机械毕业设计英文外文翻译88创建焊接程序
锻造、铸造、焊接外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文翻译学生姓名：系别：机械工程系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化班级：学号:译文出处：Science and Technology Engl-ish for Mechanical EngineeringCasting、Forging and Welding1. CastingMetal casting is one of the oldest of all industries, both ancient and medieval history offering examples of the manufacture and use of casting. From simple axeheads poured from copper in open moulds some 5000 years age, casting in the pre-Christian world developed to a point at which elaborate bronze statuary could be produced in two-piece and cored moulds. By the end of the medieval period, decorated bronze and pewter casting had begun to be used in European church and domestic life.The widespread adoption of cast iron as engineering material awaited the success of Abraham Darby in 1790 in smelting in the coke blast furnace; this paved the way for the massive use of cast iron in construction during the years following the industrial revolution.Many foundries sprang up after the industrial revolution, the vast majority being for the manufacture of the cast iron then being used as a structural material. The quantity production of iron castings in the nineteenth century was not matched by a universal advance in quality and the engineering use of the products encountered more serious risks in a non-ductile material.Despite the skill of the molder in producing complex forms, there was little change in the metallurgical and engineering situation until the modern era brought a better understanding of the factors determining quality. With modern techniques of process control the rudimentary judgment of the operator could give way to objective measurements of metal temperature, molding material properties and other production variables. These improvements have been applied not only to cast iron but to a wide range of cast alloys.There are four basic casting methods: sand-casting, die-casting, investment-casting, and centrifugal casting.Sand-casting is the most widely used method employed in foundry. In this process, sand moulds are contained in metal molding boxes that have four sides but no top or bottom. During the molding operation the boxes are located togetherby pins so that they can be separated to remove the pattern, and replaced in the correct position before the metal is poured in. The boxes are clamped together, or the cope (top section) weighted down when pouring to prevent the cope from “floating away”from the drag (lower section) when the mould is full of molten metal. The sequence when molding the simple two-part mould to cast a bracket is illustrated as follows.At the first stage the pattern is seated on the moulding board. The pattern is covered with facing sand, which is a specially prepared sand of good quality, which can take a clean and smooth impression, and can resist the heat from the molten metal that will be in contact with it. The facing sand is backed up with molding sand, which is old facing sand from previous moulds. The molding sand is carefully rammed up so that it is fairly tight around the pattern to produce a good solid mould, yet permeable enough to allow the gases produced during casting to escape. The sand is finally leveled off.At the second stage the mould with the pattern still in position is inverted; the exposed sand lightly covered with parting sand, and the exposed pattern with facing sand.(The parting sand has no cohesion, and is introduced to permit a clean separation when the mould is opened up to remove the pattern .) The second molding box is located in position on the first box and filled with molding sand. Two or more plugs are introduced when the second box is being filled (these are removed later, leaving channels in the sand). One of these plugs is positioned to one side of the pattern. The sand is rammed up and leveled off.Now, at stage 3, to allow the pattern to be removed. This is done by screwing a bar with a threaded end into a suitable insert in the pattern, damping the sand around the pattern, and gently rapping the bar in all directions so that the pattern can be carefully withdrawn. To facilitate the removal of the pattern without scuffing the sides of the impression, all surfaces that lie in the direction of pattern removal are inclined slightly by a small amount (the draw angle).A groove called a gate is cut in the sand face to allow the channel producedby the plug that is outside the pattern to connect with the impression .The metal is poured through this channel (called the runner), and the gate prevents it from dropping straight into the impression and damaging it .The cross-section of the gate is slightly smaller than that of channel so that a full runner will always supply metal to the gate at a slight pressure.Finally, the mould is reassembled, carefully locating and securing the two sections. The top section is known as the cope, and the lower section is known as the drag. The sand in the cope is vented. These vents allow the sand to be rammed up more tightly at the earlier stages without the risk of gases being trapped in the molten metal and forming blowholes in the solid metal. A sand-feeding gate (also called a pouring or bowl) is added to make it easier to pour the metal into the runner. The molten metal is poured through the runner and the air will escape through the riser.The impression will be filled with molten metal when it is completely filled. Gases can escape through the runner and the riser, which also act as headers to supply the impression with more metal to compensate for the contraction of the metal when cooling in the molten state.2. ForgingForging is the plastic working of metal by means of localized compressive forces exerted by manual or power hammers, presses, or special forging machines. It may be done either hot or cold. however, when it is done cold, special names usually are given to the processes. Consequently, the terms“forging” usually implies hot forging done above the recrystallization temperature.Modern forging is a development form the ancient art practiced by the armor makers and the immortalized village blacksmith. High-powered hammers and mechanical presses have replaced the strong arm, the hammer, and the anvil and modern metallurgical knowledge supplements the art skill of the craftsman in controlling the heating and handling of the metal.Forge ability is the term used in the industry to denote a material relative resistance to deformation and its plasticity. While considerable disagreementexists as to precisely what characteristics the word “forge ability” should include, the term as used here is defined as the tolerance of a metal or alloy for deformation without failure, regardless of forging pressure requirements.Raw material used for forging is generally bar or billet stock hot rolled from ingots melted in open-hearth, electric arc, or vacuum arc furnace .other forms and shapes such as rolled slabs, plats, and stock produced by continuous casting techniques are occasionally used .for certain grades ,vacuum arc melting imparts better forge ability than does conventional arc melting . However, the major purpose of vacuum melting is the improvement of mechanical properties and cleanliness, not forging behavior.Equipment behavior influences the forging progress since it determines the feasibility of forging a part and affects the rate of deformation and the temperature conditions.The hammer is the most economical type of equipment for generating load and energy necessary to carry out a forging process, provided that the material being forged can support high deformation velocities. It is most commonly used hot forging equipment for repeated blows on the same workpiece and cannot be overloaded.There are various types of hammers: air-lift gravity drop hammers, power drop hammers, power drop hammers, Counterblow hammers ect. In a simple gravity drop hammer the upper ram is positively connected to a board, a belt, a chain or a piston. When forging the ram is lifted to a certain height and then dropped on the stock placed on the anvil. During the down stroke, the rain is accelerated by gravity and builds up the blow energy. The upstroke takes place immediately after the blow, the force necessary to ensure quick lift-up of the ram can be 3 to 5 times the ram weight. The operation principle of a power-drop hammer is similar to that of an air drop hammer. During the down stroke, in addition to gravity, the ram is accelerated by steam, cold air or hot air pressure. In an electro hydraulic gravity-drop hammer, the ram is lifted with oil pressure against an air cushion. The compressed air slows down the upstroke of the ram and contributes to its acceleration during the down stroke .thus; the electrohydraulic hammer also has a minor power hammer action.Press forging employs a slow squeezing action in deforming the plastic metal, as contrasted with the rapid-impact blows of a hammer. Hydraulic forging press is operated by large pistons driven by high-pressure hydraulic or hydrometric system. The squeezing action is carried completely to the center of the part being pressed, thoroughly working the entire section. These presses are the vertical type and may be either mechanically or hydraulically operated. The mechanical presses, which are faster operating and most commonly used, range in capacity from 5000 to 10000 tons.In the forging press a grater proportion of the total work put into the machine is transmitted to the metal than in a drop hammer. The machine and foundation absorb much of the impact of the drop hammer .press reduction of the metal is faster, and the cost of operation is consequently lower. most press forging s are symmetrical in shape ,having surfaces, which are quite smooth, and provide a closer tolerance than is obtained by a drop hammer .however ,drop forging can forge many parts of irregular and complicated shapes more economically. Forging presses are often used for sizing operations on parts made by other forging processes.For small forgings closed impression dies are used, and only one stroke of the ram is normally require to perform the forging operation .the maximum pressure is built up at the end of the stroke ,which forces the metal into shape .dies may be mounted as separate units, or all the cavities may be put into a single block. for small forgings individuals die units are more convenient .large ingots are now almost always forged with hydraulic presses instead of with steam hammers, since the work done by a press goes deeper. Further, the press can take a cooler ingot and can work to closer dimensions.The forging should be done at about the same temperature as rolling; the process improves the physical properties of the steel just as rolling does. In the final forging it is important not to have the steel too hot, for overheated steel will have poor mechanical properties when cooled. in heating for forging the temperature is usually judged by the eye, but where a large number of thesame patterns will be made, the pieces to be forged are heated in furnaces in which the temperature is indicated by pyrometers, and often is automatically controlled.3. weldingWelding techniques have become so versatile that it is difficult nowadays to define “welding”. Formerly welding was “the joining of metals by fusion”, that is, by melting, but this definition will no longer do. Welding was next defined as the “joining of metals by heat”, but this is not a proper definition either. Not only metals can be welded, so can many of the plastics. Furthermore several welding methods do not require heat. Every machinist is familiar with heatless welding method under some circumstances. Besides these, we can weld with sound and even with the famous laser. Faced with a diversity of welding methods that increase year by year, we must here adopt the following definition of welding:" welding is the joining of metals and plastics by methods that do not employ fastening devices”.There is also no uniform method of naming welding processes. Some processes are named according to the heat source or shielding method, other certain specialized processes are named after the type of joint produced. Examples are spot and butt welding. But an overall classification can not take account of this because the same type of joint may be produced by a variety of processes. Spot welding may be done by electric resistance, arc, or electron-beam processes and butt welding by resistance, flash or any of a number of other methods. Many welding processes are named depending on the heat applied, equipment used, and type of metal to be joined and the strength of the joint.Soldering is the process of joining two metals by a third metal to be applied in the molten state. Solder consists of tin and lead, while bismuth and cadmium are often included to lower the melting point. One of the important operations in soldering is that of cleaning the surface to be joined, this may be done by some acid cleaner. Soldering gives a satisfactory joint for light articles ofsteel, copper or brass, but the strength of soldering joint is rather less than a joint which is brazed, riveted or welded. These methods of metal are normally adopted for strong permanent joints.Pressure welding is known as the simplest method of welding two pieces of metal together. The ends of metal are heated to a while heat—for iron, the welding temperature should be about 1300℃—in a flame. At this temperature the metal becomes plastics. The ends are then presses or hammered together, and the joint is smoothed off. Care must be taken to ensure that the surfaces are thoroughly clean first, for dirt will weaken the weld. Moreover, the heating of iron or steel to a high temperature causes oxidation, and a film of oxide is formed on the heated surfaces. For this reasons, a flux is applied to the heated metal. At welding heat, the flux melts, and the oxide Particles are dissolved in it together with any other impurities which may be present. The metal surfaces are pressed together, and the flux is squeezed out from the center of the weld.Gas welding includes all the processes in which gases are used to obtain a hot flame. Those commonly used are acetylene, natural gas, and hydrogen in combination with oxygen. The maximum temperature developed by oxyhydrogen welding is 3600℉ (1980℃). Hydrogen is produced either by the electrolysis of water or by passing steam over coke. An oxyacetylene weld is produced by heating with a flame obtained from the combustion of oxygen and with or without the use of a filler metal. In most cases the joint is heated to a state of fusion, and as a rule, no pressure is used.Are welding is a process in which coalescence is obtained by heat produced from an electric arc. The electrode or filler metal is heated to a liquid state and deposited into the joint to make the weld. Contact is first made between the electrode and the work to create an electric circuit, and then, by separating the conductors, an arc is formed. The electric energy is converted into intense heat in the arc, which attains a temperature around 10 000°F (5500℃). Either direct or alternating current can be used for arc welding, direct current being preferred for most purposes. A d-c welder is simply a motor-generator set ofconstant-energy type, having the necessary characteristics to produce a stable arc. Arc welding uses commonly metal electrodes or carbon electrodes.Laser Welding is used because of laser’s high heat intensity. It can be operated in any transparent medium without contact with the workpiece, since the laser delivers its energy in the form of light. In welding, the power is delivered in pulses rather than as a continuous beam, the beam is focused on the workpiece and the intense heat produces a fusion weld. Laser welding is slow and is used only for special jobs involving small weldments. Its greatest use is found in the electronics industry.Explosion welding is a process that uses energy from the detonation of an explosive to join two pieces of metal. The explosion accelerates the pieces to a speed at which a metallic bond will form between them when they collide. The weld is produced in a fraction of a second without the addition of filler metal. This is essentially a room temperature process in that gross heating of the workpieces does not occur. The faying surfaces, however, are heated to some extent by the energy of the collision, and welding is accomplished through plastic flow of the metal on those surfaces. Welding takes place progressively as the explosion and the forces it creates advance from one end of the joint to the other. Deformation of the weldment varies with the type of joint. There may be no noticeable deformation at all in some weldments, and there is no loss of metal.译文：铸造、锻造和焊接1.铸造金属铸造是最古老的产业之一，远古时期和中世纪就有人使用和制造铸件了。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译12
Development of a high-performance laser-guided deep-holeboring tool: optimal determination of reference origin for precise guidingAbstractA laser-guided deep-hole boring tool using piezoelectric actuators was developed to prevent hole deviation. To extend the depth o controll able boring further, the following were improved. The tool’s guiding error, caused by misalignment of the corner cube prism and the mirror in the optical head from the spindle axis, was eliminated using an adjustment jig that determined the reference origins of the two position-sensitive detectors (PSDs) precisely. A single-edge counter-boring head is used instead of the double-edge head used up to now The former was thought to be better in attitude control than the latter. A new boring bar, which was lower in rigidity and better in Controllability of tool attitude, was used. Experiments were conducted to examine the performance of the new tool in detail and to determin its practical application, using duralumin (A2017-T4) workpieces with a prebored 108-mm diameter hole. The experiments were performed with a rotating tool–stationary workpiece system. Rotational speed was 270 rpm and feed was 0.125 mm/rev. Tool diameter was 110 mm Asaresult,controlled boring becomes possible up to a depth of 700 mm under the stated experimental conditions.700 mm is the maximum machinable length of the machine tool. The tool can be put to practical use.Keywords: Deep hole-boring; Adaptive control; Laser application1.IntroductionTo bore a precise straight hole, a deep-hole boring tool should be guided toward a target. From this point of view, the laser-guided deep-hole boring tool was developed [1–6]. The latest tool using piezoelectric actuators could be guided to go straight toward the target,despitedisturbances up to a depth of 388 mm [6].In the present paper, before the performance of the tool is examined, the following points are improved to extend the depth. The tool’s guiding error, caused by misalignment of the corner cube prism and the mirror in the optical head from the spindle axis, is eliminated using a jig that deter- mines the reference origins of the two position-sensitive detectors (PSDs) precisely. A single-edge counter-boring head is used instead of the double-edge head used up to now. The former is thought to be better in attitude control than the latter. A new boring bar, which is 15% lower in both bending and torsional rigidity and which is better in controllability of tool attitude, is used.2. Experimental apparatusFigs. 1 and 2 show the tool head and the experimental apparatus, respectively [6]. The head is the same as that used in experiments up to now. One cutting edge of the double-edge counter-boring head is replaced by a guide pad,And six guide pads are removed[4].By removal of the guide pads, cutting oil is supplied better between the other guide pads and hole wall. The tool head consists of an optical head, a counter-boring head, piezoelectric actuators, and an actuator holder (Fig. 1). The optical head is attached to the front surface of the counter-boring head through an adjust- ment jig. The actuator holder is connected to a rotation stopper 14 behind the tool head by two parallel plates of phosphor bronze 6 (Fig. 2). A laser source 11, and PSDs 9, 10 are set in front of the tool. The rectangular coordinates XAnd Y are set on a plane perpendicular to the spindle rotation axis(Z-axis).The optical distancebetween a dichroic mirror in the optical head and PSD 10 for measuring tool inclina- tion is 2,040 mm [2].3. Method for detection of tool position and its inclinationFig. 3 shows the method used for measuring the tool position and its inclination. The laser beam, radiated from an argon laser, reaches the dichroic mirror 6 through the beam expander 5 and the half mirror 1. The dichroic mirror separates the two beams of wavelengths 514 nm (green) and 488 nm (blue). The green beam for measuring tool position passes through the dichroic mirror 6 and reachesthe corner cube prism 8. The reflected beam passes again through 6 and is deflected by the half mirror 1 toward dichroic mirror 2. By passing through the dichroic mirror 2, it reaches the PSD 9 used for measuring tool position. The blue beam for measuring tool inclination reaches the dichroic mirror 7 with an angle of incidence equal to 0°. The dichroic mirror 7 reflects the blue beam and trans- mits parts of the green beam, which are not completelyseparated by the dichroic mirror 6. The returning beam from the dichroic mirror 7 is deflected by the mirrors 6, 1, and 2, then passing through the dichroic mirror 4, and reaches the PSD 10 for measuring tool inclination. Re- flective characteristics of dichroic mirror 4 differs from that of dichroic mirror 7.4. Acquisition of data for controlling the toolData for tool attitude control are acquired from the two PSDs for tool position and its inclination every rotation of the counter-boring head. Until now, outputs of the two PSDs (measuring tool position and its inclination) some- times did not correspond well to the measured hole devia- tion. To determine what causes this, the following is exam- ined. The tool head with the optical head is supported by two V-blocks and is aligned on the Z-axis at the same longitudinal position as in the experiment. Then, the laser beam is radiated, and the optical head is rotated manually.Fig. 4 shows variations of outputs of two PSDs with encoder pulse during one rotation of the optical head fixed on the counter-boring head. Theoretically, outputs of two PSDs are constant during one rotation of the optical head corresponding to a 1,400 pulse of output of an encoder. Changes of X- and Y-outputs of tool position are caused by change of darkness of the laser spot because of interference and polarization of the laser beam. Changes of X- and Y- outputs of tool inclination are caused by inclination of the reflecting mirror in the optical head from the Z-axis. From the last experiment [6] on, tool position and its inclination are measured at rotational pulse position 700, where the brightness of the two PSDs are preferable at the same time.5. Misalignment of the optical parts in the optical headEven if the laser source and the PSDs for tool position and its inclination are aligned on Z-axis, hole deviation appeared. To discover its cause, the misalignment of the corner cube prism and inclination of reflecting mirror in the optical head from the Z-axis are examined.Fig. 5 shows all cases of alignment errors. Fig. 5(a) shows that the corner cube prism and the reflecting mirror are precisely aligned on the Z-axis. Figs. 5(b) and 5(c) are, the cases in which the corner cube prism is displaced by and the reflecting mirror is inclined byfrom the Z-axis, respectively.IncaseofFig.5(d),errorsofFigs.5(b)and(c) occur together. Fig. 5(e) shows the case when the optical head is inclined byduring the setup of the counter-boring head. Fig. 5(f) is the worst case, when all errors occur together. These errors cannot be eliminated by conventional adjustment. Therefore a new guiding strategy is developed to ensure that the tool can be guided straight, even if errors should occur.6. Optimal setup of reference origin for precise guidingFig. 6 shows the optimal setup method of reference origins. The laser source is aligned on the Z-axis [Fig. 6(a)] [6]. The optical head is fixed to the front surface of a cylindrical alignment jig through an adjustment jig. The alignment jig is inserted into the guide bush, which is fixed on a machine table, and the centers of both alignment jig and the optical head are aligned on Z-axis. Then the laser beam is radiated. Reflected beams reach the PSDs for tool position and its inclination. When the cylinder is rotated by hand, the rotational position, at which the output is most reliable, can be found. Next, the PSDs are moved until the spots lie at their centers. This position corresponds to the pulse position 700 of the encoder. The centers are reference origins for tool position and its inclination.At this rotational position,the optical head is fixed to the counter-boring head using the adjustment jig [Fig.6(b)].When the control starts, the tool head follows the alignment jig’s axis.7. Mechanism of tool displacementFig. 7 shows the mechanism of tool displacement. Fig. 7(a) shows the normal cutting condition [7]. The cutting force P is acting on the cutting edge and is counterbalanced by the guide pads. Fig. 7(b) shows the case where the tool is to correct for a deviation. A chain double-dashed line shows the hole wall before correction of hole deviation. A Directed line shows the direction of the correction.When the tool is controlled to incline toward the direction of the directed line, a cutting edge set ahead of the guide pads overcuts the hole wall. When the guide pad on the opposite side comes to the position of the overcutting zone, the cutting edge leaves a noncutting zone on the hole wall Opposite the overcutting zone.As a result,tool shifts toward the direction of the directed line.In the case of double-edge counter-boring head, the cut- ting force acting on one cutting edge is balanced by the force that acts on the other cutting edge [7]. As a result, the head is easy to vibrate, and the mechanism of tool displace- ment does not function well.Form: Precision Engineering 24 (2000) 9–14 开发高性能的激光制导deep-holeboring工具：最佳测定参考来源精确指导摘要激光制导深孔钻具使用压电致动器是防止孔偏差。
