A Generative Lexicon Perspective to Possessive Relation in Mandarin Chinese

合集下载

关于人工智能思考的英语作文

关于人工智能思考的英语作文英文回答：When we contemplate the intriguing realm of artificial intelligence (AI), a fundamental question arises: can AI think? This profound inquiry has captivated the minds of philosophers, scientists, and futurists alike, generating a rich tapestry of perspectives.One school of thought posits that AI can achieve true thought by emulating the intricate workings of the human brain. This approach, known as symbolic AI, seeks to encode human knowledge and reasoning processes into computational models. By simulating the cognitive functions of the mind, proponents argue, AI can unlock the ability to think, reason, and solve problems akin to humans.A contrasting perspective, known as connectionism, eschews symbolic representations and instead focuses on the interconnectedness of neurons and the emergence ofintelligent behavior from complex networks. This approach, inspired by biological neural systems, posits that thought and consciousness arise from the collective activity of vast numbers of nodes and connections within an artificial neural network.Yet another framework, termed embodied AI, emphasizes the role of physical interaction and embodiment in shaping thought. This perspective contends that intelligence is inextricably linked to the body and its experiences in the real world. By grounding AI systems in physical environments, proponents argue, we can foster a more naturalistic and intuitive form of thought.Beyond these overarching approaches, ongoing research in natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning (ML) is contributing to the development of AI systems that can engage in sophisticated dialogue, understand complex texts, and make predictions based on vast data sets. These advancements are gradually expanding the cognitive capabilities of AI, bringing us closer to the possibility of artificial thought.However, it is essential to recognize the limitations of current AI systems. While they may excel at performing specific tasks, they still lack the comprehensive understanding, self-awareness, and creativity that characterize human thought. The development of truly thinking machines remains a distant horizon, requiring significant breakthroughs in our understanding of consciousness, cognition, and embodiment.中文回答：人工智能是否能够思考？人工智能领域的核心问题之一就是人工智能是否能够思考。

心理语言学名词解释_注释版

名词解释1. Mutual exclusivity bias相互排斥倾向A cognitive constraint in which children assume that an object is ordinarily not given two different names.2. Motherese 母式语言A form of adult-to-child speech characterized by relatively simple utterances,concrete referents指示物, exaggerated intonation patterns夸张的语调模式, and a high proportion of directive utterances指示话语.3. Critical period hypothesis临界期假设The view that there is a period early in life in which we are especially prepared to acquire a language.4. Language bioprogram hypothesis语言生物程序假设The hypothesis that children whose environmental exposure to language is limited use a backup linguistic system.5. Pidgin混杂语An auxiliary辅助的language that is created when speakers of mutually unintelligible 无法理解的languages are in close contact.6. Language transfer 语言迁移In second-language acquisition, the process in which the first language influences the acquisition of a subsequent后来的language.7. Overregularization规则泛化When a child a pplies a linguisitic rule to cases that ar e exceptions to the rule--for example, saying goed instead of went.8. Holophrase 表句词单词句A one-word utterance used by a child to express more than the meaning attributed to the word by adults.9. Idiomorph ？A sound or sound sequence音序used consistently by a child to refer to someone or something even though it is not the sound sequence conventionally used in the language for that purpose.10. Coalescence合并A phonological音位学的，音韵学的process in which phonemes音位，音素（the smallest unit of significant sound in a language）from different syllables音节are combined into a single syllable.11. Reduction减少cluster reduction音群删略A phonological process in child language in which one or more phonemes are deleted. Also called cluster reduction音群删略because consonant clusters辅音群，两个或两个以上的辅音连在一起are often reduced, such as saying take for steak.12. Assimilation 同化A phonological process in which one speech sound replaced by another that is similar sounds elsewhere in the utterance.13. Common ground共识The shared understanding of those involved in the conversation.14.Semantic bootstrapping语义引导She spent years bootstrapping herself through university.她靠自己多年奋斗念完大学The process of using semantics to acquire syntax.15. Accommodation顺应A phonological process in which elements that are shifted or deleted are adapted to their error-induced environments.20. Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.21. Aphasia失语症A language or speech disorder caused by brain damage.A mental condition in which people are unable to remember simple words or communicate.22. Behaviorism行为主义The doctrine that states that the proper concern of psychology should be the objective study of behavior rather than the study of the mind.23. Distinctive features显著特征The specification详述of the differences between speech sounds in terms of individual contrasts.24. Observational adequacy观察充分性The extent to which a grammar can distinguish betw een acceptable and unacceptable strings of words.The grammar must specify what is and what is not acceptable sequence in the language.语法能对原始的语言材料做出正确的选择25.Descriptive adequacy描写充分性The grammar must specify the relationships between various sequences in the language. The extent to which a grammar can provide a structural description of a sentence.语法不仅应该能解释原始的语言材料，而且要正确解释说话人和听话人内在的语言能力。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题(1-12章,含答案

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sor rowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communicationsystems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential i s similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.VI.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis –collect data –check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of unitslarger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation Key:I.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADBII.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belon gs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the。

词汇语义学研究范式嬗变的语言哲学视角分析

词汇语义学研究范式0变的语言哲学视角分析中国药科大学赵连振摘要：西方的词汇语义学研究经历了历史语文语义学、结构主义语言学、生成主义语义学以及认知语义学四种主要范式壇变。

