ClaiMaker Weaving a Semantic Web of Research Papers
美国文学选择题2014
1. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______ at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmes as "Our intellectual Declaration of Independence."A. "Nature"B. "Self-Reliance"C. "Divinity School Address"D. "The American Scholar"2. For Melville, as well as for the reader and _______ , the narrator, Moby Dick is stilla mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe.A. AhabB. IshmaelC. StubbD. Starbuck3. Most of the poems in Whitman's Leaves of Grass sing of the "mass" and the _______ as well.A. natureB. self-relianceC. selfD. life4. Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author's tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more _______ .A. rationalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic5. Dreiser's Trilogy of Desire includes three novels. They are The Financier, The Titan and _______ .A. The GeniusB. The TycoonC. The StoicD. The Giant6. The impact of Darwin's evolutionary theory on the American thought and the influence of the nineteenth-century French literature on the American men of letters gave rise to yet another school of realism: American ________ .A. local colorismB. imagismC. modernismD. naturalism7. It is on his _______ that Washington Irving's fame mainly rested.A. childhood recollectionsB. sketches about his European toursC. early poetryD. tales about America8. Which of the following works concerns most concentrated the Calvinistic view of original sin?A. The Wasteland.B. The Scarlet Letter.C. Leaves of Grass.D. As I Lay Dying9. We can perhaps summarize that Walt Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except that they are _______.A. conversational and crudeB. lyrical and well-structuredC. simple and rather crudeD. free-flowing10. Who exerts the single most important influence on literary naturalism, of which Theodore Dreiser and Jack London are among the best representative writers?A. FreudB. Darwin.C. W.D. Howells.D. Emerson11. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his ____.A. international themeB. waste-land imageryC. local colorD. symbolism12. The period before the American Civil War is commonly referred to as _______.A. the Romantic PeriodB. the Realistic PeriodC. the Naturalist PeriodD. the Modern Period13. “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; / Petals on a wet, black bough.” This is the shortest poem written by（）.A. e.e. Cummings C. Ezra PoundB. T.S. Eliot D. Robert Frost14. In Henry James’ Daisy Miller, the author tries to portray the young woman as an embodiment of _______.A. the force of conventionB. the free spirit of the New WorldC. the decline of aristocracyD. the corruption of the newly rich15. "Two roads diverged in a yellow woodAnd sorry I could not travel both ..."In the above two lines of Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken, the poet, by i mplication, was referring to _______.A. a travel experienceB. a marriage decisionC. a middle-age crisisD. one’s course of life16. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is _______.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking17. Which of the following is not a work of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s?A. The House of the Seven Gables.B. The Blithedale Romance.C. The Marble Falun.D. White Jacket.18. _________is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald19. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as _______.A. commentatorsB. observersC. villainsD. saviors20. Besides sketches, tales and essays, Washington Irving also published a book on ______, which is also considered an important part of his creative writing.A. poetic theoryB. French artC. history of New YorkD. life of George Washington21. In Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, there are detailed descriptions of big parties. The purpose of such descriptions is to show _______.A. emptiness of lifeB. the corruption of the upper classC. contrast of the rich and the poorD. the happy days of the Jazz Age22. In American literature, escaping from the society and returning to nature is a common subject. The following titles are all related, in one way or another, to the subject except _______.A. Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. Dreiser’s Sister CarrieC. Copper’s Leather-Stocking TalesD. Thoreau’s Walden23. Which of the following novels can be regarded as typically belonging to the school of literary modernism?A. The Sound and the FuryB. Uncle To m’s Cabin.C. Daisy Miller.D. The Gilded Age.24. Emily Dickinson wrote many short poems on various aspects of life. Which of the following is not a usual subject of her poetic expression?A. Religion.B. Life and death.C. Love and marriage.D. War and peace.25. Most recognizable literary movement that gave rise to the twentieth-century American literature, or we may say, the second American Renaissance, is the _______ movement.A. transcendentalB. leftistC. expatriateD. expressionistic26. As an autobiographical play, O'Neill's _______ （1956）has gained its status as a world classic and simultaneously marks the climax of his literary career and the coming of age of American drama.A. The Iceman ComethB. Long Day's Journey Into NightC. The Hairy ApeD. Desire Under the Elms27. Apart from the dislocation （错位）of time and the modern stream-of-consciousness, the other narrative techniques Faulkner used to construct his stories include _______ , symbolism and mythological and biblical allusions.A. impressionismB. expressionismC. multiple points of viewD. first person point of view28. Stylistically, Henry James' fiction is characterized by _______ .A. short, clear sentencesB. abundance of local imagesC. ordinary American speechD. highly refined language29. Robert Frost combined traditional verse forms with a plain speech of _______ farmers .A. SouthernB. WesternC. New HampshireD. New England30. Henry David Thoreau's work, ________has always been regarded as a masterpiece of New England Transcendentalism.A. WaldenB. The pioneersC. NatureD. Song of Myself31. The famous 20-years sleep in “Rip Van Winkle” helps to construct the story in such a way that we are greatly affected by Irving's ___.A. concern with the passage of timeB. expression of transient (短暂的）beautyC. satire on laziness and corruptibility of human beingsD. idea about supernatural manipulation of man's life32.Walt Whitman was a pioneering figure of American poetry. His innovation first of all lies in his use of __, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme.A. blank verseB. heroic coupletC. free verseD. iambic pentameter33. In Moby-Dick, the white whale symbolizes _______ for Melville, for it is complex, unfathomable, malignant, and beautiful as well.A. natureB. human societyC. whaling industryD. truth34. Hester, Dimmsdale, Chillingworth and Pearl are most likely the names of the characters in ___.A. The Scarlet LetterB. The House of the Seven GablesC. The Portrait of a LadyD. The pioneers35. With Howells, James, and Mark Twain active on the literary scene, _______ became the major trend in American literature in the seventies and eighties of the 19thcentury.A. sentimentalismB. romanticismC. realismD. naturalism36. After The adventures of Tom Sawyer, Twain gives a literary independence to Tom's buddy Huck in a book entitled ___.A. Life on the MississippiB. The Gilded AgeC. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnD. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court37. Generally speaking, all those writers with a naturalistic approach to human reality tend to be _____.A. transcendentalistsB. idealistsC. pessimistsD. impressionists38.In the last chapter of Sister Carrie, there is a description about Hurstwood, one of the protagonists of the novel, “Now he began leisurely to take off his clothes, but stopped first with his coat, and tucked it along the crack under the door. His vest he arranged in the same place.” Why did he do this? Because ________.A. he wanted to commit suicideB. he wanted to keep the room warmC. he didn’t want to be found by othersD. he wanted to enjoy the peace of mind39.The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the ___ in the American literary history.A .individual feelingsB. idea of survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature40. Chinese poetry and philosophy have exerted great influence over ____.A. Ezra PoundB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Robert FrostD. Emily Dickinson41. The Hemingway Code heroes（硬汉形象）are best remembered for their __.A. indestructible spiritB. pessimistic view of lifeC. war experiencesD. masculinity (男性，男子气）42. IN The Emperor Jones and The Hairy Ape, O'Neill adopted the expressionist techniques to portray the _____ of human beings in a hostile universe.A. helpless situationB. uncertaintyC. profound religious faithD. courage and perseverance43. The high tide of Romanticism in American literature occurred around .[A]1820[B]1850[C]1880[D]192044.The subj ect matter of Robert Frost’s Poems focuses on .[A] ordinary country people and scenes[B]battle scenes of ancient Greek and Roman legends[C]struggling masses and crowded urban quarters[D]fantasies and mythical happenings45.Which group of writers are among those who may be called early pioneers of American literature?[A]Mark Twain and Henry James.[B]Fenimore Cooper and Washington lrving.[C]Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner[D]Jack London and O’Henry.46.To Theodore Dreiser, life is “so sad, so strange, so mysterious and so inexplicable.” No wonder the characters in his books are often subject to the control of the natural forces, especially those of _____and heredity.[A]fate[B]morality[C]social conventions[D]environment47.Hawthorne generally concerns himself with such issues as in his fiction.[A]the evil in man’s heart[B]the material pursuit[C]the racial conflict[D]the social inequality48._______ provides the main source of influence on American naturalism.[A]The puritan heritage[B]Howells’ ideas of realism[C]Darwin’s theory of evolution[D]The pioneer spirit of the wild west49.In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of huckleberry Finn, Huck writes a letter to inform against Jim, the escaped slave, and then he tears the letter up. This fact reveals that______ .[A]Huck has a mixed feeling of love and hate[B]there is a conflict between society and conscience in Huck[C]Huck is always an indecisive person[D]Huck has very little education50.Which terms can best describe the modernists’ concern of the human situation in their fiction?[A]Fragmentation （崩溃）and alienation.[B]Courage and honor.[C]Tradition and faith.[D]Poverty and desperation.51.Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except .[A]a strict poetic form[B]a simple and conversational language[C]a free and natural rhythmic pattern[D]an easy flow of feelings52.All his novels reveal that, as time went on, Mark Twain became increasingly ____.[A]prolific (多产的）[B]artistic.[C]optimistic[D]pessimistic53.Which of the following is NOT a typical feature of Henry James’s writing style?[A] exquisite and elaborate language[B]minute and detailed descriptions[C]lengthy psychological analyses[D]American colloquialism54.In the beginning paragraph of Chapter 3, The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald describes a big party by saying that “men and girls came and went like moths.” The author most likely indicates that______ .[A]there was a crowd of party-goers[B]such life does not have real meaning[C]these people were light-hearted[D]these were crazy and ignorant characters55.Which one of the following statements is NOT true of William Faulkner?[A]He is master of stream-of-consciousness narrative.[B]His writing is often complex and difficult to understand.[C]He often depicts slum life in New York and Chicago.[D]He represents a new group of Southern writers.56._________is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th century “stream-of-consciousness” novels and the founder of psychological realism.A. Theodore DreiserB. William FaulknerC. Henry JamesD. Mark Twain57.By the end of Sister Carrie, Dreiser writes, “It was forever to the pursuit of that radiance of delight which tints the distant hilltops of the world.” Dreiser implies that_____ .[A]there is a bright future lying ahead[B]there is no end to man’s desire[C]one should always be forward-looking[D]happiness is found in the end58. At the beginning of Faulkner’s A Rose For Emily, there is a detailed description of Emily’s old house. The purpose of such description is to imply that the person living in it ______.A. is a wealth ladyB. has good tasteC. is a prisoner of the pastD. is a conservative aristocrat59. ________ is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald60.The theme of Washington Irving’s Rip Van Winkle is（）.A. the conflict of human psycheB. the fight against racial discriminationC. the familial conflictD. the nostalgia（怀旧之情）for the unrecoverable past61.Hemingway once described Mark Twain’s novel ______ the one book from which “all modern American literature comes.”A. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. The Adventures of Tom SawyerC. The Gilded AgeD. The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg。
根据句子学英语(十七)
The operation cannot wait.
伤口慢慢愈合了.
The wound was healing slowly.
他厌倦了享乐。
He was satiated with pleasure.
室内一片漆黑.
The room was in complete darkness.
这水不宜饮用。
He prides himself on his handwriting.
她坐着凝视着窗外。
She sat gazing out of the window.
我们最终达成了协议。
Finally we reached an agreement.
她向往她逝去的青春。
She sighed for her lost youth.
她希望与家人团聚。
She hopes reuniting with her family.
深奥的形而上学理论
A deep metaphysical theory.
他们彼此极不和.
They don't get on at all well together/with one another.
我决不会故意得罪他.
我们今年有很大亏损。
We have a great deficit this year.
这辆汽车操纵灵敏.
The car responds well to the controls.
他同意我有权上诉.
He allowed that I had the right to appeal.
他以他的书法为自豪。
他宣称蔑视钱财。
He claims to despise riches.
