an example of ______.(2007年真题)a. widening of meaningb. narrowing of meaningc. meaning shiftd. loss of meaning9. The word “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______. (2006年真题)a. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms10. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are ______.a. homophonesb. homographsc. complete homonymsd. allophones语用学1. Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how ______ influences the interpretation of meanings.a. wordb. contextc. sentenced. language form2. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher ______.a. Herbert Paul Griceb. Dan Sperberc. Deirdre Wilsond. John Langshaw Austin3. A(n) _____ is using a sentence to perform a function.a. Locutionary Actb. Illocutionary Actc. Perlocutionary Actd. In-locutionary Act4. The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature, proposed by Oxford philosopher ______.a. J. Austinb. Hallidayc. Herbert Paul Griced. Saussure5. The following maxims are the Cooperative Principles Except ______.a. quantity maximb. quality maximc. distance maximd. relation maxim6. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of Implicature?a. calculabilityb. cancellabilityc. non-detachabilityd. changeability7. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of ______.a. relevanceb. coordinationc. agreementd. reciprocity8. The notion of ______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language?a. communicationb. contextc. speech act theoryd. words9. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ______. (2009年真题)a. an illocutionary actb. a perlocutionary actc. a locutionary actd. none of the above10. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of ______. (2006年真题)a. referenceb. meaningc. antonymyd. context11. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005年真题)a. John Searleb. John Austinc. Noam Chomskyd. M.A.K Halliday12. The force of a/an ______ act is identical with the speaker’s intention.a. illocutionaryb. locutionaryc. perlocutionaryd. Prelocutionary其他1. The definition “the act of using, or promoting the use of several languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speake rs”refers to _____. (2011年全真)a. pidginb. creolec. multilingualismd. bilingualism2. ______ refers to the learning and development of a language. (2010年全真)a. Language acquisitionb. Language comprehensionc. Language productiond. Language instruction3. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of differentlanguages for purposes of trading is called ______. (2009年全真)a. dialect.b. idiolect.c. pidgin.d. register.4. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______. (2007年全真)a. lexicalb. syntacticc. phonologicald. psycholinguistic5. With the ______, Latin words were added into the vocabulary of the language spoken in Britain.a. invasion of the Romansb. Christianization of Britainc. Scandinavian invasiond. Norman Conquest现代语言学理论和流派1. The Prague School is best known for its contribution to the distinction between phonetics and ______.a. soundb. phonemec. phonologyd. phone2. The founder of the London School is the British linguist ______.a. J. R. Firthb. Hallidayc. Bloomfieldd. Sapir3. Firth insisted that the object of linguistics is language ______.a. in oral useb. in actual usec. in booksd. in media4. The following function of adult’s language EXCEPT ______ are put forward by Halliday.a. the ideational functionb. the interpersonal functionc. the informative functiond. the textual function5. The principle representative of American descriptive linguistics is ______.a. L. Bloomfieldb. Chomskyc. Sapird. Saussure6. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is ______.a. Firthb. Saussurec. Hallidayd. Chomsky7. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ______.a. functionb. meaningc. signsd. system8. ______ is the founder of Transformational Generative Grammar.a. Noam Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured.Brown9. The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist ______ in the beginning of the 20th century.a. Chomskyb. Hallidayc. Saussured. Fillmore10. A representative of the Contextualism was ______, the leading British linguist of the period. He held the view that “We shall know a word by the company it keeps”.a. Ogden and Richardsb. J. R. Firthc. Bloomfieldd. Leech11. Bloomfield further strengthened the contextualist view and drew on ______ when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.a. sociologyb. behaviorist psychologyc. anthropologyd. physiology12. ______ means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contrast of language data in the process of their L1 acquisition.a. Language facultyb. Language acquisition devicec. Universal grammard. Argument of poverty stimulus。
英语2Linguistics题目及答案
英语2Linguistics题目及答案Quiz of LinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T)2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F)3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F )4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T )5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T)6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F)7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F )8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T)9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics.7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language.9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive.10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary .III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? DA. aribitrarinessB. displacementC. dualityD. Meaningfulness2. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because__D____.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. all of the above.3. A historical study of language is a ___B_____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative4. Sausure took a(n) ___A_____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ______ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic5. According to Saussure, ___C___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language6. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logicalconnection between ___B____ and meaning.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas7. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called___A____.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission8. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ___D____rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B9. Which of the following words is not motivated?CA. bangB. blackboardC. penD. meow10. What is the function of the sentence: “Hi! How are you this moring?” DA. emotive functionB. conative functionC. poetic functionD. phatic functionIV. Terms explanation1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language./doc/0e10264700.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。