从语言哲学层面上分析，词汇语义学研究的范式都在从不同视角关注符号、解释者、对象，或语言、认知以及现实三者的关系。

从根本上讲，词汇语义学研究范式壇变折射出西方语言学理论从关注“语言”，到关注 “语言一一认知”，再进一步发展到关注“语言一认知一现实”的语言哲学观变迁。

关键词：词汇语义学；范式；语言哲学Title:Evolving Paradigms of Lexical Semantics Research：From the Perspective ofPhilosophyofLanguageAbstract:There are four major paradigms of Western lexical semantics research:historical-philological semantics,structuralist semantics,generativist semantics=and cognitive semantics.Viewed from philosophy of language,these are all concerned with the relationship between the sign,the interpreter,and the object or the relationship between language,cognition and reality.In essence,the evolution oflexicalsemanticsresearchreflectstheshiftsoflanguagephilosophy view in Western linguistic theories;that is,their focus changes from language throughlanguage-cognitiontolanguage-cognition-reality.Key Words:lexical semantics;paradigm;philosophy of language作者简介:博士生，讲师，主要研究方向：双语词典学。

SLA_二语习得重要问题总结

SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.rmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.5.Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that is acquired after the first language has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library language, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的) language, and language for specific purposes.6.Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7.Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context, but rather one that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.9.Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.10.Linguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11.Linguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.municative competence: A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003)13.Pragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations.14.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15.Monolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16.Simultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.17.Sequential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.18.Innate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.19.Child grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production and comprehension.20.Initial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21.Intermediate state: It includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24.Negative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.25.Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children is impoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26.Structuralism: The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the description of different levels of production in speech.27.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.28.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering and agreement.29.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31.Behaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning in the 1950s. It claims that learning is the result of habit formation.32.Audiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition and habit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33.Transformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an internal focus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky arguedeffectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans must have some innate capacity for language.34.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35.Minimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles and Parameters model.This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36.Functionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information content of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication. Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37.Neurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.38.Critical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition is possible.39.Critical Period Hypothesis: The claim that children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.rmation processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning of other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41.Connectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45.Ethnography(人种论、民族志) of communication: A framework for analysis of language and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46.Acculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavior patterns.47.Acculturation Model/Theory: Schumann’s (1978) theory that identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48.Social psychology: A societal approach in research and theory that allows exploration of issues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives. PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and social psycholinguists? P3（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and thelinguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence(underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.2.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliary language? P4（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.3.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than other? P5The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward targetlanguage speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age. P10The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages ineconomic or other specific domains;Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;A need or desire to pursue educational experienceswhere access requires proficiency in another language;A desire for occupational or social advancement whichis furthered by knowledge of another language;An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.2.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively? P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.4.How does intermediate states process? P18-19The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved ininterlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.5.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.6.What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.7.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in someinnate capacity for language. P21-24The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie （指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下)language acquisition was prominently espoused (采纳或支持事业理念)by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receive: Children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to general constraints and principles which govern language could account for the relatively short time ittakes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surface differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.8.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? P25-26Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.9.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective? P26-27(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstraction of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.10.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective? P27(1) Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction. (2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.Week10Chapter 5 Social contexts of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definitionmunicative competence: A basic tenet of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”(Saville-Troike 2003)nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.3.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers.4.Direct Correction: Explicit statements about incorrect language use.5.Indirect correction: Implicit feedback about inappropriate language use, such as clarification requests when the listener has actually understood an utterance.6.Interaction Hypothesis: The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in social interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.7.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (oflanguage, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.Variable features: Multiple linguistic forms (vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse) that are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times, with the same meaning or function.9.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.10.Psychological context: factors associated with the amount of attention which is being given to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task.11.Microsocial context: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.12.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to .13.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area ofpotential development where the learner can only achieve that potential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Soci ocultural Theory.14.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.15.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen.16.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.17.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the life of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.18.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.19.Additive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts where members of a dominant group learn the language of a minority without threat to their L1 competence or to their ethnic identity.20.Subtractive bilingualism: The result of SLA in socialcontexts where members of a minority group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of L1 skills—especially if they are children.21.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—and need to interact with—speakers of another language.PART TWO: Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, andeven somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA? P101-102a) L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as alanguage user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback provided to students?ⅰ. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence。