Larmore：public reason
charles larmore10Public Reason1For John Rawls,public reason is not one political value among others. It envelops all the different elements that make up the ideal of a constitutional democracy,for it governs“the political relation”in which we ought to stand to one another as citizens(CP,p.574). Public reason involves more than just the idea that the principles of political association should be an object of public knowledge.Its concern is the very basis of our collectively binding decisions.We honor public reason when we bring our own reason into accord with the reason of others,espousing a common point of view for settling the terms of our political life.The conception of justice by which we live is then a conception we endorse,not for the different reasons we may each discover,and not simply for reasons we happen to share, but instead for reasons that count for us because we can affirm them together.This spirit of reciprocity is the foundation of a democratic society.Public reason has emerged as an explicit theme in Rawls’s writings only after A Theory of Justice with his turn to“political liberalism”and the pursuit of a common ground on which people can stand de-spite their deep ethical and religious differences.But the concept itself has always been at the heart of his philosophy.It runs through his first book in the guise of the idea of publicity,playing an in-dispensable part in the theory of justice as fairness.The notion of fairness itself,so central to Rawls’s thought,denotes that mutual acknowledgement of principles which public reason demands and which forms the real import of the language of social contract he has used to articulate his conception of justice.Rawls’s recent writings about public reason outline a complex model of deliberative democracy,as it is called today,2and I examine 368Public Reason369 his account in detail in Sections III and IV.But I begin by unearthing its roots in his earlier idea of publicity and by showing how funda-mental is the dimension of Rawls’s philosophy to which the idea of public reason gives expression.I.publicity in a theory of justiceReaders of A Theory of Justice ought to wonder more than they do about the contractarian form in which Rawls presents his theory of justice as fairness.Even in the introductory chapter of the book,he does little to explain the need to think about justice in terms of a contract.His notion of an“original position”is meant,like“the state of nature”in the social contract tradition,to describe a situa-tion in which free and rational beings determine the principles that will regulate their subsequent conduct.Yet as Rawls admits(more forthrightly than earlier contract theorists),this initial situation has never existed and never will.The“original position”is a condition in which we imagine choosing principles of justice,not one in which as real people we ever find ourselves.Something needs to be said, therefore,about the reasons to think of principles of justice as the result of an agreement that in fact we never make.In one passage,Rawls remarks that to understand fair principles of justice as the object of agreement among free and rational persons entails seeing that“the theory of justice is a part,perhaps the most significant part,of the theory of rational choice”(TJ,p.16/15rev.). This formulation wrongly suggests that fairness derives from the rational pursuit of individual advantage,when in reality it forms an irreducibly moral notion.Of course,the Rawls of A Theory of Justice would scarcely have denied this point.Though the parties in the original position are described as deliberating in accord with the principles of rational choice,the conditions he imposes upon their choice(the“veil of ignorance”that denies them knowledge of their class position,assets,and abilities)constitute moral limits on the sorts of information it would be fair for them to ter Rawls will introduce a distinction between two capacities of reason,the “rational”and the“reasonable,”to differentiate these two elements of the original position,and he will disclaim any attempt to derive the reasonable,or the disposition to seek fair terms of cooperation, from the rational(PL,pp.48–53).Still,our question remains,What370charles larmoreuseful purpose is served by the idea of an original contract,morally defined though it is,if it refers to an agreement which is never really made?One might suppose that the structure of Rawls’s theory would have been clearer had he not made use of this idea.In an insightful review of A Theory of Justice,Ronald Dworkin noted that a hypo-thetical contract,being strictly speaking no contract at all,can have no binding force on the people supposedly subject to it.It is also an idle notion.To claim that certain principles are valid because they would be the object of rational agreement is a roundabout way,he argued,of saying that they are valid because there is reason to accept what they assert.The two principles of justice favored by Rawls have their real basis in the fundamental right to equal concern and respect which they express.3Dworkin’s skepticism about contractarian terminology has my sympathy,and I agree that a principle of respect for persons under-girds Rawls’s theory of justice.But though the idea of an original contract is,as Rawls will later say,just a“device of representation”(PL,p.24),we need to attend to all the aspects of justice which it serves to represent.In fact,conceiving of the principles of justice as the object of a rational agreement comes to more than saying that each individual concerned has reason to accept them.The language of contract also points to the good in each individual’s finding that reason in the reason that others have to accept them as well.This good lies at the core of the ideal which Rawls calls“publicity,”and a virtue of the idea of contract,as he observes(TJ,p.16/15rev.),is that it gives expression to this ideal.The point is that just as the validity of a contract does not turn solely on the terms agreed to,but also on the fact of agreement,so justice consists in more than the proper distribution of rights and assets.Principles of justice should also be public,each of us affirm-ing them in light of the fact that others affirm them too.More is necessary(we may say to fix terms)than just a scheme of distribu-tive justice,even one that each of us has reason to endorse.Equally important is the publicity of its defining principles–that our reason for accepting them turns on others having reason to accept them too. When a conception of justice enjoys this kind of common support,it figures in our thinking,as Rawls says a public conception will do(TJ, pp.55f./48rev.,133/115rev.),exactly as though it had been the resultPublic Reason371 of an agreement.Even though no formal act of agreement is needed for us to base our reasons on those of others,a“just so”story about a hypothetical contract helps to highlight this public dimension of justice.The contractarian metaphor has the merit of combining in a single image two essential conditions which the principles of justice should satisfy–their justifiability to reason and their publicity.To-gether these two conditions define Rawls’s ideal of a“well-ordered”society,which not only advances the good of its members but does so in accord with a public conception of justice.It is“a society in which(1)everyone accepts and knows that the others accept the same principles of justice,and(2)the basic social institutions gener-ally satisfy and are generally known to satisfy these principles”(TJ, p.5/4rev.).Justice would not be all that it should be without this shared affirmation.It is therefore unfortunate that Rawls does not adequately explain why publicity represents so preeminent a value.In A Theory of Jus-tice,the“publicity condition”generally enters the discussion from the side,as though merely a further desideratum that principles of justice should possess.It receives no extended treatment of its own. One can easily overlook how central it is to Rawls’s very idea of jus-tice,and the contractarian terminology can then appear as otiose as Dworkin claims.Regrettably,too,Rawls’s statements about public-ity in this book generally equate it with public knowledge,as though it entailed only that citizens know the operative principles of jus-tice and one another’s reasons for accepting them.The work he ex-pects from it shows,however,that he has something more ambitious in mind.Publicity really amounts to the demand that the reasons each person has to endorse the principles be reasons the person sees others to have to endorse them as well.It requires that the principles of justice be grounded in a shared point of view.Publicity’s true import becomes evident if we follow the role the concept plays in A Theory of Justice.It shapes the ideal of a well-ordered society,as we have seen.But it also acts as a crucial premise in the“stability argument”for the two principles of justice,and to that I now turn.Rawls begins by rejecting those“indirect”forms of utilitarianism that favor maximizing the general happiness by means of encouraging people to act on nonutilitarian principles.Such a sys-tem of justice would fail even to be an object of public knowledge(TJ, p.181/158rev.).However,he next invokes publicity in a deeper sense372charles larmoreas he argues that utility,understood as the explicit charter of soci-ety,would prove unstable since it would place too great a strain on individual self-esteem(TJ,Sec.29,69–77).Other things being equal, a conception of justice is better,he holds,the stabler it is,generating its own support so as to outweigh contrary motives.Citizens living under the institutional arrangements it recommends should tend to acquire a commitment to its principles.Stability obtains“when the public recognition of its realization by the social system tends to bring about the corresponding sense of justice”(TJ,pp.177/154rev.; also454/398rev.).The maximization of average utility is thus un-likely to generate its own support since it accords poorly with the facts of moral psychology.Its overriding devotion to efficiency will not inspire the allegiance of those whom it asks to give up their life prospects for the greater good of the whole.Only by calling upon improbable reservoirs of sympathetic identification can utilitarians hope that such a system of justice will endure.By contrast,Rawls argues,his own liberty principle secures the fundamental inviola-bility of each individual,and his difference principle ensures that everyone benefits from social cooperation.These two principles de-fine a system of justice whose operation is more likely to engage the support of all,even of those who fare worst.Unlike utilitarianism, they exemplify the idea of“reciprocity”(TJ,p.14/13rev.),an idea rather undeveloped in A Theory of Justice but lying at the center of Political Liberalism and its doctrine of public reason.Now this stability argument relies on the inner meaning of pub-licity,though to see it we must look at the argument somewhat differently than Rawls does himself.One might suppose that it re-quires principles of justice to be public simply so that everyone may know that they are in force and see what their institutions stand for.However,more must be involved.For stability is said to obtain when the“public recognition of[their]realization”,thus the knowl-edge that others too affirm these principles,fosters everyone’s con-viction that they are valid and worthy of support.Yet Rawls does not fully explain why people might be moved to espouse certain princi-ples because others espouse them as well.Indeed,he presents this argument in terms of the good which each person will discern in the liberty and difference principles from his own point of view–their guarantee of individual inviolability and their assurance that all will benefit from social cooperation(TJ,pp.177ff./154ff.rev.).ButPublic Reason373 the stability argument has to be different in character.It must show that each person can find reason to embrace these principles in the fact that others embrace them too.It should therefore indicate the good that the public affirmation of the principles may embody. Halfway through his account of the argument,Rawls takes up a line of thought that suggests what that good is.“The public recog-nition of the two principles,”he writes(TJ,p.178/155rev.),“gives greater support to men’s self-respect and this in turn increases the effectiveness of social cooperation.”Respect is indeed the good in question.But note that Rawls’s statement asserts not so much that the principles express respect as that their public recognition does so. Thus,the self-respect each person finds confirmed in them has to be part of a mutual respect which their common affirmation displays. Though Rawls is not as clear on this matter as one might wish,his discussion of“the natural duty of respect”here and later in the book entails that the good of mutual respect lies in there being a shared basis for the determination of principles of justice.We respect others as ends in themselves,he holds,when in regard to their claims and interests we act on reasons that we are prepared to explain to them in the light of mutually acceptable principles(TJ,pp.179/156rev., 337–8/297rev.).We try to see things as they do,taking our bearings from a point of view that we can all endorse together.Respect for persons implies allegiance to principles that we affirm in the light of others having a reason,indeed the same reason,to affirm them too. Naturally,respect can mean many things,but in the sense just mentioned it makes up the true nature of the publicity condition. When citizens adopt certain principles of justice for reasons they un-derstand one another to acknowledge,their joint endorsement of the principles amounts to showing one another respect.Their grounds for embracing them do not lie solely in their own,but in a shared point of view.The mutual respect demonstrated by their allegiance to this common basis is then a good which they can regard them-selves as having achieved,and that is why the scheme of justice gains in stability.Their society illustrates Rawls’s claim that“a desirable feature of a conception of justice is that it should publicly express men’s respect for one another”(TJ,p.179/156rev.).What the pub-licity requirement really comes to,therefore,is that each person’s adherence to the principles of justice should turn on reasons that he understands others to have to affirm them as well.This point374charles larmoreremains largely implicit in A Theory of Justice,but in several essays published shortly afterwards Rawls spells it out in full detail(see Section II).Once its full meaning is laid bare,we can better understand why Rawls should attach so great a value to the ideal of publicity.Only principles of justice which citizens affirm on a common basis are ones by which they can show one another respect as persons.The idea that political community should rest on this sort of mutual respect belongs to the heart of Rawls’s philosophy.It underlies one of the most telling ways he has of contrasting his view of justice as fairness with utilitarian conceptions(TJ,pp.23–7/20–24rev.,187–190/163–6rev.).