机械专业毕设翻译(焊接机器人)
运用对象导向型和分布式软件协助工业机器人焊接焊接机器人J. NORBERTO PIRES, ALTINO LOUREIRO, T. GODINHOP. FERREIRA, B. FERNANDO, and J. MORGADO著机器人常被用于工业焊接作业中，但这一运用并非一个简化的工艺流程。
难点在于机器人仍处于早期设计阶段，难以被利用和编程；复杂的焊接过程并不为人所熟知；人工人机界面并没有真正发挥作用。
本文将对上述问题加以讨论，并会涉及到以双重目标而设计，既能很好地服务于焊接的研究与开发，又能协助工业伙伴焊接的系统。
该系统用两种判例案例在一定程度上详细解释并显示了工业中常见的两种情况：一是是用于复杂构造并需要强焊接的多层对焊，二是多圆角焊接，例如焊接建筑行业中的构件。
背景激烈的竞争和市场动态特性使得实际市场更适合中/小型批量制造。
在这种情况下，与手工生产和复杂的自动设置相比，机器人生产设置显现出了最佳“单位成本”性能(图1) [1]。
图-1因此，在不远的将来，强大而更灵活的机器将为了处理小型企业的需求应运而生。
这些小型企业需要更多的远程接口，强大的程序设计语言，电力控制，及为高级编程而设计的先进的编程接口等。
这意味着作为几十年的设计成果，用户可以灵活存储（并仅为使用）。
机器人让人如此感兴趣在于它是一个巧妙的科学装置，构造精良，采用永久动力源，从编程角度看又不乏灵活。
但这并不一定意味着开放源码，相反，它为硬件及软件的实用提供了强大的编程接口和实际标准，使其能够在无限制情况下进入系统。
这在研究环境中极为重要，在这里可以良好的利用资源，去贯彻和检验新想法。
若可行，系统集成商（甚至研究员）将不需开放源码软件，至少不需为了传统机器人领域（工业机器人和移动式遥控机器人）开放。
事实上，如果这些领域的机器人技术拥有数十年的工程成就，取得了好的成果并成为了可信赖的机器，开源也将难以实现，因为这些成果是不易匹配的。
现代包装机械设备毕业课程设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
1 英文文献翻译1.1 Modern PackagingAuthor：Abstract1. Changing Needs and New RolesLooking back, historical changes are understandable and obvious. That all of them have had an impact on the way products are brought, consumed and packaged is also obvious. What is not so obvious is what tomorrow will bring. Yet, it is to the needs, markets, and conditions of tomorrow that packaging professionals must always turn their attention.The forces that drove packaging during the Industry Revolution continue to operate today. The consumer society continues to grow and is possibly best described by a 1988s bumper sticker, “Born to Shop”. We consume goods today at a rate 4 to 5 times greater than we did as recently as 1935. Most of these goods are not essential to survival; they constitute what we may call “the good life”.In the second half of the 20th century， the proliferation of goods was so high that packaging was forced into an entirely new role, that of providing the motivation rather than presenting the goods itself. On a shelf of 10 competing products, all of them similar in performance and quality, the only method of differentiating became the package itself. Marketer aimed at lifestyles, emotional values, subliminal images, features, and advantages beyond the basic product rather than the competitor’s. In some in instances, the package has become the product, and occasionally packaging has become entertainment.A brand product to carry the product manufacturer or product sales of theretailer’s label, usually by the buyer as a quality assessment guidance. In some cases, competing brands of product quality is almost no difference, a difference is the sale of its packaging. An interesting visually attractive packaging can give a key marketing advantage and convince impulse spending. However, the packaging should accurately reflect the quality of products/brand value in order to avoid the disappointment of consumers, encourage repeat purchases and build brand loyalty. Ideally, the product should exceed customer expectations.2. Packaging and the Modern Industrial SocietyThe importance of packaging to a modern industrial society is most evident when we examine the food-packaging sector. Food is organic in nature, having an animal or plant source. One characteristic of such organic matter is that, by and large, it has a limited natural biological life.A cut of meat, left to itself, might be unfit for human consumption by the next day. Some animal protein products, such as seafood, can deteriorate within hours.The natural shelf life of plant-based food depends on the species and plant involved. Pulpy fruit portions tend to have a short life span, while seed parts, which in nature have to survive at least separated from the living plant are usually short-lived.In addition to having a limited natural shelf life, most food is geographically and season-ally specific. Thus, potatoes and apples are grown in a few North American geographical regions and harvest during a short maturation period. In a world without packaging，we would need to live at the point of harvest to enjoy these products, and our enjoyment of them would be restricted to the natural biological life span of each. It is by proper storage, packaging and transport techniques that we are able to deliver fresh potatoes and apples, or the products derived from them, throughout the year and throughout the country. Potato-whole,canned, powdered, flaked, chipped, frozen, and instant is available, anytime, anywhere. This ability gives a society great freedom and mobility. Unlike less-developed societies, we are no longer restricted in our choice of where to live, since we are no longer tied to the food-producing ability of an area. Food production becomes more specialized and efficient with the growth of packaging. Crops and animal husbandry are moved to where their production is most economical, without regard to the proximity of a market. Most important, we are free of the natural cycles of feast and famine that are typical of societies dependent on natural regional food-producing cycles.Central processing allows value recovery from what would normally be waste by products of the processed food industry from the basis of other sub-industries. Chicken feathers are high in protein and, properly mill and treated, can be fed back to the next generation of chickens. Vegetable waste is fed to cattle or pigs. Bagasse, the waste cane from sugar pressing, is a source of fiber for papermaking. Fish scales are refined to make additives for paints and nail polish.The economical manufacture of durable goods also depends on good packaging.A product's cost is directly related to production volume. The business drive to reduce costs in the supply chain must be carefully balanced against the fundamental technical requirements for food safety and product integrity, as well as the need to ensure an. efficient logistics service. In addition, there is a requirement to meet the aims of marketing to protect and project brand image through value-added pack design. The latter may involve design inputs that communicate distinctive, aesthetically pleasing, ergonomic, functional and/or environmentally aware attributes. But for a national or international bicycle producer to succeed, it must be a way of getting the product to a market, which may be half a world away. Again, sound packaging, in this case distributionpackaging, is a key part of the system.Some industries could not exist without an international market. For example, Canada is a manufacturer of irradiation equipment, but the Canadian market (which would account for perhaps one unit every several years) could not possibly support such a manufacturing capability. However, by selling to the world, a manufacturing facility becomes viable. In addition to needing packaging for the irradiation machinery and instrumentation, the sale of irradiation equipment requires the sale packaging and transport of radioactive isotopes, a separate challenge in itself. In response to changing consumer lifestyles, the large retail groups and the food service industry development. Their success has been involved in a competition fierce hybrid logistics, trade, marketing and customer service expertise, all of which is dependent on the quality of packaging. They have in part led to the expansion of the dramatic range of products offered, technology innovation, including those in the packaging. Supply retail, food processing and packaging industry will continue to expand its international operations. Sourcing products around the world more and more to assist in reducing trade barriers. The impact of the decline has been increased competition and price pressure. Increased competition led to the rationalization of industrial structure, often in the form of mergers and acquisitions. Packaging, it means that new materials and shapes, increased automation, packaging, size range extension of lower unit cost. Another manufacturer and mergers and acquisitions, the Group's brand of retail packaging and packaging design re-evaluation of the growing development of market segmentation and global food supply chain to promote the use of advanced logistics and packaging systems packaging logistics system is an integral part of, and played an important role in prevention in the food supply or reduce waste generation.3. World Packaging.This discussion has referred to primitive packaging and the evolution of packaging functions. However, humankind's global progress is such that virtually every stage in the development of society and packaging is present somewhere in the world today. Thus, a packager in a highly developed country will agonize over choice of package type, hire expensive marketing groups to develop images to entice the targeted buyer and spend lavishly on graphics. In less-developed countries, consumers are happy to have food, regardless of the package. At the extreme, consumers will bring their own packages or will consume food on the spot, just as they did 2000 years ago.Packagers from the more developed countries sometimes have difficulty working with less-developed nations, for the simple reason that they fail to understand that their respective packaging priorities are completely different. Similarly, developing nations trying to sell goods to North American markets cannot understand our preoccupation with package and graphics.The significant difference is that packaging plays a different role in a market where rice will sell solely because it is available. In the North American market, the consumer may be confronted by five different companies offering rice in 30 or so variations. If all the rice is good and none is inferior, how does a seller create a preference for his particular rice? How does he differentiate? The package plays a large role in this process.The package-intensive developed countries are sometimes criticized for over packaging, and certainly over-packaging does exist. However, North Americans also enjoy the world's cheapest food, requiring only about 11 to 14% of our disposable income. European food costs are about 20% of disposable income, and in the less-developed countries food can take 95%of family income.4. The status and development trend of domestic and international packaging machineryWorldwide, the history of the development of the packaging machinery industry is relatively short, science and technology developed in Europe and America in general started in the 20th century until the 1950s the pace greatly accelerated.From the early 20th century, before the end of World War II World War II，medicine，food, cigarettes，matches，household chemicals and other industrial sectors, the mechanization of the packaging operations; the 1950s, the packaging machine widely used common electric switches and tube for the main components of the control system to achieve the primary automation; 1960s, Electrical and optical liquid-gas technology is significantly increased in the packaging machine, machines to further expand on this basis a dedicated automated packaging line; the 1970s, the micro- electronic technology into the automation of packaging machines and packaging lines, computer control packing production process; from the 1980s to the early 1990s, in some field of packaging, computer, robot application for service, testing and management, in preparation for the over-flexible automatic packaging lines and "no" automatic packaging workshop.Actively promoted and strong co-ordination of all aspects of society, and gradually establish a packaging material, packaging, printing, packaging machinery and other production sectors, and corresponding to the research, design, education, academic, management and organization, and thus the formation of independent and complete. The packaging of light industrial system, and occupies an important place in the national economy as a whole.Based on recent years data that members of the World Packaging Alliance output value of the packaging industry accounts for about 2% of the total output value of the national economy; in which the proportion of packaging machinery, though not large, but the rapid development of an annual average of almost growing at a rate of about 10%. Put into use at the packaging machine is now more than thousand species of packaging joint machines and automated equipment has been stand-alone equate. According to the new technological revolution in the world development trend is expected to packaging materials and packaging process and packaging machinery will be closely related to obtain the breakthrough of a new step, and bring more sectors into the packaging industry.China Packaging Technology Association was established in 1980. Soon, the China National Packaging Corporation have been born. Since then, one after another in the country organized a national and international packaging machinery exhibition, seminars, also published I had the first ever "China Packaging Yearbook and other packaging technology books. All this indicates that China is creating a new packaging historical perio d.1.2中文翻译现代包装1、不断变化的需求和新的角色,回顾以往,包装所带来明显的历史性变化是可以理解的, 一个产品包装方式的给他们的销量带来的影响也是显而易见的。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译1
本科毕业设计（本科毕业论文）外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：High-rise Tower Crane designed文献、资料来源：期刊（著作、网络等）文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.3.25院（部）：机电工程学院专业：机电工程及自动化High-rise Tower Crane designed under Turbulent Winds At present, construction of tower cranes is an important transport operations lifting equipment, tower crane accident the people's livelihood, major hazards, and is currently a large number of tower crane drivers although there are job permits, due to the lack of means to monitor and review the actual work of a serious violation . Strengthen the inspection and assessment is very important. Tower crane tipping the cause of the accident can be divided into two aspects: on the one hand, as a result of the management of tower cranes in place, illegal operation, illegal overloading inclined cable-stayed suspended widespread phenomenon; Second, because of the tower crane safety can not be found in time For example,Took place in the tower crane foundation tilt, micro-cracks appear critical weld, bolts loosening the case of failure to make timely inspection, maintenance, resulting in the continued use of tower cranes in the process of further deterioration of the potential defect, eventually leading to the tower crane tipping. The current limit of tower crane and the black box and can not be found to connect slewing tower and high-strength bolts loosening tightened after the phenomenon is not timely, not tower verticality of the axis line of the lateral-line real-time measurement, do not have to fight the anti-rotation vehicles, lifting bodies plummeted Meng Fang, hook hoists inclined cable is a timely reminder and record of the function, the wind can not be contained in the state of suspended operation to prevent tipping on the necessary tips on site there is a general phenomenon of the overloaded overturning of the whole security risks can not be accurately given a reminder and so on, all of which the lease on the tower crane, use, management problems,Through the use of tower crane anti-tipping monitor to be resolved. Tower crane anti-tipping Monitor is a new high-tech security monitoring equipment, and its principle for the use of machine vision technology and image processing technology to achieve the measurement of the tilt tower, tower crane on the work of state or non-working state of a variety of reasons angle of the tower caused by the critical state to achieve the alarm, prompt drivers to stop illegal operation, a computer chip at the same time on the work of the state of tower crane be recorded. Tower crane at least 1 day overload condition occurs, a maximum number of days to reach 23 overloading, the driver to operate the process of playing the anti-car, stop hanging urgency, such as cable-stayed suspended oblique phenomenon often, after verification and education, to avoid the possible occurrence of fatal accidents. Wind conditions in the anti-tipping is particularly important, tower cranes sometimes connected with the pin hole and pin do not meet design requirements, to connect high-strength bolts are not loose in time after the tightening of the phenomenon, through timely maintenance in time after the tightening of the phenomenon, through timely maintenance and remedial measures to ensure that the safe and reliable construction progress. Reduced lateral line tower vertical axis measuring the number of degrees,Observation tower angle driver to go to work and organize the data once a month to ensure that the lateral body axis vertical line to meet the requirements, do not have to every time and professionals must be completed by Theodolite tower vertical axismeasuring the lateral line, simplified the management link. Data logging function to ensure that responsibility for the accident that the scientific nature to improve the management of data records for the tower crane tower crane life prediction and diagnosis of steel structures intact state data provides a basis for scientific management and proactive prevention of possible accidents, the most important thing is, if the joint use of the black box can be easily and realistically meet the current provisions of the country's related industries. Tower crane safety management at the scene of great importance occurred in the construction process should be to repair damaged steel, usually have to do a good job in the steel tower crane maintenance work and found that damage to steel structures, we must rule out potential causes of accidents, to ensure safety in production carried out smoothly. Tower crane in the building construction has become essential to the construction of mechanical equipment, tower crane at the construction site in the management of safety in production is extremely important. A long time, people in the maintenance of tower crane, only to drive attention to the conservation and electrical equipment at the expense of inspection and repair of steel structures, to bring all kinds of construction accidents.Conclusion: The tower crane anti-tipping trial monitor to eliminate potential causes of accidents to provide accurate and timely information, the tower crane to ensure the smooth development of the leasing business, the decision is correct, and should further strengthen and standardize the use of the environment (including new staff training and development of data processing system, etc.).The first construction cranes were probably invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of power would be uneconomic.Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes,used for constructing high buildings, and the largest floating cranes, used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships.This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane.The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two hundred years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than of fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15-20 tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane more preferable to the Greek polis than the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria.The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32-853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384-322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then.During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites and harbors.Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius' De architectura which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward.[25] This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval treadwheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.目前，塔式起重机是建筑工程进行起重运输作业的重要设备，塔机事故关系国计民生、危害重大，而目前众多的塔机司机虽然有上岗证，由于缺少监督和复核手段，实际工作中违规严重。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译--机械传动系统介绍