Curvelets a surprisingly effective nonadaptive representation of objects with

Curvelets–A Surprisingly EﬀectiveNon adaptive Representation For Objects with Edges Emmanuel J.Cand`e s and David L.DonohoAbstract.It is widely believed that to eﬃciently represent an otherwisesmooth object with discontinuities along edges,one must use an adaptiverepresentation that in some sense‘tracks’the shape of the discontinuityset.This folk-belief—some would say folk-theorem—is incorrect.Atthe very least,the possible quantitative advantage of such adaptation isvastly smaller than commonly believed.We have recently constructed atight frame of curvelets which provides stable,eﬃcient,and near-optimalrepresentation of otherwise smooth objects having discontinuities alongsmooth curves.By applying naive thresholding to the curvelet transformof such an object,one can form m-term approximations with rate of L2approximation rivaling the rate obtainable by complex adaptive schemeswhich attempt to‘track’the discontinuity set.In this article we explainthe basic issues of eﬃcient m-term approximation,the construction ofeﬃcient adaptive representation,the construction of the curvelet frame,and a crude analysis of the performance of curvelet schemes.§1.IntroductionIn many important imaging applications,images exhibit edges–discontinu-ities across curves.In traditional photographic imaging,for example,this occurs whenever one object occludes another,causing the luminance to un-dergo step discontinuities at boundaries.In biological imagery,this occurs whenever two diﬀerent organs or tissue structures meet.In image synthesis applications,such as CAD,there is no problem in deal-ing with such discontinuities,because one knows where they are and builds the discontinuities into the representation by specially adapting the representation —for example,inserting free knots,or adaptive reﬁnement rules.In image analysis applications,the situation is diﬀerent.When working with real rather than synthetic data,one of course doesn’t‘know’where these edges are;one only has a digitized pixel array,with potential imperfections caused by noise,by blurring,and of course by the unnatural pixelization of the underlying continuous scene.Hence the typical image analyst onlySaint-Malo Proceedings1 XXX,XXX,and Larry L.Schumaker(eds.),pp.1–10.Copyright o c2000by Vanderbilt University Press,Nashville,TN.ISBN1-xxxxx-xxx-x.All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.2 E.J.Cand`e s and D.L.Donoho has recourse to representations which don’t‘know’about the existence andgeometry of the discontinuities in the image.The success of discontinuity-adapting methods in CAD and related imagesynthesisﬁelds creates a temptation for an image analyst–a temptation tospend a great deal of time and eﬀort importing such ideas into image analysis.Almost everyone we know has yielded to this temptation in some form,whichcreates a possibility for surprise.Oracles and Ideally-Adapted RepresentationOne could imagine an ideally-privileged image analyst who has recourse toan oracle able to reveal the positions of all the discontinuities underlying theimage formation.It seems natural that this ideally-privileged analyst coulddo far better than the normally-endowed analyst who knows nothing aboutthe position of the discontinuities in the image.To elaborate this distinction,we introduce terminology borrowed fromﬂuid dynamics,where‘edges’arise in the form of fronts or shock fronts.A Lagrangian representation is constructed using full knowledge of theintrinsic structure of the object and adapting perfectly to that structure.•Inﬂuid dynamics this means that theﬂuidﬂow pattern is known,and one constructs a coordinate system which‘ﬂows along with the particles’,with coordinates mimicking the shape of theﬂow streamlines.•In image representation this could mean that the edge curves are known, and one constructs an image representation adapted to the structure of the edge curves.For example,one might construct a basis with disconti-nuities exactly where the underlying object has discontinuities.An Eulerian representation isﬁxed,constructed once and for all.It isnonadaptive–having nothing to do with the known or hypothesized detailsof the underlying object.•Inﬂuid dynamics,this would mean a usual euclidean coordinate system, one that does not depend in any way on theﬂuid motion.•In image representation,this could mean that the representation is some ﬁxed coordinate representation,such as wavelets or sinusoids,which does not change depending on the positions of edges in the image.It is quite natural to suppose that the Lagrangian perspective,whenit is available,is much more powerful that the Eulerian one.Having theprivilege of‘inside information’about the position of important geometriccharacteristics of the solution seems a priori rather valuable.In fact,thisposition has rather a large following.Much recent work in computationalharmonic analysis(CHA)attempts toﬁnd bases which are optimally adaptedto the speciﬁc object in question[7,10,11];in this sense much of the ongoingwork in CHA is based on the presumption that the Lagrangian viewpoint isbest.In the setting of edges in images,there has,in fact,been considerableinterest in the problem of developing representations which are adapted tothe structure of discontinuities in the object being studied.The(equivalent)Curvelets3 concepts of probing and minimum entropy segmentation are old examples of this: wavelet systems which are speciﬁcally constructed to allow discontinuities in the basis elements at speciﬁc locations[8,9].More recently,we are aware of much informal unpublished or preliminary work attempting to build2D edge-adapted schemes;we give two examples.•Adaptive triangulation aims to represent a smooth function by partition-ing the plane into a sequence of triangular meshes,reﬁning the meshes at one stage to createﬁner meshes at the next stage.One represents the underlying object using piecewise linear functions supported on individ-ual triangles.It is easy to see how,in an image synthesis setting,one can in principle develop a triangulation where the triangles are arranged to track a discontinuity very faithfully,with the bulk of reﬁnement steps allocated to reﬁnements near the discontinuity,and one obtains very ef-fective representation of the object.It is not easy to see how to do this in an image analysis setting,but one can easily be persuaded that the development of adaptive triangulation schemes for noisy,blurred data is an important and interesting project.