“Utilitarianism,”he observes,“does not take seriously the distinction between persons.”It proposes that we adopt for society as a whole a form of practical reasoning appropriate for the single individual:just as the prudent person evaluates his possibilities with an eye to achieving the most good overall,accepting some losses for a greater gain,so a just society regards persons as different lines for an allocation of benefits and burdens that will maximize the net balance of satisfaction as judged by a sympathetic observer.To heed the separateness of persons,by contrast,is to seek principles which they can freely acknowledge before one another–principles,that is, which each can see that others have the same reasons to endorse as he.This mutual acknowledgment of principles is the very essence of what Rawls means by fairness as a conception of justice,though he brought it out better in his earlier and foundational essay“Justice as Fairness”(1958)than in the book,which cloaks it in the language of an original contract.4The idea of fairness explains the value of publicity and embodies what Rawls himself calls the natural duty of respect.One reason for his reluctance to present his theory in these terms may well be the many different meanings“respect”can have.At the end of A Theory of Justice(TJ,pp.585–6/513rev.),he declares that he has not derived the principles of justice from respect for persons because the very notion of respect calls for interpretation,which only a conception of justice can provide.The hermeneutic point is well taken.But it does not rule out the possibility that respect,in a specific sense we grasp perhaps only in the light of his theory as a whole,is a value on which that theory rests.And so,as Rawls goes on to admit,respect for persons plays two roles in his conception ofPublic Reason375 justice.It shapes the two principles themselves with their emphasis on the inviolability of the individual–the role which Dworkin was concerned to lay bare.It also figures in the demand that persons be treated“in ways that they can see to be justified”(id.).That is the role of respect underlying the ideal of publicity.II.from publicity to public reasonIn several essays published after A Theory of Justice,the notion of publicity receives more systematic attention,and not by accident. Its greater prominence reflects the new direction in Rawls’s thinking that leads to Political Liberalism.In the course of this transformation the ideal of publicity grows into his doctrine of“public reason.”For instance,Rawls acknowledges more clearly that the impor-tance of publicity in a well-ordered society is not simply a matter of its principles of justice being known to all.They should also be prin-ciples that citizens affirm on the basis of a shared rationale.Such is the intent of the distinction introduced in his Dewey Lectures(1980) (CP,pp.324–6)and contemporaneous writings(CP,p.293)between three“degrees”or“levels”of publicity.5A conception of justice satisfies the“full”publicity condition when its acceptance is not only an object of public knowledge,and not only based upon beliefs to which everyone can assent,but also thereby justified in a man-ner which all can embrace.In A Theory of Justice,Rawls generally used the term“publicity”in a sense equivalent to the first of these levels,the other two being tacitly at work in the way the stability argument capitalizes upon public knowledge of the operative con-ception of justice.Now the virtue which principles of justice have in being affirmable from a common point of view is made part of the very idea of publicity.Principles public in this strong sense should be our goal,he argues(CP,p.325)because a well-ordered society rests upon fair terms of cooperation to which free and equal persons could agree.Thus,also for the first time,Rawls connects publicity directly (and not just via the metaphor of contract)to the ideal of fairness so that its centrality to his conception of justice comes through more perspicuously than before.Rawls offers a further argument for the full publicity condition (CP,pp.325–6).Principles of justice should draw on common ground because they apply to institutions having a deep and durable effect376charles larmoreon people’s lives–not least through the machinery of legal coercion. This transparency in which people can acknowledge before one an-other the basis of their common life is“a precondition of freedom.”Plainly Rawls must mean political freedom or self-rule,where the use of force is involved.For moral principles outside the domain of justice need not,he adds,be public in this strong sense,though their effects on adherents and others alike can be equally profound. Why does Rawls thus limit the scope of the publicity condition?One tacit reason is that coercion differs so significantly from other forms of social influence(namely by its irresistibility)that it ought to be grounded in consensus.Elucidating this moral assumption would require developing the implicit idea of respect,of what it is to treat others as ends in themselves,and this Rawls has never been inclined to do(at least in his political philosophy).But another reason for the limitation is presented explicitly in the Dewey Lectures(CP,p.326).Moral notions distinct from the prin-ciples of justice often belong to religious,philosophical,or ethical doctrines on which people in modern societies are unlikely to agree, even as they can find a shared basis for settling questions of politi-cal justice.Publicity aims at a freedom of self-determination which citizens can exercise together despite their abiding disagreements. To enjoy this identity-in-difference,they must observe therefore a certain self-discipline,bringing to their deliberations about issues of justice only those convictions which can form part of a common point of view.“In public questions,”Rawls writes,“ways of rea-soning and rules of evidence for reaching true general beliefs that help settle whether institutions are just should be of a kind that ev-eryone can recognize”(CP,p.326).Here is a first statement of the theory of public reason formulated in response to the doctrinal diver-sity which will be the chief preoccupation of his emerging political liberalism.In the transitional essays of the1980’s,Rawls often describes this public form of reasoning in terms of a distinction between justifi-cation and proof.6Justification is not merely“valid argument from listed premises.”Instead,it“is addressed to others who disagree with us,and therefore it must always proceed from some consensus,that is,from premises that we and others publicly recognize as true”(CP, p.394;also pp.426–7).The contrast is overdrawn,for justification can take many forms,depending on the purpose at hand;sometimesPublic Reason377 it only consists in showing people how our assertion follows from our own beliefs.But the point Rawls has in mind is obvious.In a well-ordered society,citizens do not determine basic matters of justice by announcing to one another the conclusions they each have derived from their own first principles and then resorting to some further mechanism,such as bargaining or majority voting,to resolve the conflicts.They reason from what they understand to be a common point of view;their aim is to adjudicate disagreements by argument. As we have seen,a public life founded on mutually acknowledged principles is what fairness entails.This idea of consensus underlies the different notion of an“over-lapping consensus,”which makes its appearance in his writings of this period.7Principles of justice,he argues,ought to be the object of an overlapping consensus among citizens otherwise divided by their comprehensive ethical,religious,and philosophical doctrines. Rawls’s point has often been misunderstood.Many have supposed that he means to abandon the claim that his theory of justice is true or correct.If the nature of justice is to be defined by reference to what a society’s members happen to agree upon,how can there be any room to argue that current opinion is wrong?And why should we believe that in these matters there is much of substance that people agree upon at all?However,our earlier discussion of public-ity explains why these worries are ill-conceived.The basic sense in which principles of justice ought to be the object of consensus is that each person should have both sound and identical reasons to embrace them,for only then does their publicity give expression to mutual respect.Consensus so understood is therefore hardly iden-tical to the extent of agreement about justice that actually obtains in a society.Yet an important question is whether this shared per-spective,rooted as it must be in reasons which citizens can acknowl-edge only by abstracting from their divergent visions of the human good,nonetheless coheres with the comprehensive conceptions to which they are attached.Only if the consensus shaping their pub-lic reasoning about justice also forms an overlapping consensus,a common element in their otherwise different points of view,is the structure of their political life likely to endure.The notion of over-lapping consensus serves therefore to connect a conception of justice already arrived at,and already marked by a more fundamental kind of consensus,to the question of its stability.Rawls himself speaks in this regard of two“stages”in his theory of justice as fairness(PL,pp.64,140ff.).In the first stage the theory aims to describe fair terms of cooperation among citizens,while in the second it considers whether such principles can prove stable. The notion of overlapping consensus comes into play only at this subsequent stage.Clearly principles of justice are not being fixed by appeal to the common denominator of existing opinion.At the same time we should not overlook the idea of consensus that does figure in the initial determination of these principles.Publicity requires that they draw on reasons which all can acknowledge.As Rawls observes(PL,p.64),public reason is a value which the first stage of his argument seeks to respect.Overlapping consensus became a central notion for Rawls in the 1980s as he realized how much broader is the range of moral out-looks congruent with a commitment to justice as fairness than he had assumed.He became far more alert than before to the fact that in their comprehensive philosophical and religious conceptions of the human good,people have a natural tendency to diverge,not be-cause of prejudice or inadvertence,but because of what he called “the burdens of reason”(CP,pp.475–8)or later“the burdens of judgment”(PL,pp.54–8).The complexity of the evidence,the ne-cessity of weighing together different sorts of considerations,the need for judgment in applying key evaluative concepts,the variety of life experiences in modern society–all these factors conspire to make agreement about the nature of the good life improbable.To be sure,some comprehensive ideals deny the importance of fair terms of social cooperation,and their adherents cannot be expected to en-dorse Rawls’s two principles of justice.But there remain a great many different ethical and religious ideals which share a commitment to fairness.Their proliferation Rawls calls“reasonable pluralism”(PL, pp.36,63f.),since by reasonableness he means,as I have noted,pre-cisely such a commitment.8Reasonable pluralism is the condition we should expect to thrive under free institutions,where in the ab-sence of state power enforcing any particular doctrine the burdens of judgment drive people’s thinking in different directions.The princi-ples of justice which citizens embrace from a sense of fairness can therefore prove stable only if they cohere with the various elements of this diversity.A Theory of Justice did not itself approach the problem of sta-bility in this pluralist spirit.Part III of that book laid out a single ethical conception based on regarding an individual’s good as the ob-ject of a rational plan of life,in the light of which the citizens of a well-ordered society would be moved to act justly.Moreover,this conception,often in so many words but sometimes explicitly(TJ, p.572/501rev.),displayed the hallmarks of the Kantian ideal of in-dividual autonomy,according to which all our principles of conduct (not just those of justice)should be ones that free and equal rational beings would choose under the ideal conditions of an original posi-tion.Such a strategy embodied too narrow a view of the possibilities. Indeed,the multiplication of reasonable views of the human good is something which a modern constitutional democracy is bound to encourage,and thus Rawls’s initial solution of the stability prob-lem is caught in an internal contradiction.The way out,he came to see,lies in recognizing that in a free society many disparate compre-hensive views of life can still overlap in a public understanding of justice.It was by taking to heart the fact of reasonable pluralism and seeing the error in his earlier solution to the stability problem that Rawls went on to develop his new theory of“political liberalism”(PL, p.xlii).In the classical liberalisms of Kant and Mill,the account of justice had been presented as part of an all-encompassing moral philosophy,and A Theory of Justice followed their lead.Yet in fact neither the moral ideal of individual autonomy nor an experimen-tal attitude toward life is an essential ingredient in the rationale for his conception of justice as fairness.What is necessary,Rawls an-nounces in the first essay marking this turn in his thought,is“to apply the principle of toleration to philosophy itself.”9Justice as fair-ness,along with the reasons making up the public understanding of its basis,should be regarded as a“freestanding”conception,which people who see a greater value in tradition and belonging than the Kantian and Millian philosophies allow can still embrace. Political liberalism is not“political”in the sense that,forsaking principled argument,it reduces justice to a compromise among given interests or to the common denominator of existing opinion(CP,p. 491).That should now be plain.But it does seek principles of politi-cal association which citizens have reason to affirm together despite。
卡夫卡审判英文介绍
卡夫卡审判英文介绍Franz Kafka's "The Trial" is a profound exploration of the absurdities and horrors of bureaucracy and its impact on human life. First published in 1925, the novel tells the story of Josef K., a respectable bank clerk who is arrested one morning for an unspecified crime and thrown into a Kafkaesque world of legal confusion and bureaucratic insanity.The Trial is set in a vaguely defined city, where the law is arbitrary and the court system is a labyrinthine maze of bureaucracy and confusion. Josef K. is arrested without any clear explanation and thrown into a world where the distinction between innocence and guilt is blurred. The court system is not a place of justice but a machine for the perpetuation of power and the exercise of arbitrary authority. Josef K. finds himself caught in a vicious cycle of legal proceedings that lead nowhere, with each proceeding merely serving to justify his continued imprisonment.The novel is a powerful indictment of bureaucracy andits corrosive effect on human life. Kafka captures the numbing effect of bureaucracy on the individual, the way it robs people of their agency and turns them into pawns in a system that cares nothing for their well-being. Josef K. is a victim of this system, a man who is treated as less than human by the authorities and denied any meaningful contact with the outside world. His imprisonment becomes a living hell, a nightmarish existence that slowly destroys his sanity.Kafka's writing style is unique and powerful, employing a mix of dreamlike imagery and nightmarish scenarios to create a sense of disorientation and confusion. The language is often dense and opaque, reflecting the opacity and confusion of the court system and the world it inhabits. The Trial is a difficult book to read, but it is also a profoundly important work that demands to be read and understood.The Trial is not just a critique of bureaucracy,however. It is also a profound exploration of human nature and the way we deal with the absurdities and horrors of the world. Josef K. is a man who tries to make sense of his situation, to find a way to escape the clutches of thecourt system and regain his freedom. He seeks help from various people, from his landlady to his lawyer, but hefinds that everyone is either complicit in the system or powerless to help him. This isolation and helplessness is a profound commentary on the human condition, the way we are often left to fend for ourselves in a world that is often indifferent or hostile to our needs.The Trial is also a profoundly pessimistic work. Kafka saw the world he inhabited as a place of increasing chaos and confusion, and he saw no way out of this situation. The novel ends with Josef K. being taken to his execution, and the reader is left with a sense of hopelessness and despair. This pessimism is part of what makes the novel so powerful, however. It forces us to confront the ugly truth about the world we live in, the way that bureaucracy and power can corrupt and destroy even the best of us.In conclusion, Franz Kafka's "The Trial" is a profound and important work that deserves to be read and studied by all. It is a powerful indictment of bureaucracy and its corrosive effect on human life, and it is also a profound exploration of human nature and the way we deal with the absurdities and horrors of the world. The novel's unique writing style and powerful imagery create a sense of disorientation and confusion that is both disturbing and compelling, and its pessimistic vision of the world is both bleak and profoundly important. "The Trial" is a book that challenges our understanding of the world and forces us to think deeply about the nature of bureaucracy, power, and human life.。
专四阅读理解讽刺文章幽默语气