Transmission System introducedThe important position of the wheel gear and shaft can’t falter in traditional machine and modern machines. The wheel gear and shafts mainly install the direction that delivers the dint at the principal axis box. The passing to process to make them can is divided into many model numbers, used for many situations respectively. so we must be the multilayers to the understanding of the wheel gear and shaft in many ways.In the force analysis of spur gears, the forces are assumed to act in a single plane. We shall study gears in which the forces have three dimensions. The reason for this, in the case of helical gears, is that the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation. And in the case of bevel gears, the rotational axes are not parallel to each other. There are also other reasons, as we shall learn.Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. The helix angle is the same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix. The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid. If a piece of paper cut in the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix. If we unwind this paper, each point on the angular edge generates an involute curve. The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoids.The initial contact of spur-gear teeth is a line extending all the way across the face of the tooth. The initial contact of helical gear teeth is a point, which changes into a line as line as the teeth come into more engagement. In spur gears the line of contact is parallel to the axis of the rotation; in helical gears, the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth. It is this gradual of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another, which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high speeds. Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads. When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons, it may be desirable to use double helical gears. A double helical gear (herringbone) is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft. They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel out the thrust load. When two or more single helical gears are mounted on the same shaft, the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load.Crossed-helical, or spiral, gears are those in which the shaft centerlines are neither parallel nor interesting. The teeth of crossed-helical fears have point contact with each other which changes to line contact as the gears wear in. for this reason they will carry out very small loads and are mainly for instrumental applications, and are definitely not recommended for use in the transmission of power. There is on difference between a crossed helical gear and a helical gear until they are mounted in mesh with each other. They are manufactured in the same way. A pair of meshed crossed helical gears usually have the same hand; that is, a right-hand driver goes with a right-hand driven. In the design of crossed-helical gears, the minimum sliding velocity is obtained when the helix angle are equal. However, when the helix angle are not equal, the gear with the larger helix angle should be used as the driver if both gears have the same hand.Worm gears are similar to crossed helical gears. The pinion or worm has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they completely wrap around the pitch cylinder they are called threads. Its mating gear is called a worm gear, which is not a true helical gear. A worm and worm gear are used to provide a high angular-velocity reduction between nonintersecting shafts which are usually at right angle. The worm gear is not a helical gear because its face is made concave to fit the curvature of the worm in order to provide line contact instead of point contact. However, a disadvantage of worm gearing is the high sliding velocities across the teeth, the same as with crossed helical gears.Worm gearing are either single or double enveloping. A single-enveloping gearing is one in which the gear wraps around or partially encloses the worm. A gearing in which each element partially encloses the other is, of course, a double-enveloping worm gearing. The important difference between the two is that area contact exists between the teeth of double-enveloping gears while only line contact between those of single-enveloping gears. The worm and worm gear of a set have the same hand of helix as for crossed helical gears, but the helix angles are usually quite different. The helix angle on the worm is generally quite large, and that on the gear very small. Because of this, it is usual to specify the lead angle on the worm, which is the complement of the worm helix angle, and the helix angle on the gear; the two angles ate equal for a 90-deg. Shaft angle.When gears are to be used to transmit motion between intersecting shaft, some ofbevel gear is required. Although bevel gear are usually made for a shaft angle of 90 deg. They may be produced for almost any shaft angle. The teeth may be cast, milled, or generated. Only the generated teeth may be classed as accurate. In a typical bevel gear mounting, one of the gear is often mounted outboard of the bearing this means that shaft deflection can be more pronounced and have a greater effect in the contact of teeth. Another difficulty, which occurs in predicting the stress in bevel-gear teeth, is the fact the teeth are tapered.Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively. As in the case of squrgears, however, they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity. In these cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear, which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear. As in the case of helical gears, spiral bevel gears give a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears, and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.It is frequently desirable, as in the case of automotive differential applications, to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset Such gears are called hypoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and has much in common with that of worm gears.A shaft is a rotating or stationary member usually of circular cross section, having mounted upon it such elementsas gears pulleys flywheels, cranks sprockets and other power-transmission elements Shaft may be subjected to bending tension compression or torsional loads acting singly or in combination with one another .When they are combined one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations since a single shaft may be subjected to static stresses completely reversed, and repeated stresses, all acting at the same timeThe word “shaft” covers numerous wariations, such as axles and spindles. Anaxle is a shaft, wither stationary or rotating nor subjected to torsion load. Ashirt rotating shaft is often called a spindle.When either the lateral or the tosional deflection of shaft must be held to close limits, the shaft must be sized on the basis of deflection before analyzing the stresses The reasonfor this is that if the shift is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large, it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe. But by no means should the designer assume that they are within acceptable limits. Whenever possible the power-transmission elements such as gears or pullets, should be located close to the supporting bearings. This reduces the bending moment, and hence the deflection and bending stress.Although the von Mises-Hencky-Goodman method is difficult to use in design of shaft, it probably come closest to predicting actual failure. Thus it is a good way of checking a shaft that has already been designed or of discovering why a particular shaft that has already been designed or of discovering why a particular shaft has failed in service. Furthermore, there are a considerable number of shaft-design problems in which the dimension are pretty well limited by other considerations, such as rigidity, and it is only necessary for the designer to discover something about the fillet sizes, heat-treatment, and surface finish and whether or not shot peening is necessary in order to achieve the required life and reliability.Because of the similarity of their functions, clutches and brakes are treated together. In a simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch, or brake, two inertias I1and I2 traveling at the respective angular velocities W1 and W2, one of which may be zero in the case of brake, are to be brought to the same speed by engaging the clutch or brake. Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise. In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in the actuating force, the torque transmitted, the energy loss and the temperature rise. The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the geometry of the clutch or brake. This is problem in static, which will have to be studied separately for each geometric configuration. However, temperature rise is related to energy loss and can be studied without regard to the type of brake or clutch because the geometry of interest is the hear-dissipating surfaces. The various types of clutches and brakes may be classified as fallows:Rim type with internally expanding shoesRim type with internally contracting shoesBand typeDisk or axial typeCone typeMiscellaneous typeThe analysis of all type of friction clutches and brakes use the same general procedure. The following step are necessary:1. Assume or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictionalsurfaces.2. Find a relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point3. apply the condition of statical equilibrium to find (a) the actuating force, (b) the torque, and (c) the support reactions.Miscellaneous clutches include several type, such as the positive-contact clutches, overload-release clutches, overrunning clutches, magnetic fluid clutches, and others.A positive-contact clutch consists of a shift lever and two jaws. The greatest differences between the various types of positive clutches are concerned with the design of the jaws. To provide a longer period of time for shift action during engagement, the jaws may be ratchet-shaped, or gear-tooth-shaped. Sometimes a great many teeth or jaws re used, and they may be cut either circumferentially, so that they engage by cylindrical mating, or on the faces of the mating elements.Although positive clutches are not used to the extent the frictional-contact type, they do have important applications where synchronous operation is required.Devices such as linear driver or motor-operated screw drivers must run to definite limit and then come to a stop. An over load-release rype of clutch is required for these applications. These clutches are usually spring-loaded so as to release at a predetermined toque. The clicking sound which is heard when the overload point is reached is considered to be a desirable signal.An overrunning clutch or coupling permits the driven member of a machine to “freewheel” or “overrun” because the driver is stopped or because another source of power increase the speed of the driven. This type of clutch usually uses rollers or balls mounted between an outer sleeve and an inner member having flats machined around the periphery. Driving action is obtained by wedding the rollers between the sleeve and the flats. The clutch is therefore equivalent to a pawl and ratchet with an infinite number of teeth.Magnetic fluid clutch or brake is a relatively new development which has two parallel magnetic plates. Between these plates is a lubricated magnetic powder mixture. An electromagnetic coil is inserted somewhere in the magnetic circuit. Bu varying the excitation to this coil, the shearing strength of the magnetic fluid mixture may be accurately controlled. Thus any condition from a full slip to a frozen lockup may be obtained.机械传动系统介绍在传统机械和现代机械中齿轮和轴的重要地位是不可动摇的。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】
南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译系：机械系专业：车辆工程专业姓名:宋磊春学号:070102234外文出处：EDU_E_CAT_VBA_FF_V5R9(用外文写)附件：1。
外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文.附件1：外文资料翻译译文CATIA V5 的自动化CATIA V5的自动化和脚本：在NT 和Unix上：脚本允许你用宏指令以非常简单的方式计划CATIA。
CATIA 使用在MS –VBScript中(V5.x中在NT和UNIX3。
0 )的共用部分来使得在两个平台上运行相同的宏。
在NT 平台上：自动化允许CATIA像Word/Excel或者Visual Basic程序那样与其他外用分享目标。
ATIA 能使用Word/Excel对象就像Word/Excel能使用CATIA 对象。
在Unix 平台上:CATIA将来的版本将允许从Java分享它的对象。
这将提供在Unix 和NT 之间的一个完美兼容。
CATIA V5 自动化：介绍（仅限NT）自动化允许在几个进程之间的联系:CATIA V5 在NT 上：接口COM：Visual Basic 脚本(对宏来说)，Visual Basic 为应用（适合前:Word/Excel )，Visual Basic。
COM（零部件目标模型)是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象。
Automation 是一种“微软“技术,它使用一种解释环境中的COM对象。
ActiveX 组成部分是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象,即使在解释环境里。
OLE（对象的链接与嵌入）意思是资料可以在一个其他应用OLE的资料里连结并且可以被编辑的方法(在适当的位置编辑）.在VBScript,VBA和Visual Basic之间的差别：Visual Basic(VB）是全部的版本。
它能产生独立的计划,它也能建立ActiveX 和服务器。
它可以被编辑。
VB中提供了一个补充文件名为“在线丛书“(VB的5。
机械毕业设计中英翻译
英语原文：CAD/CAM is the technical expression, indicates the computer-aided design and the computer aided manufacturing.This is one item in the design and the production, carries out certain function technology about the use computer data.This technology is completing the design and the production direction to the place develops.In these two traditions was considered is in the production process out of the ordinary, independent function.In brief, CAD/CAM will be able to provide the technology base for the future complete computer production.Looked from the computer science angle that, the design and the manufacture process is one has, processing, the exchange and the management process about the product information.The people use the computer to take the main technical method, from forms in one's mind to the product to put in the market in the entire process information to carry on the analysis and processing, produces and utilizes each kind of numerical information and the graph information, carries on the product the design and the manufacture.The CAD/CAM technology is not the traditional design, the manufacture flow method simple reflection, also is not limits in the partial use computer takes the tool in the individual step or the link, but is unifies the computer science and the project domain specialized technology as well as human's wisdom and the experience take the modern scientific method as the instruction, in the design, in the manufacture entire process each completely manager, as far as possible use computer system completes the work which these duplication high, the labor big, the computation complex as well as depends on purely artificially completes with difficulty, but assists must replaces the engineers and technicians to complete the entire process, obtains the desired effec The CAD/CAM system as well as plans the hardware, the software for supports the environment, (subsystem) realizes through each function module to the product description, the computation, the analysis, optimized, the cartography, the technological process design, the simulation as well as the NC processing.But the generalized CAD/CAM integrative system also should include aspects and so on production plan, management, quality control.Since 1946 first electronic accounting machine has been born in US, people on unceasing computer technology Introduces the machine design? Manufacture domain.As early as in the 50's, for the first time develops successfully the numerical control engine bed, may realize through the different numerical control procedure to the different components processing Afterwards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology's servo laboratory succeeds with the computer manufacture numerical control paper tape, has realized the NC programming automation.In this foundation, the people proposed the following tentative plan: The APT software is feeds the path method realization computer assistance programming through the description, that, can not describe feeds the path, but is direct description components itself? From this has had the CAD initial concept.The entire 50's, the electronic accounting machine also is in the electron tube time, uses the machine language programming, the computer mainly uses in thescience computation, also only has the output function for it disposition graph equipment.CADCAM system basic compositionCAD/CAM system hardware dispositionCAD/CAM system software compositionCAD/CAM system software dispositionComputer aided manufacturing (CAM) may define for uses the computer system to design, to manage and controls a productive plan the movement, through direct or indirect planned production resources computer contact surface.If defines states, the computer aided manufacturing application has 2 big aspects:1) computer supervisory control.This is the direct application, the computer with the production process connection, uses in supervising directly and the control production process2) produces the support application.This is the indirect application, middle the productive plan, the computer uses in supporting the production operation, but is not the computer and the production process links directly.Charting productive forces increaseThe CAD/CAM system may undertake the one whole set new charting theory to be able to strengthen the productivity.Again completes next step, keeps firmly in mind the entire design to be possible to store up the system.When the planner receives one with has saved the blueprint specification similar work piece, he only must recollect, and adjusts it the work storage place, revises in the original blueprint not to conform to a new work piece request part, productivity enhances.The original work piece efficiency enhances, but this can enhance the next step working efficiency.This is a complete at times renewal database support, can facilitate the user to use Improve mapping analysisThe charting analysis is another important work, it can by certain synthesize the CAD/CAM system automatic operation.This in pipeline design, in particular an important application.The pipeline design paper very is usually complex moreover must conform to the precise industry specification.The other giftedCAD/CAM also can affect a company in other aspects the project system.It can enhance the entire physical process the efficiency, the permission present project plan and the report procedure appraisal.CAD/CAM can improve improves the quality of the product the guarantee technology.It can automatic accurate and the integrity document material, the maintenance partial data accurate and bill of materials accurate.DeficiencyCAD/CAM insufficient spot not that obvious, but they can destroy even the most perfect design, the biggest shortcoming is only can directly skips from the manual charting and the recordpreservation to CAD/CAM, the elephant installs a set of jet engine in the populace automobile.The automobile possibly can run quick somewhat, but if the foundation enhancement has not coordinated the heavy pressure, the entire automobile can disperse the frame.CAD/CAM applicationSKETCHPAD, the CAD/CAM technology has passed through very long chi.It is already applied in the middle of each widespread industry.It uses in each aspect, controls from the airplane to the weapon research, manufactures from the map to the movement medical service, from circuit analysis to building steel analysis.CAD/CAM is being applied in each kind of charting and the production, installs the schematic diagram from the movie to the large-scale long-distance monitoring direct set battleship, its application to is developing variously.Now CAD/CAM market.Now in the market has four kind of different CAD/CAM sellers.First is some subordinate companies sells comes from a big enterprise part or the branch CAD/CAM technology.The IBM CAD/CAM branch is an example.If belongs to Mc-Donnell-Douglas McAuto; Belongs to General Electric Lalma, with belongs to Schlumberger Applican, if the multi-large number CAD/CAM subordinate company the main corporation has the massive service intercourse, not only sale supervisory system moreover when one's position is lowly one's words carry no weight service office.When they control the massive accounts also with provides the service, these companies on in optimum condition, because they may extract the massive profits.But they must undertake the complex administrative chain of command, this obstructs in them makes the fast response to the market tendency, or their itself studies and outside the development department, the merge improves on again their new production line the new technical developmentCAD/CAM technology and the product development road of futureAfter many year promotions, the CAD technology already widely applied in professions and so on machinery, electron, astronautics, chemical industry, building.Played using the CAD technology enhanced the enterprise the rated capacity, the optimization design proposal, reduces technical personnel's labor intensity, reduction design cycle, beefed-up design roles and so on standardization.In recent years, our country CAD technology development and the application have obtained the considerable development, besides has carried on sinicizing and the re-development to many overseas softwares, but also was born many had the independent copyright CAD system, If high Chinese CAD, opens item CAD and so on, because these software price is cheap, conforms to our country national condition and the standard, therefore has received widespread welcome, has won the more and more big market share. But, our country CAD/CAM software no matter is from the product development level from the commercialization, the marketability degree all has not the small disparity with the developed country.Because the overseas CAD/CAM software appears early, the development and the application time is also long,therefore they develop quite maturely, now basically already has seized the international market.These overseas software company uses its technical and the fund superiority, starts vigorously to our country market march At present, the overseas some outstanding softwares, like UG, SolidWorks, Pro/Engineer, CATIA and so on, already have seized part of domestic markets.Therefore, our country CAD/CAM software prospect is unoptimistic.But, we also should see clearly own superiority, for instance understood our country market, provides the technical support to be convenient, price small advantage and so on.Not only under these premises, we importantly with the trend of the times, the track international newest tendency, observe each international standard, in international domestic forms the oneself unique superiority, must base the home, the union national condition, face the domestic economic development need，develops has oneself characteristic, conforms to CAD/CAM software which the Chinese is familiar with.。
机械加工专业毕业设计外文翻译
附录ToolPurposeUpon completion of this unit, students will be able to:* Rough and explain the difference between finishing.* Choose the appropriate tool for roughing or finishing of special materials and processing.* Recognition Tool Cutting part of the standard elements and perspective.* The right to protect the cutter blade.* List of three most widely used tool material.* Description of each of the most widely used knives made of the material and its processing of Applications.* Space and inclination to understand the definition.* Grinding different tools, plus the principle of space and inclination.* To identify different forms of space and the inclination to choose the application of each form.The main points of knowledge:Rough-finished alloy steel casting materialScattered surplus carbide ceramic materials (junction of the oxide) ToolWith a chip breaking the surface roughness of the D-cutter knives diamondsAfter Kok flank behind the standard point of (former) angle off-chipSide front-side appearance and the outline of the former Kok (I. Kok)Grinding carbon tool steel front-fast finishing horn of rigid steelDouble or multiple-side flank before the dip angle oblique angleSurface-radius Slice root for curlingRough and finishing toolCutting speed only in the surface roughness not required when it is not important. Rough the most important thing is to remove the excess material scattered. Only in surface roughness of the finishing time is important. Unlike rough, finishing the slow processing speed. Chip off with the D-knives, better than the standard point of knives, in Figure 9-10 A, is designed for cutting depth and design, for example, a 5 / 16-inch box cutter blade of the maximum depth of cut 5 / 16 inches, and an 8 mm square block will be cutting knives Corner to 8 mm deep, this tool will be very fast Corner block removal of surplus metal. Slice merits of the deal with that, in a small blade was close thinning. This tool is also a very good finishing tool. But please do not confuse the thin band Tool and Tool-off crumbs. A chip-off is actually counter-productive tool to cut off the chip flakes.And the standard tool of the Corner, compared with chip breaking tool for the Corner is in its on and get grooving, Figure 9-10 B. This tool generally used to block the Corner of rough finishing. While this tool Corner blocks have sufficient strength to carry out deep cut, but the longer the chip will cut off the plane around after shedding a lot of accumulation. Chip is so because the tangles and sharp, and theoperator is a dangerous, so this is a chip from the need to address the problem. Double, or triple the speed of the feed will help to resolve, but this will require greater horsepower and still easily chip very long. Because of the slow processing, however, this action will be a good tool but also because of the small root radius of the processing will be a smooth surface. Especially when processing grey cast iron especially.Cutting Tools appearanceAppearance, sometimes called the contour of the floor plan is where you see the vision or the top down or look at the surface. Figure 9-11 illustrate some of the most common form, those who could be on the cutting tools and grinding out successfully be used. National Standards in its thread-cutting tool on a tiny plane can be as GB thread, the Anglo-American unity and international standards screw threads. A special tool to outline the thread of the plane is to be ground into the correct size.Tools Corner fixedCorner to a number of knives around the 15 degree angle while the other knives and cutting of the straight. When the mill in Figure 9-12 A and 9-12 B, for example by the space and the inclination, these must factor into consideration in the review. Figure 9-12 B Tool Corner block the angle is zero, compared with 9-12 A map is a heavier cutting tools, and the 9-12 A map will take more heat. The same amount of space in front of the two cases are the same.Tool Corner block component and the angleFigure 9-13 Tool Corner block an integral part of the name, and plans 9-14 point of the name, is the machinery industry standards.Grinding Wheel Tool Corner BlockWhen the cutter is fixed in the middle of Dao, Tool Corner block can not be the grinding. Can not do so for the reasons: because of the large number of Dao and extra weight, making Corner together with the grinding is a clumsy and inefficient way. Too much pressure could be added to round on the sand. This can cause the wheel Benglie wheel or because of overheating and the rift on the Corner Tool damage. There are grinding to the possibility of Dao.GrindingA craftsman in his toolbox, should always be a small pocket lining grinding tool. Alumina lining a grinding tool as carbon tool steel and high speed steel tool tool. The silicon carbide lining grinding tool grinding carbide cutting tools. Cutting Tools should always maintain smooth and sharp edge, so that the life expectancy of long knives and processing the surface smooth.Cutting tool materialsCarbon tool steel cutter Corner block usually contains 1.3 percent to 0.9 percent of carbon. These make use of the cutting tool in their tempering temperature higher than about 400 degrees Fahrenheit (205 degrees Celsius) to 500 degrees Fahrenheit (260 degrees Celsius) remained hardness, depending on the content of carbon. These temperature higher than that of carbon tool steel cutter will be changed soft, and it will be the cutting edge. Damaged. Grinding blades or cutting speed faster when using carbon tool steel cutter will be made of the blue, this will be in the imagination. Toolwill be re-hardening and tempering again. So in a modern processing