•In an adaptively warped wavelet representation,one deforms the under-lying image so that the object being analyzed has all its discontinuities aligned purely horizontal or vertical.Then one analyzes the warped ob-ject in a basis of tensor-product wavelets where elements take the form ψj,k(x1)·ψj ,k (x2).This is very eﬀective for objects which are smooth apart from purely horizontal and purely vertical discontinuities.Hence, the warping deforms the singularities to render the the tensor product scheme very eﬀective.It is again not easy to see how adaptive warping could work in an image analysis setting,but one is easily persuaded that development of adaptively warped representations for noisy,blurred data is an important and interesting project.Activity to build such adaptive representations is based on an article of faith:namely,that Eulerian approaches are inferior,that oracle-driven Lagrangian approaches are ideal,and that one should,in an image analysis setting,mimic Lagrangian approaches,attempting empirically to estimate from noisy,blurred data the information that an oracle would supply,and build an adaptive representation based on that information.Quantifying Rates of ApproximationIn order to get away from articles of faith,we now quantify performance,using an asymptotic viewpoint.Suppose we have an object supported in[0,1]2which has a discontinuity across a nice curveΓ,and which is otherwise smooth.Then using a standard Fourier representation,and approximating with˜f F m built from the best m nonzero Fourier terms,we havef−˜f F m 22 m−1/2,m→∞.(1)4 E.J.Cand`e s and D.L.Donoho This rather slow rate of approximation is improved upon by wavelets.The approximant˜f W m built from the best m nonzero wavelet terms satisﬁesf−˜f W m 22 m−1,m→∞.(2) This is better than the rate of Fourier approximation,and,until now,is the best published rate for aﬁxed non-adaptive method(i.e.best published result for an‘Eulerian viewpoint’).On the other hand,we will discuss below a method which is adapted to the object at hand,and which achieves a much better approximation rate than previously known‘nonadaptive’or‘Eulerian’approaches.This adaptive method selects terms from an overcomplete dictionary and is able to achievef−˜f A m 22 m−2,m→∞.(3) Roughly speaking,the terms in this dictionary amount to triangular wedges, ideallyﬁtted to approximate the shape of the discontinuity.Owing to the apparent trend indicated by(1)-(3)and the prevalence of the puritanical belief that‘you can’t get something for nothing’,one might suppose that inevitably would follow theFolk-Conjecture/[Folk-Theorem].The result(3)for adaptive representa-tions far exceeds the rate of m-term approximation achievable byﬁxed non-adaptive representations.This conjecture appeals to a number of widespread beliefs:•the belief that adaptation is very powerful,•the belief that the way to represent discontinuities in image analysis is to mimic the approach in image synthesis•the belief that wavelets give the bestﬁxed nonadaptive representation.In private discussions with many respected researchers we have many times heard expressed views equivalent to the purported Folk-Theorem.The SurpriseIt turns out that performance almost equivalent to(3)can be achieved by a non adaptive scheme.In other words,the Folk-Theorem is eﬀectively false.There is a tight frame,ﬁxed once and for all nonadaptively,which we call a frame of curvelets,which competes surprisingly well with the ideal adaptive rate(3).A very simple m-term approximation–summing the m biggest terms in the curvelet frame expansion–can achievef−˜f C m 22≤C·m−2(log m)3,m→∞,(4) which is nearly as good as(3)as regards asymptotic order.In short,in a problem of considerable applied relevance,where one would have thought that adaptive representation was essentially more powerful than ﬁxed nonadaptive representation,it turns out that a newﬁxed nonadaptive representation is essentially as good as adaptive representation,from the point of view of asymptotic m-term approximation errors.As one might expect, the new nonadaptive representation has several very subtle and distinctive features.Curvelets5 ContentsIn this article,we would like to give the reader an idea of why(3)represents the ideal behavior of an adaptive representation,of how the curvelet frame is constructed,and of the key elements responsible for(4).We will also attempt to indicate why curvelets perform for singularities along curves the task that wavelets perform for singularities at points.§2.A Precedent:Wavelets and Point SingularitiesWe mention an important precedent–a case where a nonadaptive scheme is roughly competitive with an ideal adaptive scheme.Suppose we have a piecewise polynomial function f on the interval[0,1], with jump discontinuities at several points.An obvious adaptive representation is toﬁt a piecewise polynomial with breakpoints at the discontinuities.If there are P pieces and each polynomial is of degree≤D,then we need only keep P·(D+1)coeﬃcients and P−1 breakpoints to exactly represent this mon sense tells us that this is the natural,and even,the ideal representation for such a function.To build this representation,we need to know locations of the discontinu-ities.If the measurements are noisy or blurred,and if we don’t have recourse to an oracle,then we can’t necessarily build this representation.A less obvious but much more robust representation is to take a nice wavelet transform of the object,and keep the few resulting nonzero wavelet coeﬃcients.If we have an N-point digital signal f(i/N),1≤i≤N,and we use Daubechies wavelets of compact support,then there are no more than C·log2(N)·P·(D+1)nonzero wavelet coeﬃcients for the digital signal.In short,the nonadaptive representation needs only to keep a factor C log2(N)more data to give an equally faithful representation.We claim that this phenomenon is at least partially responsible for the widespread success of wavelet methods in data compression settings.One can build a single fast transform and deal with a wide range of diﬀerent f,with diﬀerent discontinuity sets,without recourse to an oracle.In particular,since one almost never has access to an oracle,the nat-uralﬁrst impulse of one committed to the adaptive viewpoint would be to ‘estimate’the break points–i.e.to perform some sort of edge detection.Un-fortunately this is problematic when one is dealing with noisy blurred data. Edge detection is a whole topic in itself which has thousands of proposed so-lutions and(evidently,as one can see from the continuing rate of publication in this area)no convincing solution.In using wavelets,one does not need edge detectors or any other prob-lematic schemes,one simply extracts the big coeﬃcients from the transform domain,and records their values and positions in an organized fashion.We can lend a useful perspective to this phenomenon by noticing that the discontinuities in the underlying f are point singularities,and we are saying that wavelets need in some sense at most log(n)coeﬃcients to represent a point singularity out to scale1/n.6 E.J.Cand`e s and D.L.DonohoIt turns out that even in higher dimensions wavelets have a near-ideal ability to represent objects with point singularities.The two-dimensional object fβ(x1,x2)=1/((x1−1/2)2+(x2−1/2)2)βhas,forβ<1/2,a square-integrable singularity at the point(1/2,1/2)and is otherwise smooth.At each level of the2D wavelet pyramid,there are eﬀec-tively only a few wavelets which‘feel’the point singularity,other coeﬃcients being eﬀectively negligible.In approximation out to scale1/n,only about O(log(n))coeﬃcients are required.Another approach to understanding the representation of singularities, which is not limited by scale,is to consider rates of decay of the countable coeﬃcient sequence.Analysis of wavelet coeﬃcients of fβshows that for any desired rateρ,the N-th largest coeﬃcient can be bounded by CρN−ρfor all N.In short,the wavelet coeﬃcients of such an object are very sparse.Thus we have a slogan:wavelets perform very well for objects with point singularities in dimensions1and2.