专四阅读理解讽刺文章幽默语气Leaders Who Use Humour and Charm to Reach the TopHumour and charm are a surprisingly powerful combination as a means of ascent in life.I have met a number of entrepreneurs who have built fortunes on the back of their wit and general popularity -and not much else. They disarm us with self-deprecation, we enjoy their company-so why wouldn't we want to do business with them? Of course, it all has to be done well; sycophancy and flat jokes do not weave the same spell.The British feel that some light relief amid the drudgery is essential for existence to be tolerable. It seems to be a cornerstone of our psychology and culture. In London, to say someone has no sense of humour is to condemn them utterly. Many important meetings I attend start with a little friendly banter to break the ice, a ritual to remind us that we are all human-rather than simply robots of commerce.I am sure foreigners must think our levity is baffling. My defence is that Brits subscribe to Horace's view: "A jest often decides matters of importance more effectively and happily than seriousness."Some years ago, a partner of mine practised what I called "management by laughter". He motivated and inspired by making the atmosphere at work fun, rather than the bullying and intimidation common in many workplaces.But the 21st-century office can be a minefield for the amateur who enjoys a giggle. I was recently warned about a trap being sprung by a professional gang from eastern Europe. They plant an attractive female staff member in an organisation. At roughly the same time, a male co-conspirator also gets a job; the connection between them is unknown to the employer. After a little while, he sends a series of highly suggestive internet jokes to the pretty female. She complains of harassment and threatens to bring an embarrassing employment tribunal involving sexual discrimination-and, once she reveals that shehas hired expert legal advisers and PR agents, the victim business settles quickly.In these litigious, politically correct times, the perils of making cheap gags can be considerable. Recently, I attended a dinner at a trade conference. The speaker was a well-known executive who told a number of jokes in poor taste, some at the expense of influential figures in the room. Just as a vulgar best man's speech at a wedding can strike the wrong note, so I sensed as we chatted after the speech that the jibes would not be swiftly forgotten.Some one once said: "Brains, integrity and force may be all very well, but what you need today is charm." This is the age of celebrity, even in the boardroom, and none of us is impervious to the presence of those legendary characters when they switch on the full blast of their glittering personality. Perhaps it is their reputation, perhaps their smile, perhaps their brilliance with words-or possibly their rapt attention.I am often struck how often young children utter the phrase "Look at me!" They want appreciation, and fundamentally not much changes, even when we are 50. Genuine approval from the boss can taste better than anything-even a pay rise.Are charm and a sense of humour acquired traits? They certainly improve with effort and practice. Ronald Reagan used his years in showbiz to hone his performance skills before succeeding in politics.I have sat with stand-up comics before they go on stage. The most brilliant appear almost nonchalant, rather than rehearsed or anxious, and their acts are mostly learnt word-perfect yet appear spontaneous.So it is with outstanding business leaders who persuade their teams to laugh and try harder: they apply themselves assiduously to the task. Most world-class chief executives possess charisma-really a captivating blend of charm and wit. And, believe me, they graft at it far more than they admit.。
了不起的盖茨比第四章英语单词知乎
了不起的盖茨比第四章英语单词知乎全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Dazzling Words of West Egg: A Student's Guide to Chapter 4 VocabularyHey there, fellow bookworms! As a self-proclaimed word nerd, I can't help but geek out over the intricate language used in literary masterpieces like The Great Gatsby. And let me tell you, Chapter 4 is an absolute feast for the senses, with its lush descriptions and evocative vocabulary that transport us straight into the heart of West Egg's glittering world.Let's kick things off with a word that perfectly encapsulates the opulent lifestyle of our enigmatic protagonist: "supercilious." When Nick describes Tom's "supercilious" manner, he's painting a vivid picture of his arrogant, condescending attitude – the kind of superiority complex that comes with being a part of the old money elite. It's a deliciously snobbish word that just rolls off the tongue.Speaking of tongue-twisters, how about "obsequious"? This gem of a word is used to depict the overly attentive andflattering behavior of the party guests towards Gatsby. Can't you just envision a swarm of sycophants fawning over the mysterious millionaire, their obsequious smiles and fawning gazes masking their true intentions? It's a word that perfectly captures the insincerity and social climbing rampant in this crowd.But amidst all the superficial grandeur, there's an undercurrent of something more sinister lurking beneath the surface. Enter "censorious," a word that aptly describes the judgmental attitudes of the old money set towards Gatsby's newly acquired wealth. With their censorious glares and whispered barbs, they make it clear that no matter how much money he has, he'll never truly belong in their exclusive circle – a harsh reality that adds a layer of pathos to Gatsby's relentless pursuit of Daisy.And let's not forget the deliciously evocative "sumptuous," a word that practically drips with luxury and indulgence. When Nick describes the "sumptuous" buffet laid out at Gatsby's party, you can almost taste the succulent dishes and imagine the decadent spread fit for a king (or, in this case, a self-made millionaire). It's a word that perfectly captures the over-the-top extravagance that Gatsby uses to try and impress his guests –and, perhaps more importantly, his lost love.But amidst all the glitz and glamour, there's a sense of disillusionment and disenchantment that permeates Chapter 4. And no word encapsulates this feeling better than "inexplicable." As Nick grapples with Gatsby's "inexplicable" desire to recreate his past with Daisy, we're reminded of the futility of trying to recapture something that's long gone – a harsh truth that adds a melancholic undertone to Gatsby's grand gestures.These are just a few of the linguistic gems that make Chapter 4 such a rich and rewarding read. From the hauteur of the old money set to the unapologetic opulence of Gatsby's parties, each word is carefully chosen to paint a vivid picture of this decadent world – a world where appearances are everything, and the pursuit of happiness often comes at a steep price.So the next time you find yourself immersed in the pages of The Great Gatsby, take a moment to savor the delicious vocabulary. Let the words linger on your tongue, allowing their nuances and connotations to transport you into the heart of West Egg's glittering realm. Because in the end, it's these carefully crafted turns of phrase that truly bring Fitzgerald's masterpiece to life.篇2The Great Gatsby Chapter 4 Vocabulary on ZhihuWhat's up, fellow bookworms and word nerds? I'm here to break down some of the juiciest vocab from Chapter 4 of the classic novel "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Get ready to sound like a literary genius at your next book club meeting!Let's kick things off with "riotous." This adjective means "involving wild and unrestrained behavior or emotions." In the chapter, Fitzgerald uses it to describe the colorful party scenes at Gatsby's mansion: "There was a riotous debauchery that night..."Speaking of debauchery, that's another doozy of a word we encounter. It refers to excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures like sex, alcohol, etc. The lavish parties definitely had a debauched vibe going on.Then we've got "unction," which means "a vaguely unctuous quality or the trait of being smug or self-complacent." Nick notices that some of the party guests had an "unaffected pride...and a certain unction" about them. Basically, they were pretty full of themselves in an obvious way.Let's not forget "sumptuous," meaning "extremely costly, rich, luxurious." Everything about Gatsby's parties was just sumptuous to the max - the food, drinks, whole atmosphere. Itmakes you wonder how much money that guy was blowing every weekend!One vocab word that really stuck out to me was "putrid." It's an intense adjective meaning "foul-smelling, rotten." Fitzgerald uses it to describe the humid night air closing in around the guests: "...a putrid taste on the air." Yuck, that doesn't sound fun at all!We also can't ignore "thwart," meaning "to oppose successfully; prevent from accomplishing a purpose." Apparently, there was a butler at the party who tried to thwart Gatsby's grandiose hosting style. Wonder how that went over with the big man himself?Moving on to "pique," which can mean "to provoke, arouse, or awaken" (as in curiosity or interest). Nick's interest was definitely piqued in learning more about the enigmatic Mr. Gatsby after witnessing his extravagant affairs.Then there's "reproach," which shows up as both a noun and verb in the chapter. As a noun, it means "an expression of rebuke or disapproval." As a verb, it means "to express disapproval or disappointment." Nick sensed an underlying reproach towards the partygoers for their reckless behaviors.I loved the use of "ineffable" to describe the Gatsby aura and persona. It means "incapable of being expressed or described in words." There was just something about Gatsby that was indescribable, elusive, ineffable.Finally, let's look at "intermittent" - it means "occurring at irregular intervals; not continuous or steady." This relates to the way Gatsby would briefly appear at his own parties in intermittent bursts, almost like a fleeting vision.Whew, that's a lot of advanced vocabulary to unpack! Fitzgerald's writing is so lush and evocative, playing with deep symbolism and complex themes. But breaking down these words helps decode some of the layered nuances.I'd highly recommend looking up any other unfamiliar terms as you read through this incredible novel. Getting familiar with the language gives you a fuller appreciation for Fitzgerald's storytelling mastery. His vocabulary choices were so purposeful and powerful.This chapter in particular is pivotal, as we really start to lift the veil on the mysteries surrounding the great Gatsby himself. The dazzling party scenes give a glimpse into his world of decadence and excess. But there are also those fleetingmoments of reproach, of something deeper and darker lingering beneath the sumptuous surface.By studying the sophisticated vocab, you can better understand the intricate textures and social commentary woven throughout the narrative. It's what makes this book such a captivating classic that English students analyze over and over.So keep that dictionary handy as you journey through the rest of this literary masterpiece. I guarantee you'll walk away with an expanded vocabulary and greater insight into the human experiences Fitzgerald was exploring. Honestly, what could be better than that? Now if you'll excuse me, I've got to go look up a few more fancy words...篇3The Great Gatsby Chapter 4 Vocab on ZhihuWhat's up everyone! For my English Lit class, we're reading the classic novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. I have to admit, some of the vocabulary in this book is pretty tricky, especially in Chapter 4. I thought I'd make a Zhihu post going over some of the tougher words and phrases to help out any other students feeling a bit lost.Let's start with "supercilious" which is used to describe the aproned monologue of a woman speaking about her daughter. Supercilious means behaving or looking as though you think you are superior to others. So this woman was kind of acting all hoity-toity and full of herself when talking about her kid.Then we've got "ineffable" which is used to describe the energy and intimacy contained within the courting couples on Tom's veranda. Ineffable means too great or extreme to be expressed in words. So the vibe and connection between these lovebirds was just indescribable.The word "sumptuous" caught my eye too when it's used to describe the buffet tables laden with glistening hors d'oeuvre. Sumptuous means expensive and impressive. So we're talking some seriously fancy and over-the-top appetizers at this shindig.Raise your hand if you had to Google "obsequious" when Nick describes the behavior of Tom's lawn attendants. Obsequious means obedient or attentive to an excessive degree. So these poor guys were basically falling all over themselves to be really subservient toward Tom.Okay, this one is just a handy vocab word in general - "ostentation." It's used to describe how objects in one ofGatsby's rooms were "not calculated to strike" ostentation. Ostentation is the pretentious or。
考研英语阅读理解长难句真题分析详解含翻译w
考研英语阅读理解长难句真题分析详解含翻译1. The Bilski case involves a claimed patent on a method for hedging risk in the energy market.结构：The Bilski case ［主］involves ［谓］a claimed patent on amethod ［宾］for hedging risk in the energy market ［状］单词: Hedge vi.防备n.树篱防备手段词组：Hedging risk规避风险Energy market能源市场直译：比尔斯基案涉及一个声称的专利方法，为了在能源市场规避风险译文：比尔斯基案涉及到一项已申请的关于能源市场风险规避方法的专利结构:•That ruling ［主］produced ［谓］an explosion in business-method patent filings ［宾］,initially by emerging Iternet companies trying to stake out exclusive rights to specific types of online transactionsexplosion n.爆发爆炸File n.文件案件卷宗initially ad.最初Exclusive a.专有的专属的Emerging a.新兴的Merge v.合并Stake n.赌注利害关系vt.下赌注词组：Try to尽力努力stake out争夺标记直译：这个决定引起了商业方法专利申请的大爆发，最初，新兴的互联网公司努力争夺专有权，关于特殊形式的在线交易译文：这一判决使得商业方法专利申请激增，最初，只是一些新兴的网络公司试图争取对某些特定类型的在线交易的独家专有权重点：•initially ad.最初•Exclusive a.专有的专属的•Emerging a.新兴的•stake out 争夺标记Later , more established companies raced to add such patents to their files , if only as a defensive move against rivals that might beat them to the punch .•Later, more established companies ［主］raced to ［谓］add such patents to their files ［宾］z if only as a defensive move againstrivals•定语从句:that ［主］might beat ［ig］ them to the punch ［宾］单词：Established a.老牌的已建立的Defensive a.防御的rival n.竞争对手Revival n.复活再次流行复兴Punch vt.用拳猛击n.一拳力量词组：•Race to do sth角逐竞争•Established company老牌公司知名公司直译：之后，很多老牌公司竞相增加他们领域中的专利，只是作为一个防御手段抵抗抵抗竞争对手，这些对手可能会打他们一拳解析：•that引导定语从句修饰rivals,在句中作主语译文：后来，越来越多的老牌公司也开始竞相申请各类专利，仅仅作为对竞争对手的防御措施，以防竞争对手抢占先机重点：•Race to do sth角逐竞争•Established company老牌公司知名公司•that引导定语从句修饰rivals,在句中作主语In 2005 , IBM noted in a court filing that it had been issued more than 300 business-method patents , despite the fact that it questioned the legal basis for granting them .结构：•In 2005 , IBM ［主］noted ［谓］in a court filing•宾语从句：that it ［主］had been issued ［谓（被动）］more than 300 business-method patents,•despite the fact同位语从句：that it ［主］questioned ［谓］the legal basis for granting them ［宾］单词：despite a.文学的书面的词组：More than超过多于直译：2005年，IBM公司在法庭卷宗中发现它已经取得了超过300项商业方法专利，尽管这是一个事实，它质疑授予这些专利的法律基础解析: That引导宾语从句，作noted的宾语That引导同位语从句，补充说明the fact译文：2005年，IBM公司在一份法庭卷宗中发现资金被授予了超过300 多商业方法专利，尽管连它自己都质疑这种授予这中专利授权的法律依据重点：•That引导宾语从句，作noted的宾语•That引导同位语从句，补充说明the fact5. Similarly , some Wall Street investment firms armed themselves with patents for financial products , even as they took positions in court cases opposing the practice .结构：•Similarly , some Wall Street investment firms ［主］armed ［谓］themselves with patents for financial products ［宾］,even as they ［主］took ［谓］positions in court cases opposing the practice ［宾］单词：Practice n.实践惯例习惯习俗训练练习词组:Even as即使尽管直译：同样地，一些华尔街的投资公司用金融产品的专利武装自己，尽管他们在法庭案件中的立场是反对这种授予专利的做法译文：同样地，一些华尔街的投资公司也用多项金融产品的专利武装自己，尽管他在法庭案件中对此做法持反对态度重点：・Practice n.实践惯例习惯习俗训练练习・Even as即使尽管。
Julius Caesar
Brutus attempts to put the republic over his personal relationship with Caesar and kills him. Brutus makes the political mistakes that bring down the republic that his ancestors created. He acts on his passions, does not gather enough evidence to make reasonable decisions and is manipulated by Cassius and the other conspirators.
Max Weber's perspective on politican
A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic", understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek.
Aristotle also establishes that the hero has to be “virtuous” that is to say he has to be "a morally blameless man“. The Hero's flaw is what will bring him not success, but death by the end of the work. Aristotle contests that the tragic hero has to be a man “who is not eminently good and just, whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty.”