almost no carbon as a tool steel blade.Low-alloy steel cutting tool in the carbon steel tools added tungsten, cobalt, vanadium alloying elements such as the consequences. These elements and the hardness of high-carbon carbide. Increased tool wear resistance. Alloy tool steel that is to say there will be no hard and fast with hot red when the knife's edge can still continue to use it. Low-alloy steel cutting tool is relatively small for a modern processing.High-speed steel with tungsten of 14 percent to 22 percent, or Containing 1.5% to 6% of the W-Mo (molybdenum which accounted for 6 percent to 91 percent). From high-speed steel tool made of a rigid heat, some high-speed steel also contains cobalt, which is formed of rigid factor. Cobalt containing high-speed steel tool can maintain hardness, more than 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit (or 540 degrees Celsius) blade will become soft and easily damaged. After cooling, the tool will harden. When grinding, you must be careful because of overheating and cold at first, so that profile Benglie Zhucheng a variety of metal alloy materials have a special name called Carbide, such as containing tungsten carbide cobalt chrome. In little or iron carbide. However, its high-speed steel cutting speed than the maximum cutting speed is higher 25 percent to 80 percent. Carbide Tool General for cutting force and the intermittent cutting processing, such as processing Chilled Iron.The past, Carbide Tool is mainly used for processing iron, but now carburizing tool for processing all the metal.Carbide Tool into the body than to the high-speed steel tool or casting - lighter alloy cutting tools, because tend to be used as a tool carbide cutting tools. Pure tungsten, carbon carburizing agent or as a dipping formation of the tungsten carbide, suitable for the cast iron, aluminum, non-iron alloy, plastic material and fiber of the machining. Add tantalum, titanium, molybdenum led to the carbon steel The hardness of higher tool, this tool suitable for processing all types of steel. In manufacturing, or tungsten steel alloy containing two or more of a bonding agent and the mixture is hard carbon steel tool, is now generally containing cobalt, cobalt was inquiry into powder and thoroughly mixed, under pressure Formation of Carbide.These cutting tools in the temperature is higher than 1,660 degrees F (870 degrees C) can also be efficiently used. Carbide Tool hardware than high-speed steel tool, used as a tool for better wear resistance. Carbide Tool in a high-speed Gangdao nearly three times the maximum cutting speed of the cutting rate cutting.Made from diamonds to the cutting tool on the surface finish and dimensional accuracy of the high demand and carbide cutting tools can be competitive, but these tools processing the material was more difficult, and difficult to control. Metal, hard rubber and plastic substances can be effective tool together with diamonds and annoyance to the final processing.Ceramic tool (or mixed oxide) is mixed oxide. With 0-30 grade alumina mixture to do, for example, contains about 89 percent to 90 percent of alumina and 10 percent to 11 percent of titanium dioxide. Other ceramic tool is used with the tiny amount of the second oxides Mixed together the cause of pure alumina.Ceramic tools in more than 2,000 degrees F (1095 degrees C) temperature of the work is to maintain strength and hardness. Cutting rates than high-carbon steel knives to 50 percent or even hundreds of percentage. In addition to diamonds and titanium carbide, ceramic tool in the industry is now all the materials of the most hard cutting tool, especially at high temperatures.Tao structure easily broken in a specific situation, broken only carbon intensity of the half to two-thirds. Therefore, in cut, according to the proportion of cutting and milling would normally not be recommended. Ceramics cutting machine breakdown of failure is not usually wear failure, as compared with other materials, their lack of ductility and lower tensile strength.In short, the most widely used by the cutting tool material is cut high-speed steel, low alloy materials and carbide.Gap and dipSpace and inclination of the principle is the most easily to the truck bed lathe tool bladed knives to illustrate. Shape, size of the gap, and dip the type and size will change because of machining. Similarly a grinding tool Corner block is just like brushing your teeth.Gap tool to stop the edge of friction with the workpiece. If there is no gap in Figure 9-15A in the small blades, knives and the side will wear will not be cutting. If there are gaps in Figure 9-15 B, will be a cutting tool. This basic fact apply to any type of tool.Clearance was cutting the size depends on material and the cutting of the material deformation. For example, aluminum is soft and easy to slightly deformed or uplift, when the cutter Corner into space within the perspective and the perspective of the space under, the equivalent in steel mill and will very quickly broken. Table 9-1 (No. 340) that different materials grinding space and perspective.The correct amount of space will be properly protected edge. Too much space will cause the blade vibration (fibrillation), and may edge of total collapse. Tool Corner for the slab block must have a backlash, behind (in front) gap, knife and cut-corner. The main cutting edge is almost as all the cutting work at the cutting edge of the cutting tool on the edge, on the left or right-lateral knives, or cutting tool in the end, cut off on a cutter.Backlash angle for example, the role of a lathe tool Corner to the left block when it mobile. If there is no backlash Kok, Fig 9-16 A, with the only tool will be part of friction rather than cutting. If a suitable backlash Kok, Fig 9-16 B, will be cutting edge and will be well supported. If I have too many gaps, Fig 9-16 C, the edge will not support leading tool vibration (fibrillation) and may be completely broken.Tool gap to the front or rear of the role when it fixed to zero, as shown in Figure 9-17. If not in front of the Gap. Figure 9-17 A, the tool will not only friction and cutting. If a suitable space in front, Fig 9-17 B, but also a good tool will be cutting edge will be well supported. If a big gap in front of Ms, Fig 9-17 C, the tool will lack support, will have a vibrate, and cutting edge may be pressure ulcer.Figure 9-18 illustrate the gap in front of a lathe tool, when it with a 15 degree angle when fixed. The same amount of space on the front fixed to zero, and around thecutter, but the tool is the relatively thin. So the heat away from the blade less. Typically, front-side or front-not too big in Figure 9-19. It is usually from zero degrees to 20 degrees change, an average of about 15 degrees. There are clear advantages, according to the following: good cutting angle so that the cutting edge of the work was well, but relatively thin chips. Cutting Tools is the weakest part. By the former angle, the blade In the form of points around the workpiece. Cutting Edge shock will cause the entire tool vibration. When cutting the work nearly completed, the final section of metal was to ring, packing iron sheet or tangles in the form of the metal ball away gradually replaced by direct removal. Pressure tends to stay away from the workpiece cutting tool rather than narrow the gap between its parts. 9-19 A in the plan was an example of the use of a 30-degree lateral Cutting Angle tool processing thin slice example. A mathematical proof of the plan 9-19 B in the right-angle triangle trip is to expand the use of a map 9-19 A right triangle in the same way, that is, in the direction of upward mobility to feed a 0.010 inch. Right triangle adjacent to the edge (b) and feed 0.010 feet equivalent.The following formula using triangulation to explain:Kok cosine A = right-angle-B / C XiebianOr cosine of 30 degrees = b / c0.886 = b/0.010b = 0.866 * 0.010b = 0.00866 (bladed too thin)When the mobile tool, the purpose of front-to be processed to eliminate from the surface of the cut-cutting tools. This angle is usually from 8 degrees to 15 degrees, but in exceptional circumstances it as much as 20 degrees to 30 degrees. If there is no gap in Figure 9-20 A, cutting tools will be tied up, sharp beep, and the rivets may be the first to die away. The appropriate space, in Figure 9-20 B, cutting tool will be cutting well.A manufacturing plant or cut off the fast-cutter blade with three space, in a root-surface or surface and the other in bilateral level, in Figure 9-21. If a tool Corner block from the date of the face, It can have up to five space, in Figure 9-22. Grooving tool sometimes known as area reduction tool used to cut a groove in the shallow end of the thread.Inclination is the top tool inclination or, in the Tool Corner block on the surface. Changes depending on the angle of the cutting material. Improvement of the cutting angle, the blade shape, and guidelines from the chip from the edge of the direction. Chip dip under the direction named. For example, if a chip from the edge cutter outflow, it is called anterior horn. If the chip to the back of the outflow, that is, to the Dao, which is known as the horn. Some mechanical error and the staff horn as a front-or knife corner.Single tool like Tool Corner block may be the only edge of the blade side oblique angle, or in the back, only to end on the edge of the horn, or they may have roots in the face or front surface of the main Cutting edge of the blade and cutting edge of the horn and a roll angle of the portfolio. In the latter case, cut off most of the surface with a cutter and a chip to the point of view in the tool horn and roll angle in bothdirections has been moved out.Two different roll angle in Figure 9-23 A and 9-23 B was an example. Angle depends on the size and type of material was processed.9-24 A map in Figure 9-24 B and gives examples of zero to a fixed cutter after the two different angle. In Figure 9-25 B and 9-25 A Tool to the regular 15-degree angle. Figure 9-26 tool to display a 15 degree angle fixed, but in this case a tool to roll angle after angle and the combination of form close to the workpiece. Double or multiple chips to lead the inclination angle of a mobile or two away from the edge of the back and side to stay away from the cutter.Comparison of various horn, shown in Figure 9-27, Corner of the horn of a negative point of view, and zero is the point of view. These dip in the Corner cutter on the manifestation of a decision in the hands of the processing needs of the pieces. After Kok was the size of the type of materials processing, and knives in Dao fixed on the way.The type of lateral oblique angleFigure 9-28 examples of tools Corner blocks and four different types of lateral oblique angle of the cross-sectional. Figure 9-28 A, is zero lateral oblique angle, like some of the brass materials, some bronze and some brittle plastic material is particularly necessary. Standard side oblique angle, in Figure 9-28 B, is the most common one of the bevel side. In the ductile material on the deep cut, easy to chip in the tool around the accumulation of many, and this will cause danger to the operator. The chip will become a deal with the problem. Such a tool to cut off the grey cast iron is the most appropriate.Chip laps volumes, Figure 9-28 C, is one of the best types of inclination, especially in the ductile material on the special deep cutting. Chip small crimp in close formation against the Dao of bladed knives against the will of the rupture. The chip rolled up to maintain a narrow trough of the chip will guarantee that the width of closely Lane V ol. The chip is very easy to handle. V olume circle with a chip is not a cut-chip.Chip cut off, in Figure 9-28 D, leading to chip in the corner was cut off, and then to small chips fell after the chip. The need to cut off a chip provides up to 25 percent of the force. This inclination of the stickiness of the steel is good.Gap KokWhen cutting any material time, the gap should always be the smallest size, but the gap should never angle than the required minimum angle small space. The gap is too small knives Kok will lead to friction with the workpiece. Choice of space at the corner to observe the following points:1. When processing hardness, stickiness of the material, the use of high-speed steel tool cutting angle should be in the space of 6 to 8 degrees, and the use of carbon tool steel cutter at the corner of the gap in size should be 5 degrees to 7 degrees.2. When the processing of carbon steel, low carbon steel, cast iron when the gap angle should be the size of high-speed steel tool 8 degrees to 12 degrees, and carbon tool steel cutter 5 degrees to 10 degrees.3. Scalability when processing materials such as copper, brass, bronze, aluminum,iron, etc. Zhanxing materials, space Kok should be the size of high-speed steel tool 12 degrees to 16 degrees, carbon steel knives 8 degrees to 14 , Mainly because of the plastic deformation of these metals. This means that, when the cutter and around them, the soft metal to some minor deformation or protruding, and this tool will be friction. At this time, we must have a tool on the additional space.刀具目的在完成这一个单元之后，学生将会能够:* 解释粗加工和精加工之间的差别。
机械设计外文翻译(中英文)
Machine design theoryThe machine design is through designs the new product or improves the old product to meet the human need the application technical science. It involves the project technology each domain, mainly studies the product the size, the shape and the detailed structure basic idea, but also must study the product the personnel which in aspect the and so on manufacture, sale and use question.Carries on each kind of machine design work to be usually called designs the personnel or machine design engineer. The machine design is a creative work. Project engineer not only must have the creativity in the work, but also must in aspect and so on mechanical drawing, kinematics, engineerig material, materials mechanics and machine manufacture technology has the deep elementary knowledge.If front sues, the machine design goal is the production can meet the human need the product. The invention, the discovery and technical knowledge itself certainly not necessarily can bring the advantage to the humanity, only has when they are applied can produce on the product the benefit. Thus, should realize to carries on before the design in a specific product, must first determine whether the people do need this kind of productMust regard as the machine design is the machine design personnel carries on using creative ability the product design, the system analysis and a formulation product manufacture technology good opportunity. Grasps the project elementary knowledge to have to memorize some data and the formula is more important than. The merely service data and the formula is insufficient to the completely decision which makes in a good design needs. On the other hand, should be earnest precisely carries on all operations. For example, even if places wrong a decimal point position, also can cause the correct design to turn wrongly.A good design personnel should dare to propose the new idea, moreover is willing to undertake the certain risk, when the new method is not suitable, use original method. Therefore, designs the personnel to have to have to have the patience, because spendsthe time and the endeavor certainly cannot guarantee brings successfully. A brand-new design, the request screen abandons obsoletely many, knows very well the method for the people. Because many person of conservativeness, does this certainly is not an easy matter. A mechanical designer should unceasingly explore the improvement existing product the method, should earnestly choose originally, the process confirmation principle of design in this process, with has not unified it after the confirmation new idea.Newly designs itself can have the question occurrence which many flaws and has not been able to expect, only has after these flaws and the question are solved, can manifest new goods come into the market the product superiority. Therefore, a performance superior product is born at the same time, also is following a higher risk. Should emphasize, if designs itself does not request to use the brand-new method, is not unnecessary merely for the goal which transform to use the new method.In the design preliminary stage, should allow to design the personnel fully to display the creativity, not each kind of restraint. Even if has had many impractical ideas, also can in the design early time, namely in front of the plan blueprint is corrected. Only then, only then does not send to stops up the innovation the mentality. Usually, must propose several sets of design proposals, then perform the comparison. Has the possibility very much in the plan which finally designated, has used certain not in plan some ideas which accepts.How does the psychologist frequently discuss causes the machine which the people adapts them to operate. Designs personnel''s basic responsibility is diligently causes the machine to adapt the people. This certainly is not an easy work, because certainly does not have to all people to say in fact all is the most superior operating area and the operating process.Another important question, project engineer must be able to carry on the exchange and the consultation with other concerned personnel. In the initial stage, designs the personnel to have to carry on the exchange and the consultation on the preliminary design with the administrative personnel, and is approved. This generally is through the oral discussion, the schematic diagram and the writing material carries on. In order to carry on the effective exchange, needs to solve the following problem:(1) designs whether this product truly does need for the people? Whether there is competitive ability(2) does this product compare with other companies'' existing similar products?(3) produces this kind of product is whether economical?(4) product service is whether convenient?(5) product whether there is sale? Whether may gain?Only has the time to be able to produce the correct answer to above question. But, the product design, the manufacture and the sale only can in carry on to the above question preliminary affirmation answer foundation in. Project engineer also should through the detail drawing and the assembly drawing, carries on the consultation together with the branch of manufacture to the finally design proposal.Usually, can have some problem in the manufacture process. Possibly can request to some components size or the common difference makes some changes, causes the components the production to change easily. But, in the project change must have to pass through designs the personnel to authorize, guaranteed cannot damage the product the function. Sometimes, when in front of product assembly or in the packing foreign shipment experiment only then discovers in the design some kind of flaw. These instances exactly showed the design is a dynamic process. Always has a better method to complete the design work, designs the personnel to be supposed unceasingly diligently, seeks these better method.Recent year, the engineerig material choice already appeared importantly. In addition, the choice process should be to the material continuously the unceasing again appraisal process. The new material unceasingly appears, but some original materials can obtain the quantity possibly can reduce. The environmental pollution, material recycling aspect and so on use, worker''s health and security frequently can attach the new limiting condition to the choice of material. In order to reduce the weight or saves the energy, possibly can request the use different material. Comes from domestic and international competition, to product service maintenance convenience request enhancement and customer''s aspect the and so on feedback pressure, can urge the people to carry on to the material reappraises. Because the material does not select when created the product responsibility lawsuit, has already had the profoundinfluence. In addition, the material and between the material processing interdependence is already known by the people clearly. Therefore, in order to can and guarantees the quality in the reasonable cost under the premise to obtain satisfaction the result, project engineer makes engineers all to have earnestly carefully to choose, the determination and the use material.Makes any product the first step of work all is designs. Designs usually may divide into several explicit stages: (a) preliminary design; (b) functional design; (c) production design. In the preliminary design stage, the designer emphatically considered the product should have function. Usually must conceive and consider several plans, then decided this kind of thought is whether feasible; If is feasible, then should makes the further improvement to or several plans. In this stage, the question which only must consider about the choice of material is: Whether has the performance to conform to the request material to be possible to supply the choice; If no, whether has a bigger assurance all permits in the cost and the time in the limit develops one kind of new material.In the functional design and the engineering design stage, needs to make a practical feasible design. Must draw up the quite complete blueprint in this stage, chooses and determines each kind of components the material. Usually must make the prototype or the working model, and carries on the experiment to it, the appraisal product function, the reliability, the outward appearance and the service maintenance and so on. Although this kind of experiment possibly can indicate, enters in the product to the production base in front of, should replace certain materials, but, absolutely cannot this point take not earnestly chooses the material the excuse. Should unify the product the function, earnestly carefully considers the product the outward appearance, the cost and the reliability. Has the achievement very much the company when manufacture all prototypes, selects the material should the material which uses with its production in be same, and uses the similar manufacture technology as far as possible. Like this has the advantage very much to the company. The function complete prototype if cannot act according to the anticipated sales volume economically to make, or is prototypical and the official production installment has in the quality and the reliable aspect is very greatly different, then this kind of prototypedoes not have the great value. Project engineer is best can completely complete the material in this stage the analysis, the choice and the determination work, but is not remains it to the production design stage does. Because, is carries on in the production design stage material replacement by other people, these people are inferior to project engineer to the product all functions understanding. In the production design stage, is should completely determine with the material related main question the material, causes them to adapt with the existing equipment, can use the existing equipment economically to carry on the processing, moreover the material quantity can quite be easy to guarantee the supply.In the manufacture process, inevitably can appear to uses the material to make some changes the situation. The experience indicated that, may use certain cheap materials to take the substitute. However, in the majority situation, in will carry on the production later to change the material to have in to start before the production to change the price which the material will spend to have to be higher than. Completes the choice of material work in the design stage, may avoid the most such situations. Started after the production manufacture to appear has been possible to supply the use the new material is replaces the material the most common reason. Certainly, these new materials possibly reduce the cost, the improvement product performance. But, must carry on the earnest appraisal to the new material, guarantees its all performance all to answer the purpose. Must remember that, the new material performance and the reliable very few pictures materials on hand such understood for the people. The majority of products expiration and the product accident caused by negligence case is because in selects the new material to take in front of substitution material, not truly understood their long-term operational performance causes.The product responsibility lawsuit forces designs the personnel and the company when the choice material, uses the best procedure. In the material process, five most common questions are: (a) did not understand or cannot use about the material application aspect most newly the best information paper; (b) has not been able to foresee and to consider the dusk year possible reasonable use (for example to have the possibility, designs the personnel also to be supposed further to forecast and the consideration because product application method not when creates consequence.ecent years many products responsibilities lawsuit case, because wrongly uses theplaintiff which the product receives the injury to accuse produces the factory, and wins the decision); (c) uses the material data not entire perhaps some data are indefinite, works as its long-term performance data is the like this time in particular;(d) the quality control method is not suitable and not after the confirmation; (e) the personnel which completely is not competent for the post by some chooses the material.Through to the above five questions analysis, may obtain these questions is does not have the sufficient reason existence the conclusion. May for avoid these questions to these questions research analyses the appearance indicating the direction. Although uses the best choice of material method not to be able to avoid having the product responsibility lawsuit, designs the personnel and the industry carries on the choice of material according to the suitable procedure, may greatly reduce the lawsuit the quantity.May see from the above discussion, the choice material people should to the material nature, the characteristic and the processing method have comprehensive and thebasic understanding.翻译：机械设计理论机械设计，通过设计新产品或改进老产品，以满足人类需要的应用技术科学。