§3.Failure of Wavelets on EdgesWe now brieﬂy sketch why wavelets,which worked surprisingly well in repre-senting point discontinuities in dimension1,are less successful dealing with ‘edge’discontinuities in dimension2.Suppose we have an object f on the square[0,1]2and that f is smooth away from a discontinuity along a C2curveΓ.Let’s look at the number of substantial wavelet coeﬃcients.A grid of squares of side2−j by2−j has order2j squares intersectingΓ. At level j of the two-dimensional wavelet pyramid,each wavelet is localized near a corresponding square of side2−j by2−j.There are therefore O(2j) wavelets which‘feel’the discontinuity alongΓ.Such a wavelet coeﬃcient is controlled by| f,ψj,k1,k2 |≤ f ∞· ψj,k1,k2 1≤C·2−j;and in eﬀect no better control is available,since the object f is not smoothwithin the support ofψj,k1,k2[14].Therefore there are about2j coeﬃcients ofsize about2−j.In short,the N-th largest wavelet coeﬃcient is of size about 1/N.The result(2)follows.We can summarize this by saying that in dimension2,discontinuities across edges are spatially distributed;because of this they can interact rather extensively with many terms in the wavelet expansion,and so the wavelet representation is not sparse.In short,wavelets do well for point singularities,and not for singularities along curves.The success of wavelets in dimension1derived from the fact that all singularities in dimension1are point singularities,so wavelets have a certain universality there.In higher dimensions there are more types of singularities,and wavelets lose their universality.For balance,we need to say that wavelets do outperform classical meth-ods.If we used sinusoids to represent an object of the above type,then weCurvelets7 have the result(1),which is far worse than that provided by wavelets.For completeness,we sketch the argument.Suppose we use for‘sinusoids’the complex exponentials on[−π,π]2,and that the object f tends smoothly to zero at the boundary of the square[0,1]2,so that we may naturally extend it to a function living on[−π,π]2.Now typically the Fourier coeﬃcients of an otherwise smooth object with a discontinuity along a curve decay with wavenumber as|k|−3/2(the very well-known example is f=indicator of a disk,which has a Fourier transform described by Bessel functions).Thus there are about R2coeﬃcients of size≥c·R−3/2,meaning that the N-th largest is of size≥c·N−3/4,from which(1)follows.In short:neither wavelets nor sinusoids really sparsify two-dimensional objects with edges(although wavelets are better than sinusoids).§4.Ideal Representation of Objects with EdgesWe now consider the optimality result(3),which is really two assertions.On the one hand,no reasonable scheme can do better than this rate.On the other hand,a certain adaptive scheme,with intimate connections to adaptive triangulation,which achieves it.For more extensive discussion see[10,11,13].In talking about adaptive representations,we need to deﬁne terms care-fully,for the following reason.For any f,there is always an adaptive repre-sentation of f that does very well:namely the orthobasisΨ={ψ0,ψ1,...} withﬁrst elementψ0=f/ f 2!This is,in a certain conception,an‘ideal representation’where each object requires only one nonzero coeﬃcient.In a certain sense it is a useless one,since all information about f has been hidden in the deﬁnition of representation,so actually we haven’t learned anything. Most of our work in this section is in setting up a notion of adaptation that will free us from fear of being trapped at this level of triviality. Dictionaries of AtomsSuppose we are interested in approximating a function in L2(T),and we have a countable collection D={φ}of atoms in L2(T);this could be a basis,a frame, aﬁnite concatenation of bases or frames,or something even less structured.We consider the problem of m-term approximation from this dictionary, where we are allowed to select m termsφ1,...,φm from D and we approximate f from the L2-closest member of the subspace they span:˜f=P roj{f|span(φ1,...,φm)}.mWe are interested in the behavior of the m-term approximation errore m(f;D)= f−˜f m 22,where in this provisional deﬁnition,we assume˜f m is a best approximation of this form after optimizing over the selection of m terms from the dictionary.However,to avoid a trivial result,we impose regularity on the selection process.Indeed,we allow rather arbitrary dictionaries,including ones which8 E.J.Cand`e s and D.L.Donoho enumerate a dense subset of L2(T),so that in some sense the trivial result φ1=f/ f 2e m=0,∀m is always a lurking possibility.To avoid this possibility we forbid arbitrary selection rules.Following[10]we proposeDeﬁnition.A sequence of selection rules(σm(·))choosing m terms from a dictionary D,σm(f)=(φ1,...,φm),is said to implement polynomial depth search if there is a singleﬁxed enumeration of the dictionary elements and aﬁxed polynomialπ(t)such that terms inσm(f)come from theﬁrstπ(m)elements in the dictionary.Under this deﬁnition,the trivial representation based on a countable dense dictionary is not generally available,since in anyﬁxed enumeration, a decent1-term approximation to typical f will typically be so deep in the enumeration as to be unavailable for polynomial-depth selection.(Of course, one can make this statement quantitative,using information-theoretic ideas).More fundamentally,our deﬁnition not only forbids trivialities,but it allows us to speak of optimal dictionaries and get meaningful results.Starting now,we think of dictionaries as ordered,having aﬁrst element,second element, etc.,so that diﬀerent enumerations of the same collection of functions are diﬀerent dictionaries.We deﬁne the m-optimal approximation number for dictionary D and limit polynomialπase m(f;D;π)= f−˜f m 22,where˜f m is constructed by optimizing the choice of m atoms among theﬁrst π(m)in theﬁxed enumeration.Note that we use squared error for comparison with(1)-(3)in the Introduction.Approximating Classes of FunctionsSuppose we now have a class F of functions whose members we wish to ap-proximate.Suppose we are given a countable dictionary D and polynomial depth search delimited by polynomialπ(·).Deﬁne the error of approximation by this dictionary over this class bye m(F;D,π)=maxe m(f;D,π).f∈FWe mayﬁnd,in certain examples,that we can establish boundse m(F;D,π)=O(m−ρ),m→∞,for allρ<ρ∗.At the same time,we may have available an argument showing that for every dictionary and every polynomial depth search rule delimited by π(·),e m(F;D,π)≥cm−ρ∗,m≥m0(π).Then it seems natural to say thatρ∗is the optimal rate of m-term approxi-mation from any dictionary when polynomial depth search delimited byπ(·).Curvelets9Starshaped Objects with C 2Boundaries