Definition of Irony 具有讽刺意味的的定义
Definition of IronyExcerpted from Ross Murfin and Supriyia M. Ray, The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms. Boston: Bedford, 1997.Irony: A contradiction or incongruity between appearance or expectation and reality. This disparity may be manifested in a variety of ways. A discrepancy may exist between what someone says and what he or she actually means, between what someone expects to happen and what really does happen, or between what appears to be true and what actually is true. Furthermore, the terms irony may be applied to events, situations, and even structural elements of a work, not just to statements. Irony is commonly employed as a “wink” that the listener or reader is expected to notice so that he or she may be “in on the secret.” An irony that goes unnoticed, after all, fails to achieve its effect. Speakers and authors may even use irony as a mode of expression rather than make discrete ironic statements. In this sense, one might describe an author’s very tone as ironic.Irony comes from the Greek eiron, which itself derives from eironeia, meaning “dissembling.” In Greek drama, the eiron was a character who, although weaker than his opponent, the braggart alazon, nevertheless defeated him by misrepresenting himself in some way. The eiron often acted foolish or stupid, for instance, in order to fool the truly foolish and stupid alazon. Meiosis, or understatement, was perhaps the eiron’s most potent—and, to the audience, humorous—weapon. To this day, irony often depends on understatement, which requires the audience to recognize that the author, speaker, or character has purposely described something in a way that minimizes its evident significance.Irony often gives the impression of deliberate restraint. Instead of flatly stating a point, the ironist’s speech is often tongue-in-cheek, deliberately polished and refined. The ironist’s approach to his or her subject may even seem unemotional, a wry illustration of his or her point. For this reason, irony has often been called the subtlest rhetorical form, for the success of an ironic statement or passage depends upon the audience’s recognition of the discrepancy at issue. The ironist wears a mask that must at certain points be perceived as a mask. Irony’s paradoxical natur e makes it one of the most difficult forms to master.Irony has also been called the subtlest comic form. Although understatement may give rise to raised eyebrows or even outright laughter, irony that evokes these reactions is more likely to be achieved through the use of hyperbole, or overstatement, which involves deliberate exaggeration. For instance, a speaker who ultimately sought to show up another’s wartime record as inferior to his own might actually downplay his own Purple Heart even as he wild ly extols his rival’s promotion from private to corporal.Irony should not be confused with either sarcasm or satire; although both sarcasm and satire frequently employ irony, the terms are all distinguishable. Sarcasm, which often involves an exaggerated form of irony, is at once more obvious, blunt, and nastier; a sarcastic remark is typically directed toward a specific person, with the intent to wound and to ridicule; even when directedtoward a person, irony generally lacks a hurtful aim. Furthermore, whereas sarcasm typically operates by heaping crude—and unfelt—praise on the individual, irony often employs blame. Irony must also be distinguished from satire, which ridicules human weaknesses in an effort to spur reform. Thesatirist derides humanity primarily in an effort to better it. Satire may involve irony, but irony typically lacks satire’s ameliorative intent.Several types of irony exist, all of which may be classified under one of three broad headings: verbal irony, situational irony, and structural irony.Verbal irony, also called rhetorical irony, is the most common kind of irony. Verbal irony is characterized by a discrepancy between what a speaker or writer says and what he or she believes to be true. More specifically, a speakeror writer using verbal irony will say the opposite of what he or she actually means. For instance, imagine that you have come home after a day on which you failed a test, wrecked your car, and had a fight with your best friend. If your roommate were to as k you how your day went and you replied, “Great day. Best ever,” you would be using verbal irony. Usually, however, the clues are not quite so obvious, as when the narrator of Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist (1837) says that “the parish authorities magnan imously and humanely resolved that Oliver should be ‘farmed,’ or, in other words, dispatched to a branch workhouse some three miles off.”Verbal irony is sometimes viewed as one of the tropes, which are figuresof speech, since it is a rhetorical device that involves saying one thing but meaning the opposite. Verbal irony can be the most difficult rhetorical device to master, since successful usage requires recognition by the reader or audience, even as it may demand authorial subtlety. Missing a verbal irony may lead the reader or audience to adopt a belief opposite to the one intended by the author. Tone probably keys the listener in to the irony more than any other element, but knowledge of the circumstances surrounding the statement may also spurrec ognition of the speaker’s true meaning. The roommate from the aforementioned example might, for instance, pick up on the irony either via the speaker’s tone or because he or she knew that the speaker had suffered one or more calamities that day. Since readers do not have the benefit of hearing a particular speaker’s tone, knowledge and the general tone of the work play a greater role in accurately identifying ironic statements.Situational irony, also called irony of situation, derives primarily from events or situations themselves, as opposed to statements made by any individual, whether or not that individual understands the situation as ironic. It typically involves a discrepancy between expectation and reality. For instance, situational irony existed when college-bound men in the Vietnam War era celebrated their avoidance of the draft, unaware that their exemption as college students was about to be revoked by Congress. Situational irony continued to exist even after the men learned about the revocation, provided that their college applications had been motivated solely by a desire to avoid the draft, the exemption was revoked after they went through the trouble of applying, and they actually got drafted. The scenarios described by Alanis Morrisette in her song “Ironic” (1995) also exemplify situational irony: dying the day after you win thelottery; working up the courage to take your first airplane flight and then crashing; finding the man of your dreams only to discover that he has a beautiful wife; and so forth.Literary examples of situational irony include O. Henry’s “The Gift of the Magi” and the mythic story of King Midas. In “Gift of the Magi,” both husband and wife give up their most prized possessions in order to give something to complem ent the other’s most prized possession. The woman sells her beautiful long hair to buy a platinum fob chain for the man’s watch; the man sells his watch to buy the woman tortoiseshell combs to hold up her hair. In the story of King Midas, Bacchus grants the king’s wish that everything he touch be turned to gold; much to his chagrin, the king finds that this power does anything but enhance his true wealth when he hugs his beloved daughter, thereby (inadvertently) turning her to gold as well. A poetric example of situation irony is Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ozymandias” (1818), in which “a traveller from an ancient land” tells of coming upon a ruined state, the pedestal of which reads “My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings, Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and des pair!”Three types of irony—dramatic irony, tragic irony, and Socratic irony—can be classified as situational irony. The term dramatic irony may be used to refer to a situation in which the character’s own words come back to haunt him or her. However, i t usually involves a discrepancy between a character’s perception and what the reader or audience knows to be true. The reader or audience possesses some material information that the character lacks, and it is the character’s imperfect information that m otivates or explains his or her discordant response. The character may respond to a statement or situation in three ways: by making a statement; forming an expectation; or taking some action. A verbal response involves dramatic irony when a character fails to recognize the true import of his or her words; characters with partial information may thus assign meanings to their words that differ from the meanings assigned by the reader or audience. Expectation and action involve dramatic irony when they are inappropriate under the circumstances that actually exist. Characters may even accurately assess a situation without realizing it, attributing to someone or something a truth that they do not recognize as such.Dramatic irony has often been used synonymously with tragic irony, but this usage is incorrect. Dramatic irony occurs in a wide variety of works, ranging from the comic to the tragic. Tragic irony is a type of dramatic irony marked by a sense of foreboding. As with all dramatic irony, tragic irony involves imperfect information, but the consequences of this ignorance are catastrophic, leading to the character’s tragic downfall. The reader or audience experiences a sense of foreboding while anticipating this downfall. In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (430B.C.E.), for instance, Oedipus, the King of Thebes, vows to find the murderer of the prior king, only to find out something the audience knew all along: that Oedipus himself is the guilty party. Incidentally, neither dramatic nor tragic irony is limited to plays; both types of irony may appear in novels, movies and other literary forms.Socratic irony, also called dialectical irony, is, loosely speaking, situational in nature. The term stems from Plato’s depiction of Socrates. In his early fourthcentury B.C.E.dialogues, Plato recounts Socrates’s habitual practice of acting foolish or naïve when questioning his fellow citizens. Having assumed the role of the eiron, Socrates successfully forced his “opponents” to recognize the irrationality or preposterous implications of their positions by using their own responses against them. For instance, when Euthyphro, a citizen of Athens who is about to turn his father in for murder, says that this is obviously the right thingto do, Socrates pretends to b e really impressed by Euthyphro’s moral certainty. He subsequently asks naive-seeming questions demonstrating not that Euthyphro is wrong to turn his father in, but rather that his grounds for doing so are irrational and self-contradictory.The third major category of irony is structural irony. Works that exhibit structural irony contain an internal feature that creates or promotes a discrepancy that typically operates throughout the entire work. Some element of the work’s structure (or perhaps even its form), unrelated to the plot per se, invites the audience or reader to probe beneath surface statement or appearances. Authors most commonly use narration to tip off the reader or audience. For instance, the author may employ a naïve or otherwise unreliable narrator whose flaw the audience or reader readily recognizes. A naïve narrator means what he or she says, but having recognized the narrator’s flaw, the audience or reader mistrusts that narrator’s perceptions or version of events. The reader or au dience thus searches for and derives a different meaning that reflects the author’s intention. For instance, the reader of Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” (1729) quickly recognizes that its narrator—an economist who advocates cannibalism, specificall y, selling poor Irish infants to the wealthier English to solve Ireland’s perpetual, cyclic problems of poverty, overpopulation, and starvation—is fallible. Since no reasonable reader would take this work at face value, discovering Swift’s true view and purpose in using a fallible narrator becomes the reader’s task. Swift’s title is itself ironic, though this can be viewed as irony of a verbal rather than situational nature; calling such a proposal “modest” involves understatement, to say the least.Structural irony should not be confused with situational irony. The former involves some sustained feature that makes up part of the very frame of the work, whereas the latter involves an event or comment keyed to the plot rather than to the work’s structure. Granted, this difference sometimes seems more one of degree than an absolute difference, as in the case where a plot element underlines the entire work. In Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), a misunderstanding about identity serves as the basis of the comic plot and pervades the work. Similarly, in Oedipus Rex, Oedipus’s ignorance that a man he murdered in the past was the prior king of Thebes underlies the plot and leads to his tragic fall from grace. Although both of these works are based on their protagonists’ lack of crucial knowledge, both involve situational rather than structural irony, for the ironic discrepancies arise from the story line rather than the structure or form of the work itself.Two types of irony—cosmic irony and romantic irony—can be classified as structural irony. Cosmic irony, also called irony of fate, arises from the disparity between a character’s (incorrect) belief in his or her ability to shape his or herdestiny and the audience’s recognition that an external, supernatural force has the power to manipulate or even control that character’s fate. Just as the unreliable narrator serves as a structural device giving rise to structural irony, so the supernatural force of cosmic irony makes the irony structural rather than situational in nature. The use of cosmic irony is more than a matter of plot.Cosmic irony is characterized by four elements. First, it typically involves some powerful deity (or, sometimes, fate itself) with the ability and the desire to manipulate or even control events in a character’s life. Second, the character subject to this irony believes—erroneously—in free will. Whether or not the character acknowledges the deity’s existence, he or she persists in attempting to control or at least affect events. Third, the deity toys with the character much as a cat might with a mouse; the outcome is clear to the disinterested observer, but the mouse hopes desperately for escape. The deity may permit—or even encourage—the character to believe in self-determination, thereby raising false hopes that the audience knows or at least suspects will be dashed. Fourth, cosmic irony inevitably involves a tragic outcome. Ultimately, the character’s struggle against destiny will be for naught; he or she will have to succumb to forces larger than him- or herself. Cosmic irony is notably apparent in Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891), the last chapter of which contains the statement “the President of the Immortals…had ended his sport with Tess.”Romantic irony, as defined by nineteenth-century German philosopher Friedrich Schlegel, is present in poems and prose works whose authors or speakers at some point reveal their narration to be the capricious fabrication of an idiosyncratic and highly self-conscious creator. Romantic ironists typically “give up the game” only after they have carefully constructed some vision of “reality”, however. They may reveal their narrator to be a liar, for instance, or they may speak directly to the reader as an author. As a result, they wreak havoc with the reader’s or audience’s usual suspension of disbelief, debunking as illusion the normal operating assumption that the narration is a believable representation of reality. Romantic ironists want their readers or audienc es to “see through” them, i.e., to appreciate the manipulative nature of their art and the slightly comic quality of even their most serious artistic endeavors. Authors as different as Geoffrey Chaucer, Miguel de Cervantes, George Gordon, Lord Byron, Luigi Pirandello, and Vladimir Nabokov have been called romantic ironists. A modern example of romantic irony is Nabokov’s Pale Fire (1961), a novel thinly disguised as a nine hundred and ninety-nine-line poem composed by a fictional poet named John Francis Shade, with a foreword, two hundred page commentary, and index by an equally fictional friend named Charles Kinbote. (“Kinbote” gives away Nabokov’s game in the foreword, where he writes that although his commentary and index, “in conformity with custom, come after the poem, the reader is advised to consult them first”, since “without my notes Shade’s text simply has no human reality at all.”) Referring to Pale Fire in a review, novelist Mary McCarthy wrote: “Pretending to be a curio, it cannot disguise the f act that it is one of the very great works of art of this century, the modern novel that everyone thought dead and that was only playing possum.”More recent examples of romantic irony include Steven Millhouser’s Edwin Mullhouse: The Life and Death of an American Writer, 1943-1954, by Jeffrey Cartwright (1972)—the fictional biography of a cartoon-crazy preadolescent supposedly written by his best friend—and David Leavitt’s The Term Paper Artist (1997) , a novella that disguises fiction as autobiography