机械工程毕业设计外文翻译
毕业设计论文外文资料原文及译文学院：机电工程学院专业：机械设计制造及其自动化班级：学号：姓名：Mechanical engineering1.The porfile of mechanical engineeringEngingeering is a branch of mechanical engineerig,it studies mechanical and power generation especially power and movement.2.The history of mechanical engineering18th century later periods,the steam engine invention has provided a main power fountainhead for the industrial revolution,enormously impelled each kind of mechznical biting.Thus,an important branch of a new Engineering – separated from the civil engineering tools and machines on the branch-developed together with Birmingham and the establishment of the Associantion of Mechanical Engineers in 1847 had been officially recognized.The mechanical engineering already mainly used in by trial and error method mechanic application technological development into professional engineer the scientific method of which in the research,the design and the realm of production used .From the most broad perspective,the demend continuously to enhance the efficiencey of mechanical engineers improve the quality ofwork,and asked him to accept the history of the high degree of education and training.Machine operation to stress not only economic but also infrastructure costs to an absolute minimun.3.The field of mechanical engineeringThe commodity machinery development in the develop country,in the high level material life very great degree is decided each kind of which can realize in the mechanical engineering.Mechanical engineers unceasingly will invent the machine next life to produce the commodity,unceasingly will develop the accuracy and the complexity more and more high machine tools produces the machine.The main clues of the mechanical development is:In order to enhance the excellent in quality and reasonable in price produce to increase the precision as well as to reduce the production cost.This three requirements promoted the complex control system development.The most successful machine manufacture is its machine and the control system close fusion,whether such control system is essentially mechanical or electronic.The modernized car engin production transmission line(conveyer belt)is a series of complex productions craft mechanizationvery good example.The people are in the process of development in order to enable further automation of the production machinery ,the use of a computer to store and handle large volumes of data,the data is a multifunctional machine tools necessary for the production of spare parts.One of the objectives is to fully automated production workshop,three rotation,but only one officer per day to operate.The development of production for mechanical machinery must have adequate power supply.Steam engine first provided the heat to generate power using practical methods in the old human,wind and hydropower,an increase of engin .New mechanical engineering industry is one of the challenges faced by the initial increase thermal effciency and power,which is as big steam turbine and the development of joint steam boilers basically achieved.20th century,turbine generators to provide impetus has been sustained and rapid growth,while thermal efficiency is steady growth,and large power plants per kW capital consumption is also declining.Finally,mechanical engineers have nuclear energy.This requires the application of nuclear energy particularly high reliability and security,which requires solving many new rge power plants and the nuclear power plant control systems have become highly complex electroonics,fluid,electricity,water and mechanical parts networks All in all areas related to the mechanical engineers.Small internal combustion engine,both to the type (petrol and diesel machines)or rotary-type(gas turbines and Mong Kerr machine),as well as their broad application in the field of transport should also due to mechanical enginerrs.Throughout the transport,both in the air and space,or in the terrestrial and marine,mechanial engineers created a variety of equipment and power devices to their increasing cooperation with electrical engineers,especially in the development of appropration control systems.Mechanical engineers in the development of military weapons technology and civil war ,needs a similar,though its purpose is to enhance rather than destroy their productivity.However.War needs a lot of resources to make the area of techonlogy,many have a far-reaching development in peacetime efficiency.Jet aircraft and nuclear reactors are well known examples.The Biological engineering,mechanical engineering biotechnology is a relatively new and different areas,it provides for the replacement of the machine or increase thebody functions as well as for medical equipment.Artficial limbs have been developed and have such a strong movement and touch response function of the human body.In the development of artificial organ transplant is rapid,complex cardiac machines and similar equipment to enable increasingly complex surgery,and injuries and ill patients life functions can be sustained.Some enviromental control mechanical engineers through the initial efforts to drainage or irrigation pumping to the land and to mine and ventilation to control the human environment.Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning plant commonaly used reverse heat engine,where the heat from the engine from cold places to more external heat.Many mechanical engineering products,as well as other leading technology development city have side effects on the environment,producing noise,water and air pollution caused,destroyed land and landscape.Improve productivity and diver too fast in the commodity,that the renewable naturalforces keep pace.For mechanical engineers and others,environmental control is rapidly developing area,which includes a possible development and production of small quantities of pollutants machine sequnce,and the development of new equipment and teachnology has been to reduce and eliminate pollution.4.The role of mechanical engineeringThere are four generic mechanical engineers in common to the above all domains function.The 1st function is the understanding and the research mechanical science foundation.It includes the power and movement of the relationship dynamics For example,in the vibration and movement of the relationship;Automatic control;Study of the various forms of heart,energy,power relations between the thermodynamic;Fluidflows; Heat transfer; Lubricant;And material properties.The 2nd function will be conducts the research,the desing and the development,this function in turn attempts to carry on the essential change to satisfy current and the future needs.This not only calls for a clear understanding of mechanical science,and have to breakdown into basic elements of a complex system capacity.But also the need for synthetic and innovative inventions.The 3rd function is produces the product and the power,include plan,operation and maintenance.Its goal lies in the maintenance eitherenhances the enterprise or the organization longer-tern and survivabilaty prestige at the same time,produces the greatest value by the least investments and the consumption.The 4th function is mechanical engineer’s coordinated function,including the management,the consultation,as well as carries on the market marking in certain situation.In all these function,one kind unceasingly to use the science for a long time the method,but is not traditional or the intuition method tendency,this is a mechanical engineering skill aspect which unceasingly grows.These new rationalization means typical names include:The operations research,the engineering economics,the logical law problem analysis(is called PABLA) However,creativity is not rationalization.As in other areas,in mechanical engineering,to take unexpected and important way to bring about a new capacity,still has a personal,marked characteristice.5.The design of mechanical engineeringThe design of mechanical is the design has the mechanical property the thing or the system,such as:the instrument and the measuring appliance in very many situations,the machine design must use the knowledge of discipline the and so on mathematics,materials science and mechanics.Mechanical engineering desgin includeing all mechanical desgin,but it was a study,because it also includes all the branches of mechsnical engineering,such as thermodynamics all hydrodynamics in the basic disciplines needed,in the mechanical engineering design of the initial stude or mechanical design.Design stages.The entire desgin process from start to finish,in the process,a demand that is designed for it and decided to do the start.After a lot of repetition,the final meet this demand by the end of the design procees and the plan.Design considerations.Sometimes in a system is to decide which parts needs intensity parts of geometric shapesand size an important factor in this context that we must consider that the intensity is an important factor in the design.When we use expression design considerations,we design parts that may affect the entire system design features.In the circumstances specified in the design,usually for a series of such functions must be taken into account.Howeever,to correct purposes,we should recognize that,in many cases thedesign of important design considerations are not calculated or test can determine the components or systems.Especially students,wheen in need to make important decisions in the design and conduct of any operation that can not be the case,they are often confused.These are not special,they occur every day,imagine,for example,a medical laboratory in the mechanical design,from marketing perspective,people have high expectations from the strength and relevance of impression.Thick,and heavy parts installed together:to produce a solid impression machines.And sometimes machinery and spare parts from the design style is the point and not the other point of view.Our purpose is to make those you do not be misled to believe that every design decision will needreasonable mathematical methods.Manufacturing refers to the raw meterials into finished products in the enterprise.Create three distinct phases.They are:input,processing exprot.The first phase includes the production of all products in line with market needs essential.First there must be the demand for the product,the necessary materials,while also needs such as energy,time,human knowledge and technology resourcess .Finall,the need for funds to obtain all the other resources. Lose one stage after the second phase of the resources of the processes to be distributed.Processing of raw materials into finished products of these processes.To complete the design,based on the design,and then develop plans.Plan implemented through various production processes.Management of resources and processes to ensure efficiency and productivity.For example,we must carefully manage resources to ensure proper use of funds.Finally,people are talking about the product market was cast.Stage is the final stage of exporting finished or stage.Once finished just purchased,it must be delivered to the users.According to product performance,installation and may have to conduct further debugging in addition,some products,especially those very complex products User training is necessary.6.The processes of materials and maunfacturingHere said engineering materials into two main categories:metals and non-ferrous,high-performance alloys and power metals.Non-metallic futher divided into plastice,synthetic rubber,composite materials and ceramics.It said the productionproccess is divided into several major process,includingshape,forging,casting/ founding,heat treatment,fixed/connections ,measurement/ quality control and materal cutting.These processes can be further divide into each other’s craft.Various stages of the development of the manufacturing industry Over the years,the manufacturing process has four distinct stages of development, despite the overlap.These stages are:The first phase is artisanal,the second Phase is mechanization.The third phase is automation the forth Phase is integrated.When mankind initial processing of raw materials into finished products will be,they use manual processes.Each with their hands and what are the tools manuslly produced.This is totally integrated production take shape.A person needs indentification,collection materials,the design of a product to meet that demand,the production of such products and use it.From beginning to end,everything is focused on doing the work of the human ter in the industrial revolution introduced mechanized production process,people began to use machines to complete the work accomplished previously manual. This led to the specialization.Specialization in turn reduce the manufacture of integrated factors.In this stage of development,manufacturing workers can see their production as a whole represent a specific piece of the part of the production process.One can not say that their work is how to cope with the entire production process,or how they were loaded onto a production of parts finished.Development of manufacting processes is the next phase of the selection process automation.This is a computer-controlled machinery and processes.At this stage,automation island began to emerge in the workshop lane.Each island represents a clear production process or a group of processes.Although these automated isolated island within the island did raise the productivity of indivdual processes,but the overall productivity are often not change.This is because the island is not caught in other automated production process middle,but not synchronous with them .The ultimate result is the efficient working fast parked through automated processes,but is part of the stagnation in wages down,causing bottlenecks.To better understand this problem,you can imagine the traffic in the peak driving a red light from the red Service Department to the next scene. Occasionally you will find a lot less cars,more than being slow-moving vehicles,but the results can be found by thenext red light Brance.In short you real effect was to accelerate the speed of a red Department obstruction offset.If you and other drivers can change your speed and red light simultaneously.Will advance faster.Then,all cars will be consistent,sommth operation,the final everyone forward faster.In the workshop where the demand for stable synchronization of streamlined production,and promoted integration of manufacturing development.This is a still evolving technology.Fully integrated in the circumstances,is a computer-controllrd machinery and processing.integrated is completed through computer.For example in the preceding paragraph simulation problems,the computer will allow all road vehicles compatible with the change in red.So that everyone can steady traffic.Scientific analysis of movement,timing and mechanics of the disciplines is that it is composed of two pater:statics and dynamics.Statics analyzed static system that is in the system,the time is not taken into account,research and analysis over time and dynamics of the system change.Dynameics from the two componets.Euler in 1775 will be the first time two different branches: Rigid body movement studies can conveniently divided into two parts:geometric and mechanics.The first part is without taking into account the reasons for the downward movement study rigid body from a designated location to another point of the movement,and must use the formula to reflect the actual,the formula would determine the rigid body every point position. Therefore,this study only on the geometry and,more specifically,on the entities from excision.Obviously,the first part of the school and was part of a mechanical separation from the principles of dynamics to study movement,which is more than the two parts together into a lot easier.Dynamics of the two parts are subsequently divided into two separate disciplines,kinematic and dynamics,a study of movement and the movement strength.Therefore,the primary issue is the design of mechanical systems understand its kinematic.Kinematic studies movement,rather than a study of its impact.In a more precise kinematic studies position,displacement,rotation, speed,velocity and acceleration of disciplines,for esample,or planets orbiting research campaing is a paradigm.In the above quotation content should be pay attention that the content of the Euler dynamics into kinematic and rigid body dynamics is based on the assumptionthat they are based on research.In this very important basis to allow for the treatment of two separate disciplines.For soft body,soft body shape and even their own soft objects in the campaign depends on the role of power in their possession.In such cases,should also study the power and movement,and therefore to a large extent the analysis of the increased complexity.Fortunately, despite the real machine parts may be involved are more or less the design of machines,usually with heavy material designed to bend down to the lowest parts.Therefore,when the kinematic analysis of the performance of machines,it is often assumed that bend is negligible,spare parts are hard,but when the load is known,in the end analysis engine,re-engineering parts to confirm this assnmption.机械工程1.机械工程简介机械工程是工程学的一个分支，它研究机械和动力的产，尤其是力和动力。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译--切削加工新概念
英文部分The new concept of cutting processingThe nowadays cutting tool company cannot only be again the manufacture and the sales cutting tool, in order to succeed, they must be consistent with the globalization manufacture tendency maintenance, through enhances the efficiency, cooperates with the customer reduces the cost. Approaches the instantaneous global competition after this after NAFTA, the WTO time, the world company is making quickly to the same feeling, is lighter, a cheaper response. In other words, they make the product and the components contain can in high speed under revolve, as a result of the cost pressure, best, is lighter moreover must make cheaply. Obtains these goals a best way is through develops and applies the new material, but these is new and the improvement material usually all with difficulty processes. In in this kind of commercial power and the technical difficulty combination is especially prominent in the automobile and the aviation industry, and has become has the experience the cutting tool company to research and develop the department the most important driving influence.For example, takes the modular cast iron to say that, it has become the engine part and other automobiles, the agriculture the material which see day by day with the equipment and in the machine tool industry components. This kind of alloy provides the low production cost and the good machine capability combination. They are cheaper than the steel products, but has a higher intensity and toughness compared to the cast iron. But at the same time the modular cast iron is extremely wear-resisting, has fast breaks by rubbing the cutting tool material the tendency. In this wear resistant very great degree bead luminous body content influence. Some known modular cast iron bead luminous body content higher, its resistance to wear better, moreover its machinability is worse. Moreover, the modular cast iron porosity causes off and on to cut, this even more reduces the life.May estimate that, the high degree of hardness and the high wear-resisting cutting material quality must consider the modular cast iron the high resistance to wear. And the material quality contains extremely hard TiC in fact (carbonized titanium) or TiCN (carbon titanium nitrides) thick coating when cutting speed each minute 300 meters processes the modular cast iron to prove usually is effective. But along with cutting speed increase, scrap/The cutting tool junction plane temperature also is increasing. When has such situation, the TiC coating favors in has the chemical reaction with the iron and softens, more pressures function in anti- crescent moon hollow attrition coating. Under these conditions, hoped has one chemical stability better coating,like Al2O3 (although under low speed was inferior to TiC hard or is wear-resisting).The chemical stability becomes an important performance performance dividing line compared to the resistance to wear the factor, the speed and the temperature is decided in is processed the modular cast iron the crystal grain structure and the performance. But usually thick coating of TiCN and TiC or only ductile iron oxides in the soil coating is applied to, because the today majority of this kinds are processed the material the cutting speed in each minute 150 to 335 meters between. Is higher than each minute 300 meter applications regarding the speed, the people to this kind of material are satisfied.In order to cause this scope performance to be most superior, the mountain high researched and developed and has promoted in view of modular cast iron processing material quality TX150. This kind of material quality has hard also the anti- distortion substrate, is very ideal regarding the processing modular cast iron. Its coating the oxide compound coating which hollowly wears by thick very wear-resisting carbon titanium nitrides and a thin anti- crescent moon, the top is thin layer TiN. This kind of coating which needs the center warm chemistry gas phase deposition using the state of the art production resistance to wear and the anti- crescent moon hollow attrition which the CVD coating complete degree of hardness moreover the tough smoothness increases (MTCVD) the craft. Substrate/The coating combination performance gives the very high anti- plastic deformation and the cutting edge micro collapses the ability, causes it to become under the normal speed to process the modular cast iron the ideal material quality.The coating ceramics also display can effectively process the modular cast iron. In the past, the aluminum oxide ceramics application which not the coating tough good such as nitriding silicon and the silicon carbide textile fiber strengthened the work piece material chemistry paralysis limit. Today but could resist the scrap distortion process through the use to have the high thermal coating cutting tool life already remarkably to increase. But certain early this domains work piece processing use aluminum oxides spread the layer crystals to have to strengthen the ceramics, today most research concentrate in the TiN coating nitriding silicon. This kind of coating can remarkably open up the tough good ceramics the application scope.When machining, the work piece has processed the surface is depends upon the cutting tool and the work piece makes the relative motion to obtain.According to the surface method of formation, the machining may divide into the knife point path law, the formed cutting tool law, the generating process three kinds.The knife point path law is depends upon the knife point to be opposite in the work piece surface path, obtains the superficial geometry shape which the work piece requests, like the turning outer annulus, the shaping plane, the grinding outer annulus, with the profile turning forming surface and so on, the knife point path are decided the cutting tool and the work piecerelative motion which provides in the engine bed;The formed cutting tool law abbreviation forming, is with the formed cutting tool which matches with the work piece final superficial outline, or the formed grinding wheel and so on processes the formed surface, like formed turning, formed milling and form grinding and so