We deﬁne Star-Set 2(C ),a class of star-shaped sets with C 2-smooth bound-aries,by imposing regularity on the boundaries using a kind of polar coor-dinate system.Let ρ(θ):[0,2π)→[0,1]be a radius function and b 0=(x 1,0,x 2,0)be an origin with respect to which the set of interest is star-shaped.With δi (x )=x i −x i,0,i =1,2,deﬁne functions θ(x 1,x 2)and r (x 1,x 2)byθ=arctan(−δ2/δ1);r =((δ1)2+(δ2)2)1/2.For a starshaped set,we have (x 1,x 2)∈B iﬀ0≤r ≤ρ(θ).Deﬁne the class Star-Set 2(C )of sets by{B :B ⊂[110,910]2,110≤ρ(θ)≤12θ∈[0,2π),ρ∈C 2,|¨ρ(θ)|≤C },and consider the corresponding functional class Star 2(C )= f =1B :B ∈Star-Set 2(C ) .The following lower rate bound should be compared with (3).Lemma.Let the polynomial π(·)be given.There is a constant c so that,for every dictionary D ,e m (Star 2(C );D ,π)≥c 1m 2log(m ),m →∞.This is proved in [10]by the technique of hypercube embedding.Inside the class Star 2(C )one can embed very high-dimensional hypercubes,and the ability of a dictionary to represent all members of a hypercube of dimension n by selecting m n terms from a subdictionary of size π(m )is highly limited if π(m )grows only polynomially.To show that the rate (3)can be achieved,[13]adaptively constructs,for each f ,a corresponding orthobasis which achieves it.It tracks the boundary of B at increasing accuracy using a sequence of polygons;in fact these are n -gons connecting equispaced points along the boundary of B ,for n =2j .The diﬀerence between n -gons for n =2j and n =2j +1is a collection of thin triangular regions obeying width ≈length 2;taking the indicators of each region as a term in a basis,one gets an orthonormal basis whose terms at ﬁne scales are thin triangular pieces.Estimating the coeﬃcient sizes by simple geometric analysis leads to the result (3).In fact,[13]shows how to do this under the constraint of polynomial-depth selection,with polynomial Cm 7.Although space constraints prohibit a full explanation,our polynomial-depth search formalism also makes perfect sense in discussing the warped wavelet representations of the Introduction.Consider the noncountable ‘dic-tionary’of all wavelets in a given basis,with all continuum warpings applied.Notice that for wavelets at a given ﬁxed scale,warpings can be quantized with a certain ﬁnite accuracy.Carefully specifying the quantization of the warping,one obtains a countable collection of warped wavelets,for which polynomial depth search constraints make sense,and which is as eﬀective as adaptive triangulation,but not more so .Hence (3)applies to (properly interpreted)deformation methods as well.10 E.J.Cand`e s and D.L.Donoho§5.Curvelet ConstructionWe now brieﬂy describe the curvelet construction.It is based on combining several ideas,which we brieﬂy review•Ridgelets,a method of analysis suitable for objects with discontinuities across straight lines.•Multiscale Ridgelets,a pyramid of windowed ridgelets,renormalized and transported to a wide range of scales and locations.•Bandpass Filtering,a method of separating an object out into a series of disjoint scales.We brieﬂy describe each idea in turn,and then their combination.RidgeletsThe theory of ridgelets was developed in the Ph.D.Thesis of Emmanuel Cand`e s(1998).In that work,Cand`e s showed that one could develop a system of analysis based on ridge functionsψa,b,θ(x1,x2)=a−1/2ψ((x1cos(θ)+x2sin(θ)−b)/a).(5)He introduced a continuous ridgelet transform R f(a,b,θ)= ψa,b,θ(x),f with a reproducing formula and a Parseval relation.He also constructed frames, giving stable series expansions in terms of a special discrete collection of ridge functions.The approach was general,and gave ridgelet frames for functions in L2[0,1]d in all dimensions d≥2–For further developments,see[3,5].Donoho[12]showed that in two dimensions,by heeding the sampling pat-tern underlying the ridgelet frame,one could develop an orthonormal set for L2(I R2)having the same applications as the original ridgelets.The orthonor-mal ridgelets are convenient to use for the curvelet construction,although it seems clear that the original ridgelet frames could also be used.The ortho-ridgelets are indexed usingλ=(j,k,i, , ),where j indexes the ridge scale,k the ridge location,i the angular scale,and the angular location; is a gender token.Roughly speaking,the ortho-ridgelets look like pieces of ridgelets(5) which are windowed to lie in discs of radius about2i;θi, = /2i is roughly the orientation parameter,and2−j is roughly the thickness.A formula for ortho-ridgelets can be given in the frequency domainˆρλ(ξ)=|ξ|−12(ˆψj,k(|ξ|)w i, (θ)+ˆψj,k(−|ξ|)w i, (θ+π))/2.are periodic wavelets for[−π,π), Here theψj,k are Meyer wavelets for I R,wi,and indices run as follows:j,k∈Z Z, =0,...,2i−1−1;i≥1,and,if =0, i=max(1,j),while if =1,i≥max(1,j).We letΛbe the set of suchλ.The formula is an operationalization of the ridgelet sampling principle:•Divide the frequency domain in dyadic coronae|ξ|∈[2j,2j+1].•In the angular direction,sample the j-th corona at least2j times.•In the radial frequency direction,sample behavior using local cosines.The sampling principle can be motivated by the behavior of Fourier trans-forms of functions with singularities along lines.Such functions have Fourier transforms which decay slowly along associated lines through the origin in the frequency domain.As one traverses a constant radius arc in Fourier space,one encounters a ‘Fourier ridge’when crossing the line of slow decay.The ridgelet sampling scheme tries to represent such Fourier transforms by using wavelets in the angular direction,so that the ‘Fourier ridge’is captured neatly by one or a few wavelets.In the radial direction,the Fourier ridge is actu-ally oscillatory,and this is captured by local cosines.A precise quantitative treatment is given in [4].Multiscale RidgeletsThink of ortho-ridgelets as objects which have a “length”of about 1and a “width”which can be arbitrarily ﬁne.The multiscale ridgelet system renor-malizes and transports such objects,so that one has a system of elements at all lengths and all ﬁner widths.In a light mood,we may describe the system impressionistically as “brush strokes”with a variety of lengths,thicknesses,orientations and locations.The construction employs a nonnegative,smooth partition of energyfunction w ,obeying k 1,k 2w 2(x 1−k 1,x 2−k 2)≡1.Deﬁne a transportoperator,so that with index Q indicating a dyadic square Q =(s,k 1,k 2)of the form [k 1/2s ,(k 1+1)/2s )×[k 2/2s ,(k 2+1)/2s ),by (T Q f )(x 1,x 2)=f (2s x 1−k 1,2s x 2−k 2).The Multiscale Ridgelet with index µ=(Q,λ)is thenψµ=2s ·T Q (w ·ρλ).In short,one transports the normalized,windowed ortho-ridgelet.Letting Q s denote the dyadic squares of side 2−s ,we can deﬁne the subcollection of Monoscale Ridgelets at scale s :M s ={(Q,λ):Q ∈Q s ,λ∈Λ}.Orthonormality of the ridgelets implies that each system of monoscale ridgelets makes a tight frame,in particular obeying the Parseval relationµ∈M s ψµ,f 2= f 2L 2.It follows that the dictionary of multiscale ridgelets at all scales,indexed byM =∪s ≥1M s ,is not frameable,as we have energy blow-up:µ∈M ψµ,f 2=∞.(6)。