insofar as its protagonist is the author of books bearing the same titles as Leavitt’s own works.FURTHER EXAMPLES: Sometimes several types of irony come into play at once. The following passage from Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis (c. 405 B.C.E.) illustrates both dramatic irony and rhetorical irony. Agamemnon has brought his daughter Iphigenia to Aulis to be sacrificed to the gods: Iphegenia thinks a marriage has been arranged for her at Aulis with Achilles. Agamemnon’s comments exemplify rhetorical irony: there is a discrepancy between his literal words and what he really means—and this discrepancy is readily perceived by the audience. Dramatic irony is exemplified by Iphigenia’s failure to understand the true import of her words:Ighigenia: It’s a long journey then, and you’re leaving me behind!Agamemnon: Yours is a long journey too, like mine.Ighigenia: We could travel together then. You could arrange it.Agamemnon: No, your journey is different. You must remember me.Iphigenia: Will my mother sail with me? Or must I travel alone?Agamemnon: You’ll sail alone…without father or mother.Iphigenia: Have you found me a new home, Father? Where is it?Agamemnon: That’s enough…There are some things young girls shouldn’t know.Iphigenia: Sort of Phrygians out quickly, Daddy, and come back to me.Agamemnon: I must perform a sacrifice, before I go.Iphigenia: Of course you must! The right sacred rituals.Agamemnon: You’ll be there too. By the holy waterIphigenia: Shall I be part of the ceremonies at the altar?In Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891), cosmic and situational irony coexist in the scene in which Angel Clare confesses to his new bride Tess that he once "lunged into eight-and-forty hours dissipation with a stranger." This confession prompts Tess, who incorrectly believes that Angel knows about her own past from a letter she slipped under his door (but which he did not receive because that letter also slid under his rug), to allude reassuringly to the child she had out of wedlock. Upon hearing about Tess’s past for the first time, Angel subsequently announces that he cannot possibly live with her because “the woman I have been loving is not you.” We can say that both cosmic and situational irony operate in this scene because, although the newlyweds’ conversation grows out of the tragic situation created when a letter slipped under a rug as well as a door, the situation somehow seems fated. Hardy’s novel, after all, describes earth as a “blighted star” (Phase the First), Tess as being “doomed to receive” a dark stain for reasons unintelligible to “analytical philosophy” or our “sense of order” (Phase the Second), and “The President of the Immortals” as “sport[ing] with Tess” (Phase the Seventh).。
《专利法》 第 76条 英文
《专利法》第 76条英文Article 76 of the Patent Law of the People's Republic of China states the provisions regarding the scope of protection conferred by a patent. This article plays a crucial role in determining the rights and limitations of patent holders. In this article, we will explore the key points of Article 76 and its implications for patent protection in China.Article 76 establishes that the scope of protection granted by a patent is determined by the claims. The claims define the technical features of the invention for which protection is sought. It is essential for the claims to be clear, concise, and supported by the description and drawings in the patent application.The claims serve as a boundary for patent protection, defining the extent to which others are prohibited from making, using, selling, or importing the patented invention without the patent holder's permission. Any act that falls within the scope of the claims constitutes an infringement of the patent rights.It is important to note that the scope of protection should be interpreted based on the claims' literal meaning and the corresponding description and drawings. The claims should not be interpreted too narrowly or too broadly. The principle of purposive construction is applied to determine the scope of protection, ensuring that the claims are interpreted in a way that aligns with the technical contribution of the invention.Furthermore, Article 76 emphasizes that the protection conferred by a patent shall not extend to subject matters that are not disclosed in the description and claims. This means that the patent holder cannot assert rights over undisclosed aspects of the invention. The disclosure requirement ensures that the public is provided with sufficient information about the invention in exchange for the exclusive rights granted to the patent holder.In addition to the literal meaning of the claims, equivalents are also considered within the scope of protection. Article 76 states that an infringement may still occur even if a product or process does not completely fall within the literal scope of the claims, aslong as it performs substantially the same function, achieves substantially the same result, and is based on substantially the same principle as the patented invention.The doctrine of equivalents allows patent holders to prevent others from making minor modifications to the patented invention to avoid infringement. It ensures that the patent holder's rights are not easily circumvented by slight variations in the infringing product or process.However, it is important to strike a balance between the rights of the patent holder and the interests of the public. Article 76 also provides limitations to the scope of protection to prevent patent holders from obtaining excessive rights. These limitations include the experimental use exemption, the exhaustion of rights principle, and the Bolar exemption for pharmaceutical research.In conclusion, Article 76 of the Patent Law of the People's Republic of China defines the scope of protection conferred by a patent. It establishes that the claims are the key determinant of the scope of protection, and they should be interpreted based on their literal meaning, the corresponding description, and drawings. The doctrine of equivalents allows patent holders to prevent others from making minor modifications to the patented invention. However, limitations are also in place to strike a balance between patent rights and the public interest. Understanding the provisions of Article 76 is essential for both patent holders and those seeking to avoid infringement.。
哥达纲领批判的英语
哥达纲领批判的英语The Critique of the Goda Manifesto: Unmasking its Fallacies and InconsistenciesIntroductionThe Goda Manifesto, a controversial document advocating for a radical overhaul of societal structures, has garnered attention and support in certain circles. However, it is crucial to subject this manifesto to critical examination in order to uncover its fallacies and inconsistencies. This article aims to provide an in-depth critique of the Goda Manifesto and address its key arguments and proposed solutions in order to shed light on the limitations and shortcomings of its content.AnalysisOne of the key tenets of the Goda Manifesto is the call for the abolition of private property. According to the manifesto, private property is the root cause of social inequality and injustice. While it is true that wealth disparities exist in our society, the declaration that private property is solely responsible for these disparities is an oversimplification. Private property rights provide incentives for individuals to work, innovate, and invest, driving economic growth and prosperity. The abolition of private property would disregard the fundamental principles of individual liberty and freedom of choice.Moreover, the Goda Manifesto proposes a form of collective ownership characterized by communal sharing. While this may sound utopian in theory, history has shown that such systems often lead to inefficiency, lack of motivation, and a decline in overall productivity. Without the sense of personal ownership and the opportunity for individuals to enjoy the fruits of their labor, there would be little incentive for innovation and progress. The Goda Manifesto fails to address this fundamental flaw in its proposed restructuring of societal structures.Furthermore, the manifesto criticizes the market economy and advocates for a centralized planning system. However, numerous examples from history, such as theSoviet Union and Maoist China, have demonstrated the inefficiencies and failures of centrally planned economies. Market economies, while not perfect, have proven to be more adaptable, efficient, and responsive to the needs of individuals and society. The Goda Manifesto provides no convincing argument for why a centralized planning system would be superior and fails to acknowledge the substantial drawbacks it entails.The Goda Manifesto also proposes the establishment of a universal basic income (UBI) as a solution to poverty and inequality. While the idea of providing a guaranteed income to all citizens is appealing, the practical implementation of UBI raises significant concerns. Who will bear the financial burden of funding such a program and how will it be sustained? Moreover, the potential adverse effects on workforce participation and productivity have not been sufficiently addressed. The Goda Manifesto lacks a comprehensive analysis of the potential consequences and trade-offs associated with UBI.In addition, the manifesto criticizes the current education system and calls for a complete overhaul. While it is true that improvements can be made to our education system, the sweeping reforms advocated by the manifesto are unrealistic and ignore the complexities involved. Quality education requires significant resources, expertise, and careful planning. Simply advocating for free education for all without considering the implications and feasibility undermines the credibility of the Goda Manifesto's proposals.ConclusionThe Goda Manifesto, although it raises important questions about societal structures and economic systems, is plagued by fallacies and inconsistencies. Its blanket condemnation of private property, inadequate analysis of alternative economic systems, and unrealistic proposals for sweeping reforms discredit its overall credibility. While it is important to critically examine existing systems and strive for improvements, the Goda Manifesto falls short in providing a coherent and feasible alternative. It is through robust and evidence-based analysis that we can generate meaningful progress towards a more equitable and just society.。
英语介绍汉字发展史
英语介绍汉字发展史1Chinese characters have an incredibly long and fascinating history! They originated thousands of years ago, and their development is a story full of wonders and changes.The earliest form of Chinese characters was Oracle Bone Script. Can you imagine how people inscribed those mysterious symbols on bones and turtle shells? They were used for divination and record-keeping. What a remarkable start!Then came the Seal Script, which brought more regularity and uniformity. Wasn't it a great step towards standardization? It made the characters more recognizable and consistent.After that, Clerical Script emerged, simplifying the structure of characters. Oh, how this change must have facilitated communication and writing!The evolution didn't stop there. Regular Script followed, known for its elegance and clarity. Isn't it amazing how each stage of development had its unique charm and purpose?These various stages of Chinese characters not only reflected the changes in society and culture but also had a profound impact on people's lives. They allowed for the preservation and transmission of knowledge,thoughts, and emotions. How could we underestimate the power and significance of such a wonderful writing system?The history of Chinese characters is like a long river, flowing continuously and bringing endless wisdom and beauty to the world.2Oh, dear readers! Let's embark on an extraordinary journey to explore the fascinating history of Chinese characters. Can you imagine a world without these beautiful and mysterious symbols?The story of Chinese characters begins in ancient times. Legend has it that Cangjie, an ancient sage, was inspired by the footprints of birds and animals to create the first characters. Isn't that amazing? These early characters were simple and crude, but they were the seeds of a great language system.As time went on, the development of Chinese characters continued. Calligraphers played a crucial role in this process. Wang Xizhi, for instance, was renowned for his elegant and artistic calligraphy. His works not only added charm to the characters but also influenced their evolution.During different dynasties, Chinese characters underwent various changes in form and structure. They became more refined and diverse. From the ancient oracle bone inscriptions to the modern simplified characters, each stage reflects the wisdom and creativity of the Chinese people.So, why are Chinese characters so special? How have they managed to survive and thrive throughout history? The answer lies in their deep roots in Chinese culture and the unwavering dedication of generations.Isn't it wonderful to discover the hidden treasures within the history of Chinese characters? Let's keep exploring and uncovering more of their secrets!3Chinese characters have a long and remarkable history! They originated thousands of years ago and have undergone significant changes and developments over time.In ancient times, characters were carved on bones and shells. This was a laborious process, but it marked the beginning of written communication. Later, the invention of brush and ink allowed for more fluid and expressive writing.The invention of printing in China was a major breakthrough! It made it possible to reproduce texts in large quantities, spreading the knowledge encoded in Chinese characters far and wide. How amazing it was to think that this technology enabled the mass dissemination of ideas and information!In the modern era, the advent of computers brought new challenges and opportunities. The innovation of Chinese character input methods was crucial. It allowed for efficient digital communication, ensuring thatChinese characters remained relevant in the digital age.Today, Chinese characters continue to evolve and adapt to the changing needs of society. They not only carry the wisdom of the past but also serve as a bridge to the future. Isn't it fascinating to think about how these characters have persisted and thrived throughout history? They are truly a testament to the ingenuity and perseverance of the Chinese people!4Oh my goodness! The history of Chinese characters is truly a remarkable journey. Let's take a deep dive into it and explore the astonishing changes over time.In ancient times, Chinese characters were carved or written on bamboo slips. They were used mainly for recording important events, philosophical thoughts, and literary works. But how different they were from the characters we see today on modern electronic screens!As time went by, the forms and uses of Chinese characters continued to evolve. The invention of paper brought about a more convenient medium for writing, allowing for more widespread dissemination of knowledge and ideas. And with the advancement of printing technology, the reproduction and sharing of written materials became even more efficient.Now, in this digital age, Chinese characters have taken on a whole new form on electronic screens. We can type them quickly, send them instantly across the world, and access a vast amount of information relatedto them with just a few clicks. Hasn't technology worked wonders for the development of Chinese characters?It's truly fascinating to think about how these changes have shaped our communication and understanding. From the humble bamboo slips to the high-tech electronic screens, the story of Chinese characters is one of constant adaptation and progress. So, isn't it amazing how far we've come?5Chinese characters, what a remarkable heritage! They have a long and complex history that is deeply intertwined with the cultural and social fabric of China. How fascinating is that?The development of Chinese characters can be traced back thousands of years. They have played a crucial role in maintaining the unity of the Chinese nation. Imagine a country as vast as China, where people from different regions speak various dialects. But Chinese characters have served as a common bond, enabling communication and fostering a sense of unity. Isn't it amazing?In different dynasties, the political systems had a significant impact on the standardization of Chinese characters. For instance, during the Qin Dynasty, the unification of writing systems helped consolidate the central authority and promote efficient governance. Why was this so important? It was because a standardized writing system facilitated the dissemination of laws, orders, and knowledge throughout the empire.Chinese characters have also been the vessel for carrying forward the rich cultural traditions of China. They record history, philosophy, literature, and various aspects of life. How could we understand the wisdom of our ancestors without these characters?In conclusion, the development of Chinese characters is not just a matter of language evolution, but a reflection of the cultural and social changes over time. They are the precious treasures of the Chinese nation, and we should cherish and continue to explore their profound meanings!。
英语作文主旨句claim