on, because forms the cutting tool the manufacture quite to be difficult, therefore only uses in processing the short formed surface generally;The generating process name rolls cuts method, is when the processing the cutting tool and the work piece do unfold the movement relatively, the cutting tool and the work piece centrode make the pure trundle mutually, between both maintains the definite transmission ratio relations, obtains the processing surface is the knife edge in this kind of movement envelope, in the gear processing rolls the tooth, the gear shaping, the shaving, the top horizontal jade piece tooth and rubs the tooth and so on to be the generating process processing.Some machining has at the same time the knife point path law and the formed cutting tool method characteristic, like thread turning.The machining quality mainly is refers to the work piece the processing precision and the surface quality (including surface roughness, residual stress and superficial hardening).Along with the technical progress, the machining quality enhances unceasingly.The 18th century later periods, the machining precision counts by the millimeter; At the beginning of 20th century, machining precision Gao Yida 0.01 millimeter; To the 50's, the machining precision has reached a micron level; The 70's, the machining precision enhances to 0.1 micron.The influence machining quality primary factor has aspects and so on engine bed, cutting tool, jig, work piece semifinished materials, technique and processing environment.Must improve the machining quality, must take the suitable measure to the above various aspects, like reduces the engine bed work error, selects the cutting tool correctly, improves the semifinished materials quality, the reasonable arrangement craft, the improvement environmental condition and so on.Enhances the cutting specifications to enhance the material excision rate, is enhances the machining efficiency the essential way.The commonly used highly effective machining method has the high-speed cutting, the force cutting, the plasma arc heating cuts and vibrates the cutting and so on.The grinding speed is called the high-speed grinding in 45 meters/second above es the high-speed cutting (or grinding) both may enhance the efficiency, and may reduce the surface roughness.The high-speed cutting (or grinding) requests the engine bed to have the high speed, the high rigidity, the high efficiency and the vibration-proof good craft system; Requests the cutting tool to have the reasonable geometry parameter and theconvenience tight way, but also must consider the safe reliable chip breaking method.The force cutting refers to the roughing feed or cuts the deep machining greatly, uses in the turning and the grinding generally.The force turning main characteristic is the lathe tool besides the main cutting edge, but also some is parallel in the work piece has processed superficial the vice-cutting edge simultaneously to participate in the cutting, therefore may enhance to feed quantity compared to the general turning several times of even several pares with the high-speed cutting, the force cutting cutting temperature is low, the cutting tool life is long, the cutting efficiency is high; The shortcoming is processes the surface to be rough.When force cutting, the radial direction cutting force death of a parent is not suitable for to process the tall and slender work piece very much.The vibration cutting is along the cutting tool direction of feed, the attachment low frequency or the high frequency vibration machining, may enhance the cutting efficiency.The low frequency vibration cutting has the very good chip breaking effect, but does not use the chip breaking equipment, makes the knife edge intensity to increase, time the cutting total power dissipation compared to has the chip breaking installment ordinary cutting to reduce about 40%.The high frequency vibration cutting also called the ultrasonic wave vibration cutting, is helpful in reduces between the cutting tool and the work piece friction, reduces the cutting temperature, reduces the cutting tool the coherence attrition, thus the enhancement cutting efficiency and the processing surface quality, the cutting tool life may enhance 40% approximately.To lumber, plastic, rubber, glass, marble, granite and so on nonmetallic material machining, although is similar with the metal material cutting, but uses the cutting tool, the equipment and the cutting specifications and so on has the characteristic respectively.The lumber product machining mainly carries in each kind of joiner's bench, its method mainly has: The saw cuts, digs cuts, the turning, the milling, drills truncates with the polishing and so on.The plastic rigidity is worse than the metal, the easy bending strain, the thermoplastic thermal conductivity to be in particular bad, easy to elevate temperature the conditioning.When cutting plastic, suitably with the high-speed steel or the hard alloy tools, selects the small to feed quantity and the high cutting speed, and uses compressed air cooling.If the cutting tool is sharp, the angle is appropriate, may produce the belt-shaped scrap, easy to carry off the quantity of heat.Glass (including semiconducting material and so on germanium, silicon) but degree of hardness high brittleness is big.To methods and so on glass machining commonly used cutting, drill hole, attrition and polishing.To thickness in three millimeters following glass plates, thesimple cutting method is with the diamond or other hard materials, in glass surface manual scoring, the use scratch place stress concentration, then uses the hand to break off.To the marble, the granite and the concrete and so on the hard material processing, mainly uses methods and so on cutting, turning, drill hole, shaping, attrition and polishing.When cutting the available circular saw blade adds the grinding compound and the water; The outer annulus and the end surface may use the negative rake the hard alloy lathe tool, by 10~30 meter/minute cutting speed turning; Drills a hole the available hard alloy drill bit; The big stone material plane available hard alloy planing tool or rolls cuts planing tool shaping; The precise smooth surface, available three mutually for the datum to the method which grinds, or the grinding and the polishing method obtains.Cutting tool in hot strong alloy applicationThe aviation processing also changes rapidly. For example, nickel base heat-resisting alloy like several years ago the most people had not heard Rene88 now occupies to the aircraft engine manufacture uses the total metal quantity 10~25%. Has very good showing and the commercial reason regarding this. For example, these heat strong alloy will be able to increase the engine endurance moreover to permit the small engine work on the big airplane, that will enhance the combustion efficiency and reduces the operation cost. These tough good materials also present the expense on the cutting tool. Their thermal stability causes on the knife point the temperature to be higher, thus reduced the cutting tool life. Similarly, in these alloy carbide pellet remarkably increased the friction, thus reduces the cutting tool life.As a result of changes in these conditions, can be very pleased to have processed many titanium alloys and nickel-based alloy materials C-2 hard metal alloys, in the application to today's cutting edge of blade to the crushing and cutting depth of the trench lines badly worn. But using the latest high-temperature processing of small particles hard metal alloys to be effective, cutlery life improved, but more importantly to enhance the reliability of applications in high-temperature alloys. Small particles hard metal than traditional hard metal materials higher compression strength and hardness, only a small increase in the resilience of the cost. And resulted in high temperature alloy processing than traditional hard metal resistance common failure mode more effective.PVD (physical gas phase deposition) coating also by certificate effective processing heat-resisting alloy. TiN (titanium nitrides) the PVD coating was uses and still was most early most receives welcome. Recently, TiAlN (nitrogen calorization titanium) and TiCN (carbon titanium nitrides) the coating also could very good use. In the past the TiAlN coating application scope and TiN compared the limit to be more. But after the cutting speed enhances them is a very good choice, enhances the productivity in these applications to reach 40%. On the other hand, isdecided under the low cutting speed in coating superficial operating mode TiAlN can cause to accumulate the filings lump afterwards, micro collapses with the trench attrition.Recently, used in the heat-resisting alloy application material quality already developing, these coating but became by several combinations. The massive laboratories and the scene test has already proven this kind of combination and other any kind of sole coating compares in time the very wide scope application is very effective. Therefore aims at the heat-resisting alloy application the PVD compound coating possibly to become the focal point which the hard alloy new material quality research and development continues. With the MTCVD coating, the coating ceramics gather in the same place, they hopefully become a more effective processing to research and develop newly are more difficult to process the work piece material the main impact strength.Dry processingIncluding the refrigerant question is technical and the commercial expansion industrial production tendency another domain which the cutting tool makes. North America and the European strict refrigerant management request and the biggest three automobile manufacturer forces them the core supplier to obtain the ISO14000 authentication (the ISO9000 environment management edition), this causes the refrigerant processing cost rise. To the car company and their core supplier said obviously one of responses which welcome is in the specific processing application avoids completely the refrigerant the use. This kind did the processing the new world to propose a series of challenges for the cutting tool supplier.Recently, already appeared some to concern this topic to promulgate the speed, to enter for, the coating chemical composition and other parameters very substantial comprehensive nature very strong useful technical papers. Wants to concentrate the elaboration in here me "does the processing viewpoint" in the operation and commercial meaning automobile manufacturer new.The metal working jobholders can the very good understanding related refrigerant use question, but majority cannot understand concerns except the technical challenge (for example row of filings) beside does the processing question in the cutting tool - work piece contact face between. Usually may observe to the refrigerant disperser scrap which flows out, but the pressure surpasses 3,000 pounds/An inch 2 high speed refrigerant also can help to break the filings, specially soft also the continual scrap can cause in the cutting tool - work piece contact face trouble.Uses does the cutting craft the components result is the engine bed uses the wet type processing components to be hotter than. Whether before you do allow them to survey in the open-air natural cooling? If processes newly the hot components put frequently to the turnover box, elevates the environment temperature, whether components full cooling and just rightenough permission precision examination? Also has the handling side several dozens on hundred components to be able to operate the worker to increase the extra burden.With many cutting tools/The work piece technical question same place, these latent questions need to state whether dryly adds the ability line. Luckily, has very many ways to elaborate these questions. For example, the compressed air was proven row of filings becomes the question in very many applications the situation to have the successful echo.Another plan is called MQL (minimum lubrication) a technology, it replaces the traditional refrigerant by the application the quite few oil mists constitution. This is a recognition compromise plan, this kind of minimum technology can large scale reduce the refrigerant the headache matter, moreover the smooth finish which processes in many applications very is also good. This domain still had very many research to do, moreover the cutting tool company positively participated in such research was absolutely essential. If they will not do fall behind the competitor, will be at the disadvantageous position.In the factory the special details design other perhaps better plan according to the world in. The manufacturing industry jobholders possibly still could ask why they do have to use recent development the technology to replace the refrigerant method diligently which the tradition already an experience number generation of person improved enhances, because implemented especially does the experiment and the defeat which the processing or the subarid processing produced possibly causes the higher short-term cutting tool cost. The concise answer is when the bit probably accounts for the model processing components cost 3%, the refrigerant cost (from purchases to maintenance, storage, processing) can account for the components cost 15%.Perhaps does the dry processing is not all suits to each application, but above discusses likely other processing questions are same, needs from a wider operation, the environment and the commercial angle appraises. Will be able to help the cutting tool company which the customer will do this to have the competitive advantage, but these will not be able to provide unceasingly is in the passive position.Cutting tool and nanotechnologyCan fiercely change the cutting tool industry the enchanting new domain is the miniature manufacture, or the processing small granule forms the product which needs. Must refer to is its here does not have about the cutting tool miniature manufacture first matter; Second must say the matter is it is not remote.Why the miniature manufacture and are the cutting tool related. Because most main is the particle size smaller, the hard alloy toughness of material better also is more wear-resisting. (Some experts define with the nanometer level pellet for are smaller than 0.2 mu m, but other people persisted a nanometer pellet had to be smaller than the hard alloy tools prototype which0.1 mu m) made already to complete and the test,It is said that wear resistant theatrically increase. The question is the nanometer level hard alloy pellet cannot depend on the smashing big material formation, they are certain through the smaller material constitution, but processes the molecular level granule is not easy and the economical matter.中文部分切削加工新概念现今的刀具公司再也不能只是制造和销售刀具，为了成功，他们必须与全球化制造趋势保持一致，通过提高效率、同客户合作来降低成本。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译--选择最佳工具,几何形状和切削条件
附录附录1：英文原文Selection of optimum tool geometry and cutting conditionsusing a surface roughness prediction model for end milling Abstract Influence of tool geometry on the quality of surface produced is well known and hence any attempt to assess the performance of end milling should include the tool geometry. In the present work, experimental studies have been conducted to see the effect of tool geometry (radial rake angle and nose radius) and cutting conditions (cutting speed and feed rate) on the machining performance during end milling of medium carbon steel. The first and second order mathematical models, in terms of machining parameters, were developed for surface roughness prediction using response surface methodology (RSM) on the basis of experimental results. The model selected for optimization has been validated with the Chi square test. The significance of these parameters on surface roughness has been established with analysis of variance. An attempt has also been made to optimize the surface roughness prediction model using genetic algorithms (GA). The GA program gives minimum values of surface roughness and their respective optimal conditions.1 IntroductionEnd milling is one of the most commonly used metal removal operations in industry because of its ability to remove material faster giving reasonably good surface quality. It is used in a variety of manufacturing industries including aerospace and automotive sectors, where quality is an important factor in the production of slots, pockets, precision moulds and dies. Greater attention is given to dimensional accuracy and surface roughness of products by the industry these days. Moreover, surface finish influences mechanical properties such as fatigue behaviour, wear, corrosion, lubrication and electrical conductivity. Thus, measuring and characterizing surface finish can be considered for predicting machining performance.Surface finish resulting from turning operations has traditionally received considerable research attention, where as that of machining processes using multipoint cutters, requires attention by researchers. As these processes involve large number of parameters, it would be difficult to correlate surface finish with other parameters just by conducting experiments. Modelling helps to understand this kind of process better. Though some amount of work has been carried out to develop surface finish prediction models in the past, the effect of tool geometry has received little attention. However, the radial rake angle has a major affect on the powerconsumption apart from tangential and radial forces. It also influences chip curling and modifies chip flow direction. In addition to this, researchers [1] have also observed that the nose radius plays a significant role in affecting the surface finish. Therefore the development of a good model should involve the radial rake angle and nose radius along with other relevant factors.Establishment of efficient machining parameters has been a problem that has confronted manufacturing industries for nearly a century, and is still the subject of many studies. Obtaining optimum machining parameters is of great concern in manufacturing industries, where the economy of machining operation plays a key role in the competitive market. In material removal processes, an improper selection of cutting conditions cause surfaces with high roughness and dimensional errors, and it is even possible that dynamic phenomena due to auto excited vibrations may set in [2]. In view of the significant role that the milling operation plays in today‟s manufacturing world, there is a need to optimize the machining parameters for this operation. So, an effort has been made in this paper to see the influence of tool geometry(radial rake angle and nose radius) and cutting conditions(cutting speed and feed rate) on the surface finish produced during end milling of medium carbon steel. The experimental results of this work will be used to relate cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius with the machining response i.e. surface roughness by modelling. The mathematical models thus developed are further utilized to find the optimum process parameters using genetic algorithms.2 ReviewProcess modelling and optimization are two important issues in manufacturing. The manufacturing processes are characterized by a multiplicity of dynamically interacting process variables. Surface finish has been an important factor of machining in predicting performance of any machining operation. In order to develop and optimize a surface roughness model, it is essential to understand the current status of work in this area.Davis et al. [3] have investigated the cutting performance of five end mills having various helix angles. Cutting tests were performed on aluminium alloy L 65 for three milling processes (face, slot and side), in which cutting force, surface roughness and concavity of a machined plane surface were measured. The central composite design was used to decide on the number of experiments to be conducted. The cutting performance of the end mills was assessed using variance analysis. The affects of spindle speed, depth of cut and feed rate on the cutting force and surface roughness were studied. The investigation showed that end mills with left hand helix angles are generally less cost effective than those with right hand helix angles. There is no significant difference between up milling and down milling with regard tothe cutting force, although the difference between them regarding the surface roughness was large. Bayoumi et al. [4]have studied the affect of the tool rotation angle, feed rate and cutting speed on the mechanistic process parameters (pressure, friction parameter) for end milling operation with three commercially available workpiece materials, 11 L 17 free machining steel, 62- 35-3 free machining brass and 2024 aluminium using a single fluted HSS milling cutter. It has been found that pressure and friction act on the chip – tool interface decrease with the increase of feed rate and with the decrease of the flow angle, while the cutting speed has a negligible effect on some of the material dependent parameters. Process parameters are summarized into empirical equations as functions of feed rate and tool rotation angle for each work material. However, researchers have not taken into account the effects of cutting conditions and tool geometry simultaneously; besides these studies have not considered the optimization of the cutting process.As end milling is a process which involves a large number f parameters, combined influence of the significant parameters an only be obtained by modelling. Mansour and Abdallaet al. [5] have developed a surface roughness model for the end milling of EN32M (a semi-free cutting carbon case hardening steel with improved merchantability). The mathematical model has been developed in terms of cutting speed, feed rate and axial depth of cut. The affect of these parameters on the surface roughness has been carried out using response surface methodology (RSM). A first order equation covering the speed range of 30–35 m/min and a second order equation covering the speed range of 24–38 m/min were developed under dry machining conditions. Alauddin et al. [6] developed a surface roughness model using RSM for the end milling of 190 BHN steel. First and second order models were constructed along with contour graphs for the selection of the proper combination of cutting speed and feed to increase the metal removal rate without sacrificing surface quality. Hasmi et al. [7] also used the RSM model for assessing the influence of the workpiece material on the surface roughness of the machined surfaces. The model was developed for milling operation by conducting experiments on steel specimens. The expression shows, the relationship between the surface roughness and the various parameters; namely, the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. The above models have not considered the affect of tool geometry on surface roughness.Since the turn of the century quite a large number of attempts have been made to find optimum values of machining parameters. Uses of many methods have been reported in the literature to solve optimization problems for machining parameters. Jain and Jain [8] have used neural networks for modeling and optimizing the machining conditions. The results have been validated by comparing the optimized machining conditions obtained using genetic algorithms. Suresh et al. [9] have developed a surface roughness prediction model for turning mild steel using a response surface methodology to produce the factor affects of the individual process parameters. They have also optimized the turning process using the surface roughness prediction model as theobjective function. Considering the above, an attempt has been made in this work to develop a surface roughness model with tool geometry and cutting conditions on the basis of experimental results and then optimize it for the selection of these parameters within the given constraints in the end milling operation.3 MethodologyIn this work, mathematical models have been developed using experimental results with the help of response surface methodolog y. The purpose of developing mathematical models relating the machining responses and their factors is to facilitate the optimization of the machining process. This mathematical model has been used as an objective function and the optimization was carried out with the help of genetic algorithms.3.1 Mathematical formulationResponse surface methodology(RSM) is a combination of mathematical and statistical techniques useful for modelling and analyzing the problems in which several independent variables influence a dependent variable or response. The mathematical models commonly used are represented by:where Y is the machining response, ϕ is the response function and S, f , α, r are milling variables and ∈ is the error