generative_lexicon

John broke the chair The chair broke agentive: causing act formal: result ‘be broken’
The levels of representation in GL: qualia
Telic: embraces data about the purpose and the function of entities and events house: QS … … telic: live in
Generative mechanisms in GL: co-composition
2nd type: co-composition It is triggered by partial identity of values of QS of the predicate and the argument: Why paint a picture is a creation predicate unlike paint a wall?
The levels of representation in GL: qualia
Formal: encodes distinctive features of entities (spatial orientation, size, form, dimensionality, color) and their relation with other elements within the same domain (taxonomic relation ISA, ‘is a kind of’, a house is a kind of building): house: QS … … formal: building of size x, of … shape… -events: resulting subevent break T ES caus. result. QS

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题精华(附答案)

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[注：第六章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can no t be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping inf luence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a __________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person’s speec h or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or __________ language ofa country.28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Lingua franca32. Regional dialect33. Register34. SociolinguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Is American English superior to African English Why or why not （中国人民大学，2003）36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese （东北师范大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）答案~5 BCAAC 6~10 ~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF. community 22. variety23. dialectal . sociolects 26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectional. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English..(Omit.)Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between t hem can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X” （东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming？B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:~5 DBCBA 6~10 ~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTT. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant infor mation, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when th e bus comes.”occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the fun ction that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point ina linguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the the ory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG gra mmar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP 32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics？36. What is behaviorism What is behaviorism in linguistics What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield Does behaviorism have any limitations If yes, what are they？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics？Key:~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCC ~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTF. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-maker. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed. 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.Chapter 7 Exercises for Language, Culture and SocietyI . Fill in the blanks.1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.3. Wherever the standard he’s). Black English can language can use a contraction (he + is _________ the form of “be”._________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. Asa characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)II. . Choose the best answer.13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a commonset of behaviour rules.A. domainB. . situationC. societyD. community15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __________ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.A. Language tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. Register variety21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Ideolectal22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Regional variationB. American EnglishC. Stylistic variationD. Ideolectal variationII. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains._________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language._________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy._________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region._________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other._________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language._________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life._________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon._________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers._________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English._________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system._________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Explain the following terms.37. Register 38. Pigin39. Slang 40. Communicative competence41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.V. Answer the following questions.49. What is the difference official language？50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national languageKeysI . Fill in the blanks.1. vernacular2. community3. delete4. standard5. creole6. taboo7. euphemism8. language9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualismII . Choose the best . C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. DIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.28. [T]29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.30. [Tl,31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir¬Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.35. [T] 36. [T]。

生成语法

生成语法讲座系列序言+第一讲：简介生成语法讲座系列序言“Syntax Error”。

1992年的春天，有个老头子在南方画圈儿的时候，我在北方的一个高中里学着使用APPLE-II苹果机。

每次程序写错，运行的时候都会提示syntax error。

我只认识error，什么是syntax，我不知道。

老师说，出现这个提示，就说明程序的语法错误。

原来syntax是“语法”的意思。

可英语老师说，语法是grammar。

也许，syntax说的语法，是计算机专用的术语吧。

十几年过去了，当我拿到Radford的English Syntax这本书的时候，还觉得是系统讲授英语grammar的呢。

翻开一看，一大堆的树形图，还有乱七八糟的符号，张道真的语法书上从来没有这样写过。

原来syntax和grammar还真不一样，高中时代的错觉，一直到了这时才慢慢的被澄清，我也被导师带领着，慢慢走入生成语法的大门。

一路走来，越往前走似乎越是渐入佳境，基础知识好比沿途的风景，“上车睡觉，下车看庙，定点拍照，回去一问什么都不知道”的跟团旅行只能是耽误功夫。

总觉得自己的基础知识还很欠缺，因此决定慢慢整理一个系列讲座，就像坛子里的叶城他们一样，藉此把一些最最基础的东西夯实。

既如此，后面的系列里肯定会有很多错误和含混不清的地方。

希望各位前辈不吝赐教，是以为序。

第一讲：简介：什么是syntax，什么又是“生成”？接着序言里面的问题，什么是syntax呢？按照维基百科给出的定义，syntax就是句法，关注自然语言句子结构中的原则和规律。