英语作文主旨句claimTitle: The Essence of Claim Writing in English Essays.Claim writing, at the heart of any English essay, is the art of asserting a position or argumentative stance on a particular topic. It involves careful consideration of evidence, logical reasoning, and a coherent structure that guides the reader through the argument. The aim of this article is to explore the essence of claim writing, discussing its key elements and how to effectively craft a persuasive essay.Firstly, a strong claim is the foundation of any essay. The claim should be clear, concise, and state the main argumentative position the writer intends to defend. It sets the tone for the entire essay and acts as a roadmapfor the reader, guiding them through the argument. The claim should be backed up with evidence and examples to support its validity.Secondly, the essay should be structured in a way that builds up to the claim. This often involves an introduction that presents the topic and provides background information, followed by a series of body paragraphs that present evidence and arguments in support of the claim. Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence thatintroduces the main idea and is followed by supporting evidence and examples.Moreover, the essay should include counterarguments, addressing potential opposing views or criticisms of the claim. By acknowledging and addressing counterarguments,the writer demonstrates a more comprehensive understandingof the topic and adds credibility to their argument. Italso helps to balance the essay and makes it more objective.Additionally, the essay should conclude with a restatement of the claim and a summary of the main arguments presented. The conclusion should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the writer's position and a sense of closure on the topic.Throughout the essay, the language should be precise and appropriate, reflecting the academic tone and level of the assignment. The writer should avoid colloquialisms or informal language and strive to use vocabulary and sentence structure that are tailored to the audience and purpose of the essay.In conclusion, claim writing is a crucial skill in English essays. It requires careful consideration of evidence, logical reasoning, and a coherent structure that guides the reader through the argument. By following the steps outlined in this article, writers can craft persuasive essays that effectively communicate their position and engage with the reader. With practice and attention to detail, claim writing can become a powerful tool for expressing ideas and making a meaningful contribution to academic discussions.。
卡夫卡为弱势文学而作的英文
卡夫卡为弱势文学而作的英文Kafka's Advocacy for the Marginalized in Literature.Franz Kafka, widely renowned for his enigmatic and haunting prose, emerged as a prominent voice in modern literature, particularly for his poignant portrayal of the marginalized and isolated. Kafka's profound empathy for the disenfranchised and his astute observations of the human condition illuminated the often-overlooked struggles and alienation experienced by various groups in society.The Powerlessness of the Individual.Kafka's works are permeated with a pervasive sense of powerlessness and insignificance, reflecting the experiences of those who feel trapped within oppressive systems or societal structures. In his seminal novel, "The Trial," the protagonist, Josef K., is inexplicably charged with an unknown crime and subjected to an inscrutable legal process that strips him of his autonomy and dignity.Kafka's depiction of the individual's futile attempts to navigate a labyrinthine and incomprehensible bureaucracy highlights the power imbalances and Kafkaesque horrors that can befall the marginalized.Bureaucratic Oppression and Alienation.Kafka's exploration of bureaucratic oppression and alienation is a recurring theme throughout his body of work. In "The Castle," the protagonist, K., relentlessly pursues access to a distant and inaccessible authority figure, representing the frustrations of those trapped in bureaucratic mazes. Kafka's novels vividly capture the dehumanizing effects of bureaucracy, which often stifles individuality, suppresses creativity, and fosters a senseof isolation and despair among its victims.The Fragility of Identity.Kafka's characters frequently grapple with the fluidity and fragility of their own identities. In "Metamorphosis," the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, undergoes a surrealtransformation into a monstrous insect, leaving him alienated from both himself and society. Through Gregor's grotesque transformation, Kafka explores the tenuous nature of human identity and the ease with which it can be shattered, leaving the individual vulnerable and outcast.The Search for Meaning in an Absurd World.Kafka's works are often characterized by an underlying sense of absurdity and meaninglessness. In "The Trial" and "The Castle," the protagonists are confronted withirrational and arbitrary events that defy logical explanation. Kafka's portrayal of the absurd mirrors the sense of dislocation and alienation experienced by those who feel lost in a chaotic and inexplicable world, searching for meaning amidst the randomness of existence.Kafka's Influence and Legacy.Kafka's unwavering commitment to portraying the marginalized and isolated has left an indelible mark on literature. His works have resonated with generations ofreaders, particularly those who have experienced oppression, alienation, or a search for meaning in a complex and often incomprehensible world. Kafka's poignant and disturbing stories continue to inspire writers and scholars alike to delve into the depths of human suffering and the enduring struggle for connection and purpose.Conclusion.Franz Kafka's literary prowess extended beyond his enigmatic prose and delved into the profound realms of human experience, particularly for the marginalized and isolated. His keen observations of powerlessness, bureaucratic oppression, the fragility of identity, and the search for meaning in an absurd world have cemented his status as a literary giant. Kafka's advocacy for the vulnerable and his ability to articulate the inexpressible have established him as a seminal figure in modern literature, whose works continue to captivate and challenge readers to this day.。
(完整版)高级法学英语课文翻译
Unit 1 Section A1.在法学家的眼中，合同只是包含双方当事人意思一致的条款。
合同经常被用于达成许诺的表示，法律会予以执行或至少会以某种方式加以确认。
英国法将合同定义为随着要约和承诺出现的一种协议。
一方当事人做出要约，另一方当事人接受要约。
当这些发生的时候（提供其他必要的因素，即约因和订立合同的意向存在），合同也就形成了。
2.在对合同定义的探讨中一些法学家认为承诺或者协议都不能完整的描述合同的定义。
法学家们声称《美国合同法重述》忽略了契约的本质，即等价交换是合同的本质。
没有迹象表明合同应该是双方的事务，一方承诺为某些事情，另一方承诺给予相应的报酬。
因此说合同是一个承诺就忽略了一个事实，即在承诺成为一个合同之前，通常有一些行为或承诺是为了其他承诺做出的。
甚至说，合同是由没有迹象表明它们是作为对其他承诺回报的一系列承诺构成的。
但是如果认为所有的合同都是一方提供商品，一方给予对等的价值交换的真诚契约，这种想法是错误的。
3.每一个承诺都是一种协议，由多个承诺构成的每个人的对价也是一种协议。
协议意味着两个或两个以上的人对同样的事情上达成一致的意思表示。
它可能会产生法律义务，也可能不会产生法律义务，在这个层面上，并不是所有的协议在法律上都是可执行的。
4.这些学者还是对这些定义持不同观点，他们认为依据合同承诺或契约所作解释的先决条件是当事人业已达成协议或承诺之后构成了合同关系。
事实上，情况并非总是如此。
人们有时候进行交易并不是基于先前的承诺或协议。
典型例子就是同时发生的买卖交易。
在商场里买东西然后为所买物品支付相应对价。
5.毫无疑问这些都是合法的合同，但是却被人看作是由协议或承诺产生的合同。
在这种情况下坚持认为在交换金钱和物品前要有先协议或一系列承诺存在意味着双方当事人有时间受法律约束去履行他们的承诺或协议。
但情况不一定就是这样。
还必须认识到这也可能是很好的主张，即就法律意图而言，在买卖进行之前就有隐含的协议存在。
文豪转盘解码 -回复
文豪转盘解码-回复“There is no greater agony than bearing an untold story inside you.”This quote from Maya Angelou resonates deeply with many of us, especially those who feel a compelling need to share their thoughts, experiences, and emotions with the world. Writing allows us to break free from the confines of our minds and express ourselves in ways that can profoundly impact both ourselves and others.Today, let us embark on a literary journey with the 'Literary Roulette,' a decoding game centered around famous writers and their works. This game requires us to decode a series of writings that are represented by a range of authors. By exploring the depths of our own creativity and intellect, we can gain a deeper understanding of the themes, motivations, and messages behind these literary masterpieces.In this article, we will unravel the secret code by taking each author's name as the key to decipher their works. By doing so, we will explore the power of storytelling, the beauty of language, and the universality of human emotions.Our literary journey begins with the enigmatic J.D. Salinger. Salinger's most famous work, 'The Catcher in the Rye,' delves into the mind of Holden Caulfield, a troubled teenager who grapples with alienation, identity, and the loss of innocence. Through Salinger's unique narrative style and Caulfield's introspective monologue, we join Holden on his quest for authenticity and understanding in a world he perceives as full of phoniness. 'The Catcher in the Rye' not only captures the angst of adolescence but also serves as a timeless exploration of the human condition.Moving on to our next stop on this literary journey, we encounter F. Scott Fitzgerald, the mastermind behind 'The Great Gatsby.' Fitzgerald's opus paints a tragic and glittering portrait of the American Dream in the Jazz Age. Set against the backdrop of extravagant parties, unrequited love, and relentless pursuit of wealth, Jay Gatsby serves as a symbol of both the allure and the emptiness that can accompany the relentless pursuit of material success. In 'The Great Gatsby,' Fitzgerald explores themes of illusion, corruption, and the transient nature of happiness, reminding us that the pursuit of dreams can sometimes leave us disillusioned and hollow.Now, let us venture into the Gothic realm with the progenitor of horror-fiction, Edgar Allan Poe. Poe's haunting tales, such as 'The Tell-Tale Heart' and 'The Fall of the House of Usher,' delve into the depths of the human psyche, exploring themes of guilt, fear, and the macabre. Poe's prose embodies a sense of darkness and foreboding, painting vivid pictures of internal anguish and external horrors. Through these stories, Poe reminds us of the fragile boundaries between sanity and madness and the haunting power of the human mind.As we continue our decoding adventure, we encounter the iconic Virginia Woolf. Woolf, an influential figure of the modernist movement, challenges traditional literary conventions and explores the stream of consciousness technique in works like 'Mrs. Dalloway' and 'To the Lighthouse.' By delving into the innermost thoughts and impressions of her characters, Woolf highlights the fragmented nature of human consciousness and the complexities of personal experience. Her intricate use of language and vivid imagery brings characters to life and immerses readers in their inner worlds, encouraging us to question our own perceptions and assumptions about reality.Finally, our journey brings us to the enigmatic Franz Kafka. Kafka's works, such as 'The Metamorphosis' and 'The Trial,' often delve into themes of alienation, bureaucracy, and existential dread. His surreal narratives blur the line between reality and absurdity, highlighting the inherent struggles and futility of the human condition. Kafka's writing forces us to confront our deepest fears and anxieties, provoking introspection while simultaneously making us question the inherent absurdity of our existence.Through this exploration of famous authors and their works, we have deciphered profound insights into the human psyche, society, and the intricacies of the literary craft. We have witnessed the power of storytelling to capture the essence of the human experience and the universality of emotions across time and cultures. Whether it is Salinger's portrayal of teenage angst, Fitzgerald's critique of the American Dream, Poe's exploration of the human mind's darkest corners, Woolf's depiction of the complexities of consciousness, or Kafka's portrayal of existential dread, literature has the power to shed light on the human condition in ways that few other art forms can.So, let us continue on our literary journey, decoding the works ofcountless other authors yet to be explored. For as long as there are untold stories in this world, there will always be a need for writers and readers to come together and allow these stories to be heard. The 'Literary Roulette' serves as a testament to the power of literature to shape our understanding of ourselves and the world around us. So, let us pick up our pens, open our minds, and embark on this never-ending adventure of decoding the untold stories that lie within each of us.。
2004年英语二阅读生词
2004年英语二阅读生词在2004年英语二阅读中，可能会出现一些生词。
以下是一些可能的生词及其解释：1. Acquaintance a person one knows slightly, but who is not a close friend. (一个稍微认识但不是亲密朋友的人)。
2. Ambiguous having a double meaning or unclear interpretation. (含糊不清的，有多种解释的)。
3. Authentic genuine or real. (真正的，真实的)。
4. Bias prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. (偏见，对某事物、人或群体的偏袒或偏见，通常被认为是不公平的)。
5. Connotation an idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning. (内涵，除了字面或主要意义外，一个词所引发的想法或感觉)。
6. Deteriorate become progressively worse. (恶化，逐渐变得更糟)。
7. Elaborate involving many carefully arranged parts or details; detailed and complicated in design and planning. (详尽的，复杂的，涉及许多精心安排的部分或细节)。
8. Inevitable certain to happen; unavoidable. (不可避免的，必然发生的)。
英文学术名著：上帝之城
20xx年世界图书出版公司出版的图书
01 作者简介
03 媒体评论
目录
02 内容简介 04 目录
《英文学术名著：上帝之城》是2011年1月1日世界图书出版公司出版的图书，作者是（古罗马）奥古斯丁 （Aurelius Augustinus）。
作者简介
作者：（古罗马）奥古斯丁（Aurelius Augustinus）译者：（英国）玛库斯
1.5 Caesar's Statement Regarding the Universal Custom of an En- emy When Sacking a City
1.6 That Not Even the Romans, When They Took Cities, Spared the Conquered in Their Temples
内容简介
《英文学术名著：上帝之城》内容简介：在中国现代化的进程中，西方哲学社会科学始终是最重要的思想资 源。然而，一个令人遗憾的事实是，自19世纪末20世纪初“西学东渐”起，国人对于西学的了解，基本上是凭借 零星的翻译和介绍，认真地去读原著的人少之又少。这些中译本，囿于译者的眼光和水平，往往与原著出入颇大。 因此，国人谈论西学的情景，很像是瞎子摸象，虽然各执一词，却皆不得要领。
媒体评论
信仰是去相信我们所未见到的，而这种信仰的结果，是看见我们所相信的。
——[古罗马]奥古斯丁
倘若我们的学术界始终主要依靠中译本去了解和研究西学，我们的西学水平就永远不能摆脱可怜的境况。本 丛书选择西方哲学、人文学科、社会科学领域的最基本的英文经典原著，分批陆续出版，我赞赏这样的善举，并 且相信，这也是为学术做的一件益事。
1.3 That the Romans Did Not Show Their Usual Sagacity When They Trusted that They Would Be Benefited by the Gods Who Had Been Unable to Defend Troy
unit 6 section A 译文
1 在某些方面，欧洲统一销售法中确定的制度范围反映了对合同标的物的一些限制，这些限制是有效的，这些可以在欧洲统一销售法中规范合同当事人在某些特定类型合同下的争议中的义务和救济的条款中看到。
然而欧洲统一销售法被限定在一定的范围还有更深层次的意义，因为尽管它包含了很多普遍使用的合同法的条款，这些条款处理一个合同履行过程中的很多问题，但是它并没有处理所有的问题。
2、首先，尽管欧洲统一销售法包含了规范合同形式的规则（包括有关先合同义务的规则的信息以及有关要约与承诺的内容），但是它并不包括任何规范未缔结合同或尚未完成缔约的双方当事人的关系的规则，在谈判中违反诚实信用和公平交易的共同参考框架草案管理责任的规则（包括谈判中断）并未在欧洲统一销售法中被发现，即使它们在欧洲统一销售法制定的初期可行性研究中可以发现。
但是这并不意味着，欧洲统一销售法中的条款不包含任何可能在正常情况下被分类为非合同义务——一种非因不履行合同而产生的义务。
特别地，在欧洲统一销售法中还规定了很多由合同一方当事人对另一方当事人拥有的先合同义务的内容，然后还假设如果一方当事人不能履行提供先合同的相关内容。
需要对任何因此对另一方因此而遭到的损失负责。
特别地，欧洲统一销售法对一些先合同信息即由缔约一方应承担未能为对方提供售前合同信息而造成其任何损失产生的责任。
由此看来，提案（区别于cesl）明确地表明如果合同确实缔结了，欧洲统一销售法应该规范当事人履行先合同义务，以及救济那些因对方不履行先合同义务而受损者——这种缔约过失责任规定在罗马公约2中。
欧洲统一销售法中也包含因任何一方逃避或终止合同而引起的赔偿责任条款。
无论是在大陆法系上还是在普通法系上，都将其归类为非合同义务而不是合同义务，同样也属于罗马II的部分。
CESL还包含规制赔偿后合同无效或终止合同任何一方的规则：“返还原物的义务无论是民事律师和普通律师都将其归类为非合同义务而不是合同义务，同样也属于罗马II的部分。
英国文学 名词解释 【英语专业英国文学复习资料之一】
1.epic 史诗a long narrative poem, grand in style, about heroes and heroic deeds, embodyingheroic ideals of a nation or race in the making. Beowulf is the English national epic that was passed from mouth to mouth and written down by many unknown hands.2.caesura 停顿a break or pause in a line of poetry, dictated by the natural rhythm of the languageand sometimes enforced by punctuation. In Old English verse, such as Beowulf, the caesura was used rather monotonously to indicate the half line.3.alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound or sounds at the beginning of two or more words that are close to each other. It is a feature of Beowulf and other Old English poems.4.alliterative verse 头韵诗poetry written in alliteration. Nearly all Old English verse, including Beowulf, is heavily alliterative, and the pattern is fairly standard –with either two or three stressed syllables in each line alliterating.5.kenning 隐喻语a metaphor usually composed of two words and used for description andassociation. Beowulf is full o f kennings, such as “helmet bearer” for “warrior” and “swan road” for “sea”.6.protagonist 主角the principal character of a drama or fiction. Hamlet is the protagonist of William Shakespeare’s drama Hamlet.7.antagonist 反角In drama or fiction the antagonist opposes the hero or protagonist. In Hamlet Claudius is antagonist to Hamlet.8.romance 传奇a type of literature that was popular in the Middle Ages, usually containingadventures and reflecting the spirit of chivalry. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was a great verse romance, but its author remains unknown.9.bob and wheel诗节末尾的短行与叠唱a rhyming section of five lines that concludes a stanza in Sir Gawain and theGreen Knight. The “bob” is a very short line, sometimes of only two syllables, followed by the “wheel”, lon ger lines with three stresses and internal thyme.10.poet’s corner 诗人角a part of Westminster Abbey, London, which contains the tombs or monuments ofsome famous English poets, such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Milton.11.heroic couplet 英雄双韵体two successive lines of rhymed poetry in iambic pentameter. Geoffrey Chaucer’s masterpiece The Canterbury Tale was written in heroic couplet.12.ballad meter 民谣体traditionally a four-line stanza containing alternating four-stress and three-stress lines, usually with a refrain an d the rhyme scheme of abcb. Robert Burns’ “A Red,Red Rose” is a great love ballad.13.refrain 叠句，副歌a phrase, line or lines repeated at intervals during a poem and especially at the endof a stanza. It is very often found in English ballads, such as Robert B urns’ “A Red, Red Rose”.14.English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴the literary flowering of England in the late 16th century and early 17th century, with humanism as its keynote. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is considered the summit of this renaissance.15.Elizabethan literature 伊丽莎白时代的文学literature written in the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603). William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet was a masterpiece of this period.16.sonnet 十四行诗a fixed form consisting of fourteen lines of 5-foot iambic verse. It first flourishedin Italy in the 14th century. William Shakespeare was a great English sonnet writer famous for his 154 sonnets.17.iambic pentameter 五步抑扬格the basic line in English verse, with five feet in a line, usually an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. It was probably introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer and certainly established by him in The Canterbury Tales.18.meter 格律the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse. In English verse a line may have a fixed number of syllables and yet have a varying number of stresses;the commonest meter is iambic. William Shakespeare’s sonnets are written in iambic.19.foot 音步a group of syllables forming a metrical unit. We measure feet in terms of syllablevariation: long and short syllables, stressed and unstressed. The commonest foot in English verse is iamb; the commonest line is five-foot line, called pentameter.William Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18” contains fourteen iambic pentameter lines. 20.rhyme scheme 押韵格式the pattern of end-thymes in a stanza or poem, generally described by using letters of the alphabet to denote the recurrence of rhyming lines. For example, heroic couplets are “aabbcc” and so on.21.quatrain 四行诗节a stanza of four lines, rhymed or unrhymed. It is the commonest of all stanzaicforms in English poetry. Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose” has four quatrains.22.image 意象a concrete representation of an object or sensory experience. Typically, such arepresentation helps evoke the feelings associated with the object or experience itself. Many images are conveyed by figurative language. An image may be visual, olfactory, tactile, auditory, gustatory, abstract and kinaesthetic. The rose in Robert Burns’ poem “A Red, Red Rose” is a beautiful image.23.poetic license 诗的破格the liberty allowed to the poet to wrest the language according to his needs in the use of figurative speech, archaism, rhyme, strange syntax, etc. An example is the last sentence of “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns –“Tho’ it were ten thousand mile!”24.verse drama 诗剧drama written in the form of verse. It was most widely used in the Elizabethan Age. William Shakespeare’s dramas are all verse dramas, Hamlet being the most famous.25.blank verse 无韵诗，素体诗unrhymed iambic pentameter, the most widely used of English verse forms and usually used in English dramatic and ep ic poetry. William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet is written in blank verse.26.Globe Theatre 环球剧场One of the most famous of all theatres, it was built in 1599, with three stories. The roof was thatched, with the centre open to the sky. Many of William Shakespeare’s plays were performed in it. It was destroyed by fire in 1613, rebuilt the next year and finally demolished in 1644. Again it was rebuilt in 1997.27.essay 散文a composition, usually in prose, which may be of only a few hundred words or ofbook length and which discusses, formally or informally, a topic or a variety of topics. It is one of the most flexible and adaptable of all literary forms. Francis Bacon is a great essayist; his “Of Studies” is a model of good essay.28.English Romanticism 英国浪漫主义a literary m ovement that aimed at free expression of the writer’s ideas and feelingsand flourished in the early 19th century England. A great representative of this movement is Percy Bysshe Shelley, the author of “Ode to the West Wind”.ke poets 湖畔诗人the three romantic poets who lived in the Lake District of England and wrote poems about nature. William Wordsworth was the most famous of the lake poets;he wrote many great nature poems, including “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”.30.poet laureate 桂冠诗人A poet honored for his artistic achievement or selected as most representative ofhis country or era; in England, a court official appointed by the sovereign, whose original duties included the composition of odes in honor of the sovereign’s birthday and in celebration of state occasions of importance. William Wordsworth became poet laureate in 1843.。
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ClaiMaker:Weaving a Semantic Web of Research Papers Gangmin Li,Victoria Uren,Enrico Motta,Simon Buckingham Shum,John DomingueKnowledge Media Institute,The Open University,Milton Keynes,MK76AA,UK{g.li,v.s.uren, e.motta,s.buckingham.shum,j.b.domingue}@/projects/scholonto/Abstract.The usability of research papers on the Web would be enhanced by asystem that explicitly modelled the rhetorical relations between claims in relatedpapers.We describe ClaiMaker,a system for modelling readers'interpretations ofthe core content of papers.ClaiMaker provides tools to build a Semantic Webrepresentation of the claims in research papers using an ontology of relations.Wedemonstrate how the system can be used to make inter-document queries.1Introducing ScholOntoThe Web has facilitated access to many scholarly documents by making available copies of papers,technical reports etc.in digital libraries and on individuals'home pages.Reasonable keyword access is provided by Web search engines.Access via citations is available using tools such as Research Index(Citeseer)[1],and research to extend this approach to eprint servers is ongoing[2].However,there are few tools to track debate and analyse ideas in a domain.The Semantic Web[3]approach of augmenting Web documents with machine understandable information offers a potential means of addressing this need.The Scholarly Ontologies(ScholOnto)project[4,5]takes this approach.We are developing an ontology-based Claims Server to augment existing papers,by modelling authors'and readers'interpretations of them.This produces a claim space above raw digital libraries;effectively,a semantic web of inter-linked concepts.The system enables researchers to make claims concerning their view of a document's contributions and its relationship to the literature.These claims may support or contest existing claims;in contrast to most Semantic Web applications ScholOnto does not require consensus.The semantic structure of the claim space provides a basis for making queries based on the interpretation of research papers,rather than just keywords or citations.In this paper,we consider one example of an apparently simple question,which requires interpretation of multiple documents in a more specific way than is possible from plain citations:"Are there any arguments against the intellectual framework on which this paper builds?".We will show how building a semantic network of claims over a distributed document collection can start to answer such questions.2Ontology of Rhetorical RelationsWe take the position that,although what authors are discussing in a domain will,by the nature of research,be in flux,how the discourse is conducted will be stable. Consequently,the conceptual glue of ScholOnto,the links between ideas,is reified using an ontology of rhetorical relations[6].A claim triple is the assertion that aparticular relationship holds between two ideas.The relations in the ontology act as attributes in triples,in which object and value are each one of concept,set or data. Concepts are stored as short pieces of free text,and sets are collections of related concepts gathered under a free text name.A typical data object is a set of metadata giving the reference of a document in a digital library.Claims were modelled in a range of research domains,including computer supported collaborative work,text categorization,and literary criticism.Relations common to several domains were identified.We found we could classify these into groups with similar rhetorical implications:Supports/Challenges,Problem Related,Taxonomic, Causality,Similarity,and General.Each relation belongs to one group.We also found that some relations occurred in pairs of opposites,e.g.proves and refutes,where one has positive and the other negative implications.We call this property"polarity".For example,refutes has negative polarity;it implies dis proof.Referring to our question, refutes would be an"argument against".:SchProperty rdfs:subClassOf:Property.:StructuringProperty rdfs:subClassOf:SchProperty. :RhetProperty rdfs:subClassOf:SchProperty.:SupportsChallenges rdfs:subClassOf:RhetProperty. :PolarityType rdf:subClassOf:Resource.:negativePolarity rdf:type:PolarityType.:positivePolarity rdf:type:PolarityType.:polarity rdf:type:StructuringProperty. :polarity rdfs:domain:SchProperty.:polarity rdfs:range:PolarityType.:refutes rdf:type:SupportsChallenges. :refutes:polarity:negativePolarity.:proves rdf:type:SupportsChallenges. :proves:polarity:positivePolarity.Fig.1.Parts of an RDFS specification for the ScholOnto ontology(in Notation3for clarity /DesignIssues/Notation3)By defining relations in terms of type and polarity we can reason with them at a higher level of granularity than individual relations;it is not just the claims made using the refutes relation that represent"arguments against"something,but any claims made using links that have negative polarity.Furthermore,the same ontology of relations can be employed by research communities which speak different"dialects",or even different languages,simply by changing the labels of the relations,without changing the underlying functionality of ScholOnto.To illustrate claim triples,we will take a paper entitled"Evaluation of decision forests on text categorization"[7].The claims of this paper include the following:[Decision Forest Classifier](uses/applies/is enabled by)[Decision tree learning]This uses one of the General relations uses/applies/is enabled by to assert that the Decision Forest classifier studied in the paper uses a well known method,Decision tree learning.The latter concept was introduced in a different document,so this link has a contextual role:it locates the paper near similar claims.[Decision Forest classifier improves on C4.5and kNN](is inconsistent with)[SVM and kNN outperform other classifiers]This claim uses the negative,Supports/Challenges relation is inconsistent with to link one of the experimental results of this paper to a result in a third paper.In addition to its contextual role,locating the claim near other comparisons of classifiers,this claim has a rhetorical role:it contrasts pieces of evidence that make contradictory assertions.3The ClaiMaker SystemClaiMaker is implemented as a client/server system(Fig.2).The Claim Server interprets users'requests,and accesses the database and/or file server to retrieve the results.It may invoke the inference engine,based on the relation ontology,if it is necessary.Fig.2.Architecture of the ClaiMaker Claim ServerClaimMaker has a form-based interface to help ourselves and early uptake users build a claim space,which describes a collection of electronic documents.The operations it performs include:adding or importing metadata for new documents;creating new concepts,sets and links associated with a document;and browsing and querying the database about objects on the server to discover interesting facts,and potential trends. The interface leads the user through ScholOnto tasks stepwise.For example,Figure3 shows a user selecting concepts to include in a set about reminding.Fig.3.Selecting concepts to construct a setIn Figure4the user is making a claim using this set,which they have named “Importance of Reminding”and the relation is consistent with.The next step will be to click the button Search concept/set which will take them into a screen where they can make keyword searches of other users’concepts and sets,and select one to link to.Fig.4.Creating a claim using the ClaiMaker system4Providing Semantic Discovery ServicesWe will now return to our example query to demonstrate how expressing the claims made by documents using the ontology of relations gives added value over retrieval of documents based on keywords.The question as asked,"Are there any arguments against the intellectual framework on which this paper builds?”,has three components.It is looking for"arguments against",defined as negative relations of any type.It refers specifically to a"paper",and it is easy to find the set of concepts belonging to a document.It also refers to the"intellectual framework".This is an ambiguous requirement that must be constrained if it is to be modelled.For the experimental function described here,we used a pragmatic definition:the intellectual framework of a set of concepts is the extended set of concepts that are linked to/from the concepts in the original set by a positive relation.Clearly,this is a gross simplification of the notion of"intellectual framework",but it makes the problem tractable.For a given paper the discovery function does the following:1.Finds the concepts associated with that paper2.Extend the set of concepts by adding linked concepts from other papers3.Returns any arguments against the concepts in the extended setTypical results are presented below(Fig.5).Note the two numbers to the right of the claim that disagrees with one of the related issues in the query.The first,8621,is a hyperlink to the metadata of the paper that provides the backing for the claim,which includes a URL to the paper itself.The second,2,is a link to the personal details of the reader who made the claim;this allows the user,or,potentially,a discovery agent working on behalf of the user,to make a judgement about the credentials of a claim; can it be trusted?Fig.5.Arguments that contrast with the concepts in the paper by Chen&Ho[7] Term based information retrieval handles documents as isolated entities defined by the words in them.Citations in a document are noncommittal about authors’intentions in referring to other work;we cannot even tell if a paper is referenced because the authors support its position or because they are diametrically opposed to it.This simple example of a search for arguments against a position demonstrates how the ontology of relations can make the connections between ideas in different documents explicit,allowing better kinds of query.5Summary&Future WorkThe ontology we have implemented in ScholOnto permits us to represent researchers' claims about their work as a claim space over Web documents.This opens up opportunities for answering more interesting questions about scholarly discourse.We are now developing more discovery services.These will be of two types.We will start by developing specific functions of the sort discussed here.These will tackle common tasks,like finding the arguments against a position,or assessing the impact of an idea.Novice users will be able to use these to learn about the sorts of query possible in ScholOnto.In addition,we plan to develop a structural query system, exploiting the inference engine.This system will be aimed at expert users.Data visualisation will become increasingly important.We need visualisations for browsing that illustrate the claim space at different levels of granularity.A visual input system is required also.When making a list of claims it is easy to lose track of the shape of the argument that is being made,and how it relates to other parts of the ers need to be able to see the connections between their claims as they create them.We are also investigating ways to extract claims from papers semi-automatically,and to suggest semantic links,as a way of easing the claim acquisition bottleneck.The Claims Server implementation described here provides a controllable,centralised environment in which we can test our ideas.However,an agent approach[8]offers some exciting alternatives.One is a distributed ScholOnto in which authors' interpretations of their own papers are published alongside the originals.These could be perused by discovery agents.Another is a more personalised model in which a user’s agent might crawl the Web,harvesting interesting claims as they are published, and depositing them in a private knowledge base.They could then be annotated and extended,without the social constraints imposed by making claims about other researchers’work in public.Such private spaces could be shared by the members of a research group as a discussion forum.References1.Bollacker,K.D.,Lawrence,S.,Giles,C.L.:CiteSeer:an autonomous web agent for automaticretrieval and identification of interesting publications.Proc.2nd Int.Conf.on AutonomousAgents,Minneapolis,MN(1998)116-1232.Hitchcock,S.,Carr,L.Jiao,Z.,Bergmark,D.,Hall,W.,Lagoze,C.,Harnad,S.:Developingservices for open eprint archives:globalisation,integration and the impact of links.In:Proc.5th ACM Conf.on Digital Libraries,San Antonio,TX.(2000)143-1513.Berners-Lee,T.,Hendler,J.,Lassila,O.:The Semantic Web,Scientific American,May(2001)34-434.Motta,E.,Buckingham Shum,S.,Domingue,J.:Ontology-Driven Document Enrichment:Principles,Tools and Applications.Int.J.Human-Computer Studies.,52,(2000)1071-11095.Buckingham Shum,S.,Motta,E.,Domingue,J.:ScholOnto:An Ontology-Based Digital LibraryServer for Research Documents and Discourse.Int.J.Digit.Libr.,3,(2000)237-2486.Buckingham Shum,S.,Uren,V.,Li,G.,Domingue,J.,Motta,E.,Mancini,C.:DesigningRepresentational Coherence into an Infrastructure for Collective Sensemaking.In:2nd Int.Workshop on Infrastructures for Distributed Collective Practices,San Diego CA(2002)7.Chen,H.&Ho,T.K.:Evaluation of decision forests on text categorization.In:Proc.7th SPIEConference on Document Recognition and Retrieval(2000)191-1998.Hendler,J.:Agents and the Semantic Web.IEEE Intelligent Systems,16(2)(2001)30-37。