大学语言学（Linguistics）总复习题
大学语言学（Linguistics）总复习题LinguisticsChapter 1 language1.What is language? (5 key words)2.Design features of language (4)3.Functions of language (7)4.What is linguistics?5.Main branches of linguistics6.important distinctions1)descriptive & prescriptive↓ ↓how things are how things ought to be2) synchronic & diachronic (Saussure)↓ ↓at some point through the history3) langue & parole (Saussure)↓ ↓competence utterances (actual use)4) competence & performance (Chomsky)↓ ↓underlying knowledge actual use of language Chapter 2 speech sounds1.What is phonetics?how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived2.What is phonology?the way the sounds are organized3.Speech organs (p.26)4.IPA 18885.Consonants & V owels1)distinctions between consonants and vowels lie in the obstruction of airstream2)consonants (p.35 Table 2.1)voicing+place+manner (p.48 Table 2.6)3)vowels (p.36 Table 2.2)height+position+tenseness+rounding(p.36 Table 2.3.)6. Minimal pairs (two or more sounds)7. Complementary distribution (one sound)8. Phonological rules (p.42—p.49)9. Suprasegmentals1)syllable (p.50 (18))2)stress3)intonation4)tone English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.Chapter 3 morphology1.What is morphology?internal organization of words2.Classification of words1)variable & invariable2)grammatical & lexical3)closed-class & open-class4)word class3.Morpheme1)free & bound morpheme2)root, affix, stem3)inflectional & derivational4.Lexical change1)invention2)blending3)abbreviation4)acronym5)back-formation6)borrowing (loanword, loanblend, loanshift, loan translation)Chapter 4 syntax1.IC analysisV, N, A, Adv, prep, pron., det., conj, inf., mv.NP, AP, VP, PP,2.Tree diagram3.Endocentric & Exocentric constructionsEndocentric: NP, VP, APExocentric: basic sentences, PP, predicate construction, connective construction Chapter 5 semantics1.Meaning: (p.106 Table 5-1) 7 meanings2.Sense & ReferenceEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.3.Sense relations1)synonymy2)antonymy : gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, converse antonymy3)hyponymy: superordinate, hyponym/doc/0516430668.html,ponential analysisChapter 6 pragmatics1.semantics & pragmatics (differences)2.performative & constative3.speech act theory1)locutionary act2)illocutionary act force3)perlocutionary act4.CP1)four maxims2)violation of maxims (analyze short conversations) →conversatio nal implicature。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to formgrammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its usersto record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born withthe ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thedifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English theprefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tonesare pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of aconjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals)PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements ofa verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure andthe surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in。
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Quiz of LinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T)2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F)3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F )4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T )5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T)6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F)7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F )8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T)9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language.2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics.7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language.9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive.10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary .III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? DA. aribitrarinessB. displacementC. dualityD. Meaningfulness2. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because__D____.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. all of the above.3. A historical study of language is a ___B_____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative4. Sausure took a(n) ___A_____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ______ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic5. According to Saussure, ___C___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language6. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between ___B____ and meaning.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas7. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called___A____.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission8. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ___D____rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B9. Which of the following words is not motivated?CA. bangB. blackboardC. penD. meow10. What is the function of the sentence: “Hi! How are you this moring?” DA. emotive functionB. conative functionC. poetic functionD. phatic functionIV. Terms explanation1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。
3.Arbitrariness: Language is arbitrariness. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.5. Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.6. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use; langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.7. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language.9.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10. Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. At the higher level of system there is a structure of meanings.。