which is normally distributed about the observed response Y with zero mean.The relationship between surface roughness and other independent variables can be represented as follows，where C is a constant and a, b, c and d are exponents.To facilitate the determination of constants and exponents, this mathematical model will have to be linearized by performing a logarithmic transformation as follows:The constants and exponents C, a, b, c and d can be determined by the method of least squares. The first order linear model, developed from the above functional relationship using least squares method, can be represented as follows:where Y1 is the estimated response based on the first-order equation, Y is the measured surface roughness on a logarithmic scale, x0 = 1 (dummy variable), x1, x2, x3 and x4 are logarithmic transformations of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius respectively, ∈is the experimental error and b values are the estimates of corresponding parameters.The general second order polynomial response is as given below:where Y2 is the estimated response based on the second order equation. The parameters, i.e. b0, b1, b2, b3, b4, b12, b23, b14, etc. are to be estimated by the method of least squares. Validity ofthe selected model used for optimizing the process parameters has been tested with the help of statistical tests, such as F-test, chi square test, etc. [10].3.2 Optimization using genetic algorithmsMost of the researchers have used traditional optimization techniques for solving machining problems. The traditional methods of optimization and search do not fare well over a broad spectrum of problem domains. Traditional techniques are not efficient when the practical search space is too large. These algorithms are not robust. They are inclined to obtain a local optimal solution. Numerous constraints and number of passes make the machining optimization problem more complicated. So, it was decided to employ genetic algorithms as an optimization technique. GA come under the class of non-traditional search and optimization techniques. GA are different from traditional optimization techniques in the following ways:1.GA work with a coding of the parameter set, not the parameter themselves.2.GA search from a population of points and not a single point.3.GA use information of fitness function, not derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge.4.GA use probabilistic transition rules not deterministic rules.5.It is very likely that the expected GA solution will be the global solution.Genetic algorithms (GA) form a class of adaptive heuristics based on principles derived from the dynamics of natural population genetics. The searching process simulates the natural evaluation of biological creatures and turns out to be an intelligent exploitation of a random search. The mechanics of a GA is simple, involving copying of binary strings. Simplicity of operation and computational efficiency are the two main attractions of the genetic algorithmic approach. The computations are carried out in three stages to get a result in one generation or iteration. The three stages are reproduction, crossover and mutation.In order to use GA to solve any problem, the variable is typically encoded into a string (binary coding) or chromosome structure which represents a possible solution to the given problem. GA begin with a population of strings (individuals) created at random. The fitness of each individual string is evaluated with respect to the given objective function. Then this initial population is operated on by three main operators – reproduction cross over and mutation– to create, hopefully, a better population. Highly fit individuals or solutions are given the opportunity to reproduce by exchanging pieces of their genetic information, in the crossover procedure, with other highly fit individuals. This produces new “offspring” solutions, which share some characteristics taken from both the parents. Mutation is often applied after crossover by altering some genes (i.e. bits) in the offspring. The offspring can either replace the whole population (generational approach) or replace less fit individuals (steady state approach). This new population is further evaluated andtested for some termination criteria. The reproduction-cross over mutation- evaluation cycle is repeated until the termination criteria are met.4 Experimental detailsFor developing models on the basis of experimental data, careful planning of experimentation is essential. The factors considered for experimentation and analysis were cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius.4.1 Experimental designThe design of experimentation has a major affect on the number of experiments needed. Therefore it is essential to have a well designed set of experiments. The range of values of each factor was set at three different levels, namely low, medium and high as shown in Table 1. Based on this, a total number of 81 experiments (full factorial design), each having a combination of different levels of factors, as shown in Table 2, were carried out.The variables were coded by taking into account the capacity and limiting cutting conditions of the milling machine. The coded values of variables, to be used in Eqs. 3 and 4, were obtained from the following transforming equations:where x1 is the coded value of cutting speed (S), x2 is the coded value of the feed rate ( f ), x3 is the coded value of radial rake angle(α) and x4 is the coded value of nose radius (r).4.2 ExperimentationA high precision …Rambaudi Rammatic 500‟ CNC milling machine, with a vertical milling head, was used for experimentation. The control system is a CNC FIDIA-12 compact. The cutting tools, used for the experimentation, were solid coated carbide end mill cutters of different radial rake angles and nose radii (WIDIA: DIA20 X FL38 X OAL 102 MM). The tools are coated with TiAlN coating. The hardness, density and transverse rupture strength are 1570 HV 30, 14.5 gm/cm3 and 3800 N/mm2 respectively.AISI 1045 steel specimens of 100×75 mm and 20 mm thickness were used in the present study. All the specimens were annealed, by holding them at 850 ◦C for one hour and then cooling them in a furnace. The chemical analysis of specimens is presented in Table 3. The hardness of the workpiece material is 170 BHN. All the experiments were carried out at a constant axial depth of cut of 20 mm and a radial depth of cut of 1 mm. The surface roughness (response) was measured with Talysurf-6 at a 0.8 mm cut-off value. An average of four measurements was used as a response value.5 Results and discussionThe influences of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius have been assessed by conducting experiments. The variation of machining response with respect to the variables was shown graphically in Fig. 1. It is seen from these figures that of the four dependent parameters, radial rake angle has definite influence on the roughness of the surface machined using an end mill cutter. It is felt that the prominent influence of radial rake angle on the surface generation could be due to the fact that any change in the radial rake angle changes the sharpness of the cutting edge on the periphery, i.e changes the contact length between the chip and workpiece surface. Also it is evident from the plots that as the radial rake angle changes from 4◦to 16◦, the surface roughness decreases and then increases. Therefore, it may be concluded here that the radial rake angle in the range of 4◦to 10◦would give a better surface finish. Figure 1 also shows that the surface roughness decreases first and then increases with the increase in the nose radius. This shows that there is a scope for finding the optimum value of the radial rake angle and nose radius for obtaining the best possible quality of the surface. It was also found that the surface roughness decreases with an increase in cutting speed and increases as feed rate increases. It could also be observed that the surface roughness was a minimum at the 250 m/min speed, 200 mm/min feed rate, 10◦radial rake angle and 0.8 mm nose radius. In order to understand the process better, the experimental results can be used to develop mathematical models using RSM. In this work, a commercially available mathematical software package (MATLAB) was used for the computation of the regression of constants and exponents.5.1 The roughness modelUsing experimental results, empirical equations have been obtained to estimate surface roughness with the significant parameters considered for the experimentation i.e. cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius. The first order model obtained from the above functional relationship using the RSM method is as follows:The transformed equation of surface roughness prediction is as follows:Equation 10 is derived from Eq. 9 by substituting the coded values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 in terms of ln s, ln f , lnαand ln r. The analysis of the variance (ANOVA) and the F-ratio test have been performed to justify the accuracy of the fit for the mathematical model. Since the calculated values of the F-ratio are less than the standard values of the F-ratio for surface roughness as shown in Table 4, the model is adequate at 99% confidence level to represent the relationship between the machining response and the considered machining parameters of the end milling process.The multiple regression coefficient of the first order model was found to be 0.5839. This shows that the first order model can explain the variation in surface roughness to the extent of58.39%. As the first order model has low predictability, the second order model has been developed to see whether it can represent better or not.The second order surface roughness model thus developed is as given below:where Y2 is the estimated response of the surface roughness on a logarithmic scale, x1, x2, x3 and x4 are the logarithmic transformation of speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius. The data of analysis of variance for the second order surface roughness model is shown in Table 5.Since F cal is greater than F0.01, there is a definite relationship between the response variable and independent variable at 99% confidence level. The multiple regression coefficient of the second order model was found to be 0.9596. On the basis of the multiple regression coefficient (R2), it can be concluded that the second order model was adequate to represent this process. Hence the second order model was considered as an objective function for optimization using genetic algorithms. This second order model was also validated using the chi square test. The calculated chi square value of the model was 0.1493 and them tabulated value at χ2 0.005 is 52.34, as shown in Table 6, which indicates that 99.5% of the variability in surface roughness was explained by this model.Using the second order model, the surface roughness of the components produced by end milling can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. This model would be optimized using genetic algorithms (GA).5.2 The optimization of end millingOptimization of machining parameters not only increases the utility for machining economics, but also the product quality toa great extent. In this context an effort has been made to estimate the optimum tool geometry and machining conditions to produce the best possible surface quality within the constraints.The constrained optimization problem is stated as follows: Minimize Ra using the model given here:where xil and xiu are the upper and lower bounds of process variables xi and x1, x2, x3, x4 are logarithmic transformation of cutting speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius.The GA code was developed using MATLAB. This approach makes a binary coding system to represent the variables cutting speed (S), feed rate ( f ), radial rake angle (α) and nose radius (r), i.e. each of these variables is represented by a ten bit binary equivalent, limiting the total string length to 40. It is known as a chromosome. The variables are represented as genes (substrings) in the chromosome. The randomly generated 20 such chromosomes (population size is 20), fulfillingthe constraints on the variables, are taken in each generation. The first generation is called the initial population. Once the coding of the variables has been done, then the actual decoded values for the variables are estimated using the following formula:where xi is the actual decoded value of the cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius, x(L) i is the lower limit and x(U) i is the upper limit and li is the substring length, which is equal to ten in this case.Using the present generation of 20 chromosomes, fitness values are calculated by the following transformation:where f(x) is the fitness function and Ra is the objective function.Out of these 20 fitness values, four are chosen using the roulette-wheel selection scheme. The chromosomes corresponding to these four fitness values are taken as parents. Then the crossover and mutation reproduction methods are applied to generate 20 new chromosomes for the next generation. This processof generating the new population from the old population is called one generation. Many such generations are run till the maximum number of generations is met or the average of four selected fitness values in each generation becomes steady. This ensures that the optimization of all the variables (cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius) is carried out simultaneously. The final statistics are displayed at the end of all iterations. In order to optimize the present problem using GA, the following parameters have been selected to obtain the best possible solution with the least computational effort:Table 7 shows some of the minimum values of the surface roughness predicted by the GA program with respect to input machining ranges, and Table 8 shows the optimum machining conditions for the corresponding minimum values of the surface roughness shown in Table 7. The MRR given in Table 8 was calculated bywhere f is the table feed (mm/min), aa is the axial depth of cut (20 mm) and ar is the radial depth of cut (1 mm).It can be concluded from the optimization results of the GA program that it is possible to select a combination of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius for achieving the best possible surface finish giving a reasonably good material removal rate. This GA program provides optimum machining conditions for the corresponding given minimum values of the surface roughness. The application of the genetic algorithmic approach to obtain optimal machining conditions will be quite useful at the computer aided process planning (CAPP) stage in the production of high quality goods with tight tolerances by a variety of machining operations, and in the adaptive control of automated machine tools. With the known boundaries of surface roughness and machining conditions, machining could be performed with a relatively high rate of success with the selected machining conditions.6 ConclusionsThe investigations of this study indicate that the parameters cutting speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius are the primary actors influencing the surface roughness of medium carbon steel uring end milling. The approach presented in this paper provides n impetus to develop analytical models, based on experimental results for obtaining a surface roughness model using the response surface methodology. By incorporating the cutter geometry in the model, the validity of the model has been enhanced. The optimization of this model using genetic algorithms has resulted in a fairly useful method of obtaining machining parameters in order to obtain the best possible surface quality.中文翻译选择最佳工具，几何形状和切削条件利用表面粗糙度预测模型端铣摘要：刀具几何形状对工件表面质量产生的影响是人所共知的，因此，任何成型面端铣设计应包括刀具的几何形状。
机械专业毕业设计--外文资料和翻译
Metal heat treatmentA, annealingIn front of the description lengba processing materials and softening plastic treatment methods, it has been used the word, the word annealing with similar meanings. The purpose is to reduce completely annealing, hardness, plastic, sometimes also increased to improve the cutting performance, high this steel is difficult to processing. This method is used to reduce heat stress, refined grains, improve the structure of the material.Annealing is not always can improve the cutting machining, cutting processing a word used to describe several factors, including material cutting when good finish (i.e. smaller surface roughness - the ability of the translator. When fully annealing, ordinary low hardness, low intensity of cutting resistance smaller, less, but usually due to the plasticity and toughness is too big to chip away when the surface of workpiece surface of workpiece surface quality, scratch, leads to poor cutting processing. For this kind of steel, annealing may not be the most appropriate treatment. Many of the most high and cutting steel processing usually can be greatly improved by annealing except in the soft, because of their condition, high hardness and strength for processing.And the annealing method is GongXi just slow to the steel wire, insulation above about for a period of time, make the same temperature uniformity, forming materials, then the austenitic or buried with furnace lime or other insulating materials in slow cooling. To precipitation of ferrite and pearlite bulky iron, steel in the soft, the strain of toughness and minimum, must slow cooling.Second, normalizingHow much is the fire of similar purposes, but not the annealing steel soft and fine pearlite state. Not bulky. Steel is refined grains, fire can release of stress, improve structural homogeneity and restore some plastic, high toughness. This method is often used to improve cutting machining, reduce stress, reduce part machining or limitation of deformation.Is the fire will chromatography method is GuoGongXiGang steel or slow heatedto Ac3 respectively, Accm line or on-line insulation for a period of time to form, and in the austenitic stationary air slow cooling. Should notice more, GongXi composition of carbon steel needs to be heated to Accm line above, not Ac1 line above the annealing. The purpose is in the process of austenitic to dissolve all cementite, thus to minimize the boundaries on hard and brittle iron carbon compounds, and get little grain of ferrite pearlite, minimum free cementite and freedom.Third, the ball annealingThrough the steel ball annealing can get minimum hardness and the biggest plastic, it can make the iron carbon compounds with small globular distribution in ferritic matrix. In order to make the ball easier small particles, usually for fire steel ball annealing. Ball annealing available in several different methods, but all the methods are needed in A1 line near (usually slightly low temperature preservation) for a long time, make the iron carbon compounds formed more stable, low level of small ball.Ball annealing method of the main objective is to improve the cutting processing, and drawing of hardened steel pretreatment, make it more uniform structure quenching. Because of the heat treatment for a long time, so the cost is higher than that of ball annealing is common or annealing.Four, steel sclerosisThe most hardened steel heat treatment method is based on the production of martensite high. Therefore, the first step to most other treatment with commonly used method -- austenitic. YaGongXiGang heated to Ac1 liquidus temperature, heat preservation, more about that temperature uniformly, austenitic evenly. GuoGongXiGang Ac1 above liquidus temperature preservation in steel, while about still remain iron carbon compounds.The second step is to avoid rapid cooling in the nose produces isothermal curve transformation pearlite. The cooling speed depends on the temperature and hardened steel quenching medium heat can be taken away from the surface of the ability of heat transfer and steel itself. Table 1-11 is some common medium and cooling method, cooling ability of the sequence.High temperature gradient produces high stress, deformation and cracking causes,so only in the very need to produce quenching specific structures are used. When the quenching heat uniform, care must be taken to reduce the heat stress diffusion. For example, a thin stick to end its vertical quenching, is inserted into the cooling medium, so whole section and temperature changes. If the shape of a side of the workpiece cooling, and on the other side of the earlier than size change is likely to cause high stress, produce plastic flow and permanent deformation.With several special quenching method can reduce stress, deformation and cracking quenching decreases. One called hierarchical quenching, the method is: will the austenitic steel in temperature is higher than that of martensite transformation temperature (Ms), salt bath time until the temperature uniformity, at the beginning of forming bainite, then put before air cooling, heat generated from the start when the same hardware quenching cracking, martensite and warpage cause of high thermal stress or eliminate stress have been quenched.In a similar method of temperature, then, is called the isothermal quenching (austenitic steel in salt bath), keep for a long time, the result is formed with the isothermal bainite. Bainite structure in the same ingredients as the formation of martensite hard, but in normal hardened steel, reduce the heat shock, by further processing, unnecessary in high hardness can be obtained when good impact toughness.Five, temperingTo adjust hardened steel used the third step is often backfire. Besides the isothermal quenching steel quenching condition usually used in most all can use in production. To produce martensite steel to quench make hard, macro and micro stress, stress, low plasticity materials. To reduce the harm that can be heated to steel again by low-temperature shift (A1) below a certain temperature. Hardened steel structure change of tempering time and temperature is the function of temperature, which is the most important. Must be hardened piece.it is emphasized, method, but the reverse is true. Steel is tempered by heat treatment of hardened steel, through the tempering of heating, to release stress again, soften and improve plastic.The structural change and tempering causes change depending on performance of the heating temperature steel back. The higher the temperature, the temperatureeffect, so the choice is often sacrificed for the hardness and strength plasticity and toughness. Again, to quench heating to influence of carbon-steel, in between, structure, changes will occur in the above, the structure and properties of the significant changes. In the next time the temperature of the A1 heat will produce and process of ball annealing of similar structures.In industry, usually avoid to scope, because the tempering within the scope of tempering steel often produced unexplained brittleness or plastic loss. Some alloy in to scope, also can produce "temper brittleness, especially from" (or by) the temperature range slow cooling will appear. When these steel heat temper, they must usually heated to rapid cooling and above. Of course, from the temperature of cold won't produce sclerosis, fast because no austenitic.金属热处理一、退火在前面描述冷拔加工材料的软化并重新获得塑性的热处理方法时，就已使用退火这个词，该词具有相似的意义。
机械制造工艺外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译213机械设计基础
附录(外文翻译——原文)Fundamentals of Mechanical DesignMechanical design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature—machines, products, structures, devices, and instruments. For the most part mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the materials sciences, and the engineering-mechanics sciences.The total design process is of interest to us. How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at his desk with a blank sheet of paper? And, as he jots down some ideas, what happens next? What factors influence or control the decisions which have to be made? Finally, then, how does this design process end?Sometimes, but not always, design begins when an engineer recognizes a need and decides to do something about it. Recognition of the need and phrasing it in so many words often constitute a highly creative act because the need may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, of a sensing that something is not right.The need is usually not evident at all. For example, the need to do something about a food-packaging machine may be indicated by the noise level, by the variations in package weight, and by slight but perceptible variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap.There is a distinct difference between the statement of the need and the identification of the problem. which follows this statement. The problem is more specific. If the need is for cleaner air, the problem might be that of reducing the dust discharge from power-plant stacks, or reducing the quantity of irritants from automotive exhausts.Definition of the problem must include all the specifications for the thing that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics of the space the thing must occupy and all the limitations on these quantities. We can regard the thing to be designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs and outputs of the box together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the operating temperature, and the reliability.There are many implied specifications which result either from the designer's particular environment or from the nature of the problem itself. The manufacturing processes which are available, together with the facilities of a certain plant, constitute restrictions on a designer's freedom, and hence are a part of the implied specifications. A small plant, for instance, may not own cold-working machinery. Knowing this, the designer selects other metal-processing methods which can be performed in the plant. The labor skills available and the competitive situation also constitute implied specifications.After the problem has been defined and a set of written and implied specifications has been obtained, the next step in design is the synthesis of an optimum solution. Now synthesis cannot take place without both analysis and optimization because the system under design must be analyzed to determine whether the performance complies with the specifications.The design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps, evaluate theresults, and then return to an earlier phase of the procedure. Thus we may synthesize several components of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system. Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract models of the system which will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these models mathematical models. In creating them it is our hope that we can find one which will simulate the real physical system very well.Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design, which usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the need or needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use?Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available to us. There are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the find analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all.Introduction to Machine DesignMachine design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of machine design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Machine design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of machine design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Machine design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions to produce a good design. On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that is the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have “bugs” or unforeseen problems which mu st be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowed to flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Initially the designer must communicate a preliminary design to get management approval. This is usually done by verbal discussions in conjunction with drawing layouts and written material. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1)Does the design really serve a human need?(2)Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3)Is it economical to produce?(4)Can it be readily maintained?(5)Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detailand assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem well occur during the manufacturing cycle. It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This falls in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.MachiningTurning The engine lathe, one of the oldest metal removal machines, has a number of useful and highly desirable attributes. Today these lathes are used primarily in small shops where smaller quantities rather than large production runs are encountered.The engine lathe has been replaced in today's production shops by a wide variety of automatic lathes such as automatic of single-point tooling for maximum metal removal, and the use of form tools for finish and accuracy, are now at the designer's fingertips with production speeds on a par with the fastest processing equipment on the scene today.Tolerances for the engine lathe depend primarily on the skill of the operator. The design engineer must be careful in using tolerances of an experimental part that has been produced on the engine lathe by a skilled operator. In redesigning an experimental part for production, economical tolerances should be used.Turret Lathes Production machining equipment must be evaluated now, more than ever before, in terms of ability to repeat accurately and rapidly. Applying this criterion for establishing the production qualification of a specific method, the turret lathe merits a high rating.In designing for low quantities such as 100 or 200 parts, it is most economical to use the turret lathe. In achieving the optimum tolerances possible on the turret lathe, the designer should strive for a minimum of operations.Automatic Screw Machines Generally, automatic screw machines fall into several categories; single-spindle automatics, multiple-spindle automatics and automatic chucking machines. Originally designed for rapid, automatic production of screws and similar threaded parts, the automatic screw machine has long since exceeded the confines of this narrow field, and today plays a vital role in the mass production of a variety of precision parts. Quantities play an important part in the economy of the parts machined on the automatic to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. Quantities less than 1000 parts may be more economical to set up on the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine. The cost of the parts machined can be reduced if the minimum economical lot size is calculated and the proper machine is selected for these quantities.Automatic Tracer Lathes Since surface roughness depends greatly upon material turned, tooling ,and fees and speeds employed, minimum tolerances that can be held on automatic tracer lathes are not necessarily the most economical tolerances.Is some case, tolerances of ±0.05mm are held in continuous production using but one cut. Groove width can be held to ±0.125mm on some parts. Bores and single-point finishes can be held to ±0.0125mm. On high-production runs where maximum output is desirable, a minimum tolerance of ±0.125mm is economical on both diameter and length of turn.Milling With the exceptions of turning and drilling, milling is undoubtedly the most widely used method of removing metal. Well suited and readily adapted to the economical production of any quantity of parts, the almost unlimited versatility of the milling process merits the attention and consideration of designers seriously concerned with the manufacture of their product.As in any other process, parts that have to be milled should be designed with economical tolerances that can be achieved in production milling. If the part is designed with tolerances finer than necessary, additional operations will have to be added to achieve these tolerances——and this will increase the cost of the part.Grinding Grinding is one of the most widely used methods of finishing parts to extremely close tolerances and low surface roughness. Currently, there are grinders for almost for almost every type of grinding operation. Particular design features of a part dictate to a large degree the type of grinding machine required. Where processing costs are excessive, parts redesigned to utilize a less expensive, higher output grinding method may be well worthwhile. For example, wherever possible the production economy of centerless grinding should be taken advantage of by proper design consideration.Although grinding is usually considered a finishing operation, it is often employed as a complete machining process on work which can be ground down from rough condition without being turned or otherwise machined. Thus many types of forgings and other parts are finished completely with the grinding wheel at appreciable savings of time and expense.Classes of grinding machines include the following: cylindrical grinders, centerless grinders, internal grinders, surface grinders, and tool and cutter grinders.The cylindrical and centerless grinders are for straight cylindrical or taper work; thus splines, shafts, and similar parts are ground on cylindrical machines either of the common-center type or the centerless machine.Thread grinders are used for grinding precision threads for thread gages, and threads on precision parts where the concentricity between the diameter of the shaft and the pitch diameter of the thread must be held to close tolerances.The internal grinders are used for grinding of precision holes, cylinder bores, and similar operations where bores of all kinds are to be finished.The surface grinders are for finishing all kinds of flat work, or work with plain surfaces which may be operated upon either by the edge of a wheel or by the face of a grinding wheel. These machines may have reciprocating or rotating tables.(外文翻译——汉文)机械设计基础机械设计基础是指机械装置和机械系统——机器、产品、结构、设备和仪器的设计。
机械类毕业设计英文翻译
机械类毕业设计英文翻译(共7页) -本页仅作为预览文档封面，使用时请删除本页-襄樊学院毕业设计(论文)英文翻译题目超声波简介及其应用专业机械设计制造及其自动化班级机制0712姓名刘康学号07116201指导教师职称李梅副教授2011年5月25日Introduction and application of ultrasonicUltrasonic is a mechanical waves which frequency above 20,000 Hz. Ultrasonic inspection commonly used in the frequency of 0. 5~5 MHz. The mechanical waves in the material spread in a certain speed and directions, acoustic impedance different heterogeneous interfaces such as defect is encountered or the bottom surface of the object being tested, will reflections. This reflection phenomenon can be used to ultrasonic testing , most common is pulse echo testing method testing , pulse oscillator issued of voltage plus in probe with pressure electric ceramic or quartz chip made of detection components , probe issued of ultrasonic pulse by sound coupled media such as oil or water , entered material and in which spread , encountered defects , part reflection energy along original way returns probe , probe will change it in electric pulse , by instrument zoom and display in oscilloscope tubes of screen . Depending on where the flaw echo on the screen and amplitude of reflection wave with artificial defects in a reference block rate compared to defect location and approximate dimensions. Apart from Echo method, and use another probe to the other side of the workpiece to accept signal penetration method. When use ultrasonic detection the physical properties of materials, also often take advantage of ultrasonic in sound velocity, attenuation and resonance characteristics of workpiece.Ultrasonic characteristics: 1, ultrasonic beam to focus on a specific direction, along the straight lines in the media, has a good point. 2, ultrasonic wave propagation in the media, attenuation and scattering occurs. 3, ultrasonic wave on the interface of heterogeneous media will make reflection, refraction and mode conversion. Using these features, you can get the defective interface from reflected reflection, so as to achieve the purpose of detecting defects. 4, ultrasonic energy is power than sonic. 5, the ultrasonic loss is very small in solid transmission , probe depth, as occurs in the hetero - interface by ultrasonic phenomena such as reflection, refraction, especially not by gas - solid interface. If the metal air holes, flaws and layer defects such as defects in a gas or a mixture, when defects at the interface of ultrasonic propagation to the metal and on all or part of the reflection. Reflected ultrasonic probe received, handled through circuits inside the instrument, on the screen of the instrument will show a different height and have a certain pitch on waveform characteristics of determine defect depth, location, and shape of the workpiece.Non - destructive testing is not damaged parts or raw materials subject to the status of the work, a means of detection of surfaceand internal quality checks, Nondestructive Testing abbreviationsshort for NDT. Ultrasonic testing is also called ultrasonic,ultrasonic flaw detector, is a type of non - destructive testing. UTis on industrial ultrasonic testing non - destructive testing methods. Ultrasonic enters objects when a defect is encountered, some sound waves produce reflection, transmit and receive an analysis of the reflected wave, exception can accurately gauge the flaws. And is able to display the location and size of internal defects, determinationof material thickness.Advantages of ultrasonic inspection is to detect thickness, high sensitivity, high speed, low cost, is harmless to human body, can be positioned and quantitative defects. Display of ultrasonic detection on defects are not intuitive, testing of technical difficulty, vulnerable to subjective and objective factors, and inspectionresults are not easy to hold, ultrasonic testing requirements on the work surface smooth, requiring experienced inspectors to identify defects types, suitable for the part of considerable thickness inspection, ultrasonic inspection has its limitations.Variety of ultrasonic flaw detector, but most widely applicationof pulse - echo ultrasonic flaw detector. In general, in uniform material, presence of defect will create material discontinuity,this often acoustic impedance of the discontinuity is inconsistent , bythe reflection theorem we know that, in two different acoustic impedance by ultrasonic reflection on the interface of media occurs. Size and interface on both sides of the reflected energy media differences in acoustic impedance and orientation, relative to thesize of the interface. Pulse - echo ultrasonic flaw detector is designed according to this principle. Most of pulse - echo ultrasonic flaw detector is a scan, the so-called A-scan display is the way the display of ultrasonic detection in materials is the horizontal coordinate of transmission time or distance, the ordinate is the amplitude of ultrasonic reflected wave. Such as , in a workpiece in the exists a defects , because defects of exists , between defectsand material formed a different media junction surface, interface of sound impedance different , when launch of ultrasonic encounteredthis interface will occurs reflection , reflection back of energy and probe received it, in monitor screen in the horizontal of must of location on will display out a reflection wave of waveform ,horizontal of this location is defects wave in was detection material in the of depth . The reflected wave height and shape of different because of different defects, reflecting the nature of the defect Now is usually on the measured object, human launch industrial materials such as ultrasound, and then use its reflection, Doppler effect, transmission to get the formation of internal information andprocessing of measured object image. Ultrasonic flaw detector which more general Doppler effect method is using ultrasonic in encountered movement of object Shi occurs of more general Doppler frequency moved effect to came the object of movement direction and speed , characteristics ; transmission rule is by analysis ultrasonic penetrating had was measuring object of changes and came object of internal characteristics of , its application currently also is development stage ; ultrasonic flaw detector here main describes ofis currently application up to of by reflection method to gets object internal characteristics information of method. Reflection method is based on ultrasonic in by different sound impedance organization interface will occurs strong reflection of principle work of , as we all know , When sonic from a media spread to another media in the interface will occurs reflection , and media of differences more large reflection will more large , so we can launch out penetrating force strong , and to line spread of ultrasonic to a object , and on reflection back of ultrasonic for received and under these reflection back of ultrasonic , and range , situation on can judgment out this organization in the contains of various media of size , and distribution situation and various media of comparison differences degree , information which reflection back of ultrasonic of has can reflect out reflection interface away from detection surface of distance , range can reflect out media of size , and comparison differences degree , characteristics , ultrasonic flaw detector to judgment out the was measuring object is has exception . In this process involves many aspects of content, including produce, receive, ultrasonic signal conversion and processing. One method is through the circuit of ultrasonic excitation signals to crystals such as quartz, lithium sulfate, with the piezoelectric effect, making it resulting in ultrasonic vibration ; receives the reflected ultrasonic waves when the piezoelectric crystals, there will be pressure from the reflected sound waves and electrical signals and transferred to the signal processing circuit for a series of processing, observation of ultrasonic flaw detector resulting images for people to judge.Types of image processing can be divided into A type display display, M and B type show, C-type display, such as F-type display. Which A type display is will received to of ultrasonic signal processing into waveform image , under waveform of shape can see was measuring object inside is has exception and defects in there , and has more large , ultrasonic flaw detector main for industrial detection ; M type display is will a section after fai of processing of detection information by time order expand formation a dimension of " space more points movement timing figure " , for observation internal is movement state of object , ultrasonic flaw detector asmovement of organ , and artery vascular; B type display is will side - by - side many section after fai of processing of detection information group synthesis of second dimension of , and reflect out was measuring object internal fault section of " Anatomy image " hospital in using of B Super is with this principle do out of , ultrasonic flaw detector for observation internal is static ofobject ; and c type display , and F type display now with was comparison less . Detection of ultrasonic flaw detector can be very accurate, and more convenient, fast compared to other testing methods, nor harmful to detect objects and actions, so welcomed by the people more and more popular, has a very broad prospects for development. With the further development of electronic technology and software technology, digital ultrasonic flaw detector there are broad development prospects. Believe in the near future, more advanced new generation of digital intelligent ultrasonic flaw detector will gradually replace traditional analog detector, mainly for imagedisplay detector will be widely used in industrial inspection.Ultrasonic characterization of defects is always a difficult problem, still mainly relies on experience and analysis of inspection personnel, and poor accuracy. Development of the modern discipline of artificial intelligence for the realization of instrument automatic defect characterization offers the potential. Application of pattern recognition technology and expert systems, various characteristics of a large number of known defects input sample library, to accept the equipment people experience, and after studying with automatic defect characterization capabilities.超声波简介及其应用超声波是频率高于20千赫的机械波。
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附录A一、创建焊接程序[焊缝的示教]。
焊接机器人程序编辑1、打开控制柜上的电源开关在“ON”状态。
2、将运作模式调到“TEACH”→“示教模式下”1.进入程序编辑状态：1.1.先在主菜单上选择[程序]一览并打开；1.2.在[程序]的主菜单中选择[新建程序]1.3.显示新建程序画面后按[选择]键1.4.显示字符画面后输入程序名现以“TEST”为新建程序名举例说明；1.5.把光标移到字母“T”、“E”“S”、“T”上按[选择]键选中各个字母；1.6.按[回车]键进行登录；1.7.把光标移到“执行”上并确认后，程序“TEST”被登录，并且屏幕画面上显示该程序的初始状态“NOPCEOO”、“ENDCOOL”1.8.编辑机器人要走的轨迹（以机器人焊接直线焊缝为例）；2.把机器人移动到离安全位置，周边环境便于作业的位置，输入程序（001）；2.1. 握住安全电源开关，接通伺服电源机器人进入可动作状态；2.2.用轴操作键将机器人移动到开始位置（开始位置电影摄制在安全病史和作业准备位置）；2.3.按[插补方式]键，把插补方式定为关节插补，输入缓冲显示行中显示关节插补命令，‘M OVJ“→”“MOVJ,,VJ=0.78”2.4.光标放在“00000”处，按[选择]键；2.5.把光标移动到右边的速度“VJ=**”上，按[转换]键+光标“上下”键，设定再现速度，若设定速度为 50%时，则画面显示“→MOUVJ VJ=50%”,也可以把光标移到右边的速度，‘VJ=***' 上按[选择]键后，可以直接在画面上输入要设定的速度，然后按[回车]键确认。
2.6.按[回车]键，输入程序点（即行号 0001）3.决定机器人的作业姿态（作业开始位置的附近）3.1.用轴操作键，使机器人姿态成为作业姿态，然后移到相应的位置；3.2.按[回车]键，输入程序点 2（0002）；3.3.保持程序点 2 的姿态不变，移向作业开始位置；3.3.1.保持程序点 2 的姿态不便，按[坐标]键，设定机器人坐标为直角坐标系，用轴操作键把机器人移到作业开始的位置（在移动前可以按手动速度[高][低]键选择焊枪在示教中移动的速度）；3.3.2.光标在行号 0002 处按[选择]键3.3.3.把光标移动到右边的速度，VJ=***上按[转换]+光标”上下键，设定再现速度，直到设定的速度为所需速度（也可用光标移到速度 VJ=***上，按[选择]键后，输入需要的速度值，按 [回车]键确认即可）；3.3.4.按[回车]键，输入程序点 3（行号 0003）；3.3.4.1.把光标移动到“0003”上，按[引弧]键+[回车]键，输入“引弧”指令（行0004）（“引弧” 为“ARCON”）3.3.4.2.把光标移动到行号 0003 上按[引弧]键，在缓冲显示区显示出“ARCON’”指令以及引弧时的条件；3.3.4.3.对引弧指令中的附加引弧条件根据焊接工件的实际情况进行修改； 3.3.4.4.按[回车]键输入“引弧”指令（行号 0004）；3.3.4.5.指定作业点位置（作业结束位置）3.3.4.6.用轴操作键把机器人移到焊接作业结束位置从作业开始位置到结束位置不必精确沿焊缝运动，为防止不碰撞工件移动轨迹可远离工件；3.3.4.7.按[插补方式]键，插补方式设定为直线插补（MOVL)亦可把光标放在“MOVJ”上，按[选择]键，然后按[转换]+光标上下键可以调整选择插补方式，然后按[回车]键；3.3.4.8.光标在行号 0004 上按[选择]键；3.3.4.9.把光标移到右边速度“V=***”上，按[转换]+光标上下键设定速度；3.3.4.10.按[回车]键，输入程序点 4（行号 0005）； 3.4.按[收弧]键输入（收弧命令为“ARCOF”）3.5.把机器人移到不碰撞工件和夹具的位置；3.5.1.按手动速度[高]键，设定为高速（手动速度[高]键只是显示示教时的速度，再现中以定义的速度运行）；3.5.2.用轴操作键把机器人移到不碰撞夹具的位置；3.5.3.按[插补方式]键，设定插补方式为关节插补（MOVJ）；3.5.4.光标在行号 0006 上，按[选择]键→MOVJ VJ=15；3.5.5.把光标移到右边的速度 VJ=15 上，按[转换]+上下键，设定速度（也可按[选择]键后，直接输入要设定的速度，再按[回车]键登录速度；3.5.6.按[回车]键，输入程序点（行 0007）3.6.把机器人移到开始位置上；3.6.1 把光标返回到 0001 上，按[前进]键把机器人移动到程序点 1 上；3.6.2.再把光标移到行号 0007 上，按[回车]键，输入程序点 8（行 0008）二、确认所设定的程序中的轨迹操作； 1、把光标移到程序点 0001 上； 2、按手动速度[高][低]键设定速度键； 3、按[前进]键，通过机器人动作确认各程序点，每按一次[前进]键机器人移动到一个程序点； 4、亦可把光标移到程序点行 0001 上，按[连锁]+[试运行]键，机器人连续再现所有程序点，一个循环后停止运作；三、在焊接中，往往有时设定好的程序有许多与实际生产不适合，所以需要进行修该程序（包括又插入程序点、删除程序点、修改程序点的位置数据等）； 1、插入程序点； 1.1.把程序内容打开（以在程序点 3、4、之间插入为列）； 1.2.按[前进]键，除]键； 2.3.按[回车]键，程序点 3 被删除； 3、修改程序点的位置数据（以程序点 3 位列）; 3.1.把光标移到程序点 3 上； 3.2.按[前进]键，使机器人回到程序点3 上； 3.3.用轴操作键把机器人移到修改后的位置； 3.4.按[修改]键； 3.5.按[回车]键，程序点的位置数据被修改； 4、设定焊接条件：(ARCON ARCOF ARCOF); 4.1.先打开程序内容； 4.2.把光标移到要进行焊接作业的程序点的前一个行号上； 4.3.按[引弧]键或[命令一览]键中选择程序[作业]中选择 ARCON 命令，缓冲显示区有 AR CON 指令及附加条件； 4.4.按[回车]键‘引弧“命令自动在程序中生成； 4.5.设定引弧条件的方式有三种（一、把各种条件作为附加项进行设定的方法，二、使用引弧文件的方法 ASF#(X),三、不带附加项） 5.用附加项设定焊接条件的方法； 5.1.在命令区选择 ARCON 指令，（缓冲区显示 ARCON 指令）； 5.2.按[选择]键（显示详细编辑画面，选择“未使用”； 5.3.选择“未使用”（显示选择对话框）； 5.4.选择“AC=**(在 ARCON 命令的附加项中已设定引弧条件时，显示详细编辑画面)； 5.5.输入焊接条件（设定每个焊接条件）； 5.6.按[回车]键（设定的内容显示在输入缓冲区中）； 5.7.按[回车]键设定的内容登录到程序中； 5.8.不想登录设定的程序时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面； 6.使用引弧条件文件； 6.1.在命令区选择 ARCON 命令，（输入缓冲行显示 ARCON 命令）； 6.2.按[选择]键，（显示详细编辑画面）； 6.3.选择“未使用‘（显示选择对话框）； 6.4.选择 ASF#() (显示详细编辑画面)； 6.5.设定文件号（指定文件号 1~64 把光标移到文件号上，按[选择]键→用数值输入文件号按[回车]键； 6.6.按[回车]键，（设定的内容显示在输入行中）； 6.7.按[回车]键，（设定的内容登录到程序中）； 6.8.不想登录设定的文件内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面； 7.没有附加项的方法； 7.1.选择命令区 ARCON 命令（输入缓冲行显示 ARCON 的命令）； 7.2.按[选择]键（显示详细编辑画面）； 7.3.选择 ASF#() (显示选择对话框)； 7.4.选择‘未使用“； 7.5.选择[回车]键，设定的内容在输入缓冲行中； 7.6.按[回车]键，设定的内容登录到程序中； 7.7.不想登录设定的内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面；四、分别设定焊接条件（电流、电压命令）； 1.登录 AECSET 命令； 1.1.把光标移到地址区； 1.2.按[命令一览]键（显示命令一览对话框）； 1.3.选择“作业”； 1.4.选择 ARCSET 命令（输入缓冲显示 ARCSET 命令）；1.5.按[选择]键（显示详细编辑画面）； 1.6.设定焊接条件（把光标移动到设定的项目上，按[选择]键，用数值键输入焊接条件，再按[回车]键，追加附加项时，在选择对话框中选择“未使用”删除附加项时也同样把光标移到想删除的附加项上，按[选择]键选择“未使用”； 1.7.按[回车]键（所设定的内容显示在缓冲区行）； 1.8.按[回车]键把机器人移动到程序点 3 上； 1.3.用轴操作键把机器人移到想插入位置； 1.4.按[插入]键； 1.5.按[回车]键完成程序点插入，所插入程序点行号为（0004）， 2、删除程序点（以 3、4 位列）；2.1.按[前进]键，把机器人移到要删除的程序点 3 上；2.2.按[删（设定的内容被输入到程序中，当不想登录设定的内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面）； 2.设定熄弧条件（填弧坑处理）； 1.按[熄弧]键，输入熄弧命令（利用[命令一览]键进行 AECOF 命令登录时，选择命令中的“作业”； 2.登录ARCOF 方法； 2.1.按[熄弧]键 2.2.按[回车]键； 2.3.设定熄弧条件（ARCOF 有三种方法；一、把各种条件作为附加项进行设定；二、使用熄弧条件方法；三、不带附加项）； 3.各条件设定为附加项的方法； 3.1.选择命令区的 ARCOF 命令（输入缓冲区显示 ARCOF 命令）； 3.2.按[选择]键（显示详细编辑画面）； 3.3.选择“未使用”（显示选择对话框）； 3.4.选择“AC=”； 3.5.输入焊接收弧条件（设定各个焊接条件）；3.6.按[回车]键（输入缓冲区行显示设定的条件）； 3.7.按[回车]键（设定的内容被登录到程序中）； 3.8.不想登录设定的内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面；4.使用熄弧条件方法； 4.1.选择命令区的 ARCOF 命令（输入缓冲行显示 ARCOF 命令）；4.2.按[选择]键（显示详细的编辑画面）； 4.3.选择“未使用”（显示选择对话框）；4.4.选择“AEF#（）； 4.5.设定文件号（1~12 把光标移到文件号上，按[选择]键确定用数值键输入文件号，按[回车] 键； 4.6.按[回车]键（设定的内容显示在输入缓冲行中）； 4.7.按[回车]键（设定的内容被输入到程序中）； 4.8.不想登录设定的内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面）；五、不带附加项的内容； 1.选择命令区的ARCOF 命令（输入缓冲行显示 ARCOF 命令）； 2.按[选择]键（显示详细编辑画面）； 3.选择 AEF#()或 AC=*** (显示选择对话框)； 4.选择‘未使用’； 5.按[回车]键（输入缓冲行显示设定的内容）； 6.按[回车]键（设定的内容被输入到程序中）； 7.不想登录设定的内容时，按[清除]键，回到程序内容画面； 8.确认动作（检查运行）；把所设定的程序轨迹进行一次模拟实验，在再现模式中，调出‘检查运行’一行进行轨迹确认； 9.在程序的再现画面按[区域]键； 10.选择[实用]工具栏； 11.选择设定的特殊运行户（显示特殊运行画面）； 12.选择‘检车运行’（每次按[选择]键有效、无效、交替交换； 13.选择‘有效’字样； 14.打开[伺服电源]键； 15.把光标移到程序点 1 上按下[START]键，机器人自行检查； 16.焊接条件的微调；六、焊接条件的微调； 1、进行焊接利用已经调整好的程序； 2、从焊缝外观进行焊接条件的微调（根据焊缝成型情况对焊接电流、电压等进行调整）；七、生产； 1、把运作模式设定在‘再现’模式； 2、选择主菜单的[程序]一行中子菜单[选择程序]并打开； 3、把光标移到要选择用于焊接的程序中； 4、进行程序轨迹检查运行； 5、当检查完后，把光标移到‘0001’上，运作模式设定为‘再现模式’按下‘START’进行焊接。