句法学当然也就是针对这些构成句子的原则和规律进行研究的学科[1]。

针对语法进行研究，最关键的当然是针对句子。

教英语的洪老师说，黄蓉写的作文很好，没有语法错误；郭靖比较笨，作文里语法错误连篇。

这里洪老师说的“语法错误”，实际就是指句子的句法错误。

I with you talk very glad是一个不好的英语句子，“很高兴我说话和你”是一个不好的汉语句子。

积极话语分析简述

143Crazy English Teachers 黄娟（南昌理工学院外国语学院，江西南昌 330044）收稿日期：2014-1-13；修改稿：2014-3-41. 引言话语分析至今已经有六十多年的发展历程，其发展分成三个阶段：萌芽阶段（1952~1970）、起步阶段（1970~1980）和兴盛阶段（1980~现在）。

话语分析的主要任务为：（1）句子之间的语义联系；（2）语篇的衔接与连贯；（3）会话原则；（4）话语与语境之间的关系；（5）话语的语义结构与意识形态之间的关系；（6）话语的体裁结构与社会文化传统之间的关系；（7）话语活动与思维模式之间的关系等（朱永生，2006）。

话语分析是人类对语言认识不断发展的结果，它体现了语言研究的多种过渡：从形式到功能；从静态到动态；从词、句分析到话语、篇章分析；从语言内部到语言外部；从单一领域到跨学科领域。

批评性话语分析（C r i t i c a l D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s ）是当今学术界对话语研究的主要方向。

批评性话语分析（CDA ）通过分析语篇的语言特点和它们生成的社会历史背景来考察语言结构背后的意识形态意义，其最终目的是揭示语篇中隐含的意识形态和不平等的权力关系。

批评性话语分析的不足在于过于侧重政治，重视批评，以消极的态度影响社会。

针对批评话语分析理论的种种不足，在伯明翰批评话语分析国际研讨会上（1999年），澳大利亚悉尼大学的J.R.Martin 教授在其“Positive Discourse Analysis: Solidarity and Change ”一文中首先提出了“积极话语分析（P o s i t i v eDiscourse Analysis ，简称PDA ）”这一全新的命题。

他认为语言分析更应以积极的态度和视野去观察那些主张和平平等的“好新闻（g o o d news ）”，使批判性思考更多地朝着肯定的方向进行，以正面的思想来引导读者。

《词汇语义学理论》评介

《词汇语义学理论》评介杨彬【摘要】词汇语义学作为语言学的重要分支有着悠久的传统.Dirk Geeraerts所著的《词汇语义学理论》(2010)对词汇语义学研究的历史进行了全面的回顾,对各种重要理论进行了详尽的评述,并对词汇语义学的前景作了展望.该书是从事词汇语义学研究的重要参考资料.【期刊名称】《山东外语教学》【年(卷),期】2011(000)004【总页数】5页(P108-112)【关键词】词汇学;词汇语义学;认知语义学【作者】杨彬【作者单位】山东师范大学外国语学院,山东济南250014【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H0301.0 引言词汇学既是一门历史悠久的古老学问,又是一个不断发展的现代语言学分支学科。

“Lexicology”(词汇学)一词早在1801年就出现在文献中。

(汪榕培、杨彬,2011)词汇学研究词的音、形、义及使用等各个层面。

词汇语义学是词汇学的重要分支,因为“语言中词汇的功能就是表达意义”。

(Halliday&Yallop,2007:24)近年来,词汇语义学在西方成为语言学研究的重点之一。

在D.A.Cruse(1986)的里程碑式的著作Lexical Semantics之后,出现了一系列有影响的专著和论文集,如Jackson(1988)、Singleton(2000)、Lipka(2002)、Behrens&Zaefferer(2002)、Cuyckens et al.(2003)、Halliday&Yallop(2007)、Hanks(2008)等。

国内语言学界对词汇语义的关注越来越多,以词汇语义学命名的专著有王文斌(2001)等。

词义是相当复杂的系统,需从多个角度加以分析。

在语言学理论层出不穷的当下,有必要对词汇学的研究传统和现状进行一番梳理和分析。

Dirk Geeraerts所著的《词汇语义学理论》(2010)正是这样的一本书。

2.0 内容简介除了引言和结论之外,该书的主要内容共分五章。

09-10.2语言学试卷A

东莞理工学院（本科）试卷A卷2009 --2010 学年第二学期《语言学概论》课程考试开课单位：外语系，考试形式：闭卷，允许带2B铅笔，黑色水笔入场Part I Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (5%×4=20%)1. duality2. syllable3. stem4. IC analysisPart II Directions: Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%)5. I function is realized by mood and modality.6. Halliday proposes a theory of metalingual functions of language, that is, language hasi , interpersonal and textual functions.7. Phonetics studies how the speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, andp _____ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.8. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and m of articulation.9. Endocentric constructions may be divided into two subtypes—s_____________ andcoordinate constructions.10. C ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.11. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is called s ____ .It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.12. R______ is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total lossof identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness.13. X buys something from Y” and “Y sells something to X” are in a relation ofc_____________antonymy.14. A p________________ act refers to the act preformed by or as a result of saying, theeffects on the hearer.Part III Directions: Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.Write T for true and F for false.（1%×10=10%）( ) 15.The phatic function refers to language function for establishing or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.( ) 16. Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage.( ) 17. Phonology and grammar are infinite, tightly structured systems, the child does not have to master them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of thelanguage.( ) 18. The word of “impossibility”contains three morphemes.( ) 19. The words “boys”and “raise”have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well.( ) 20. “Tulip”, “rose” and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”.Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”( ) 21. The term Stream of consciousness writing was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology to describe thefree association of ideas and impressions in the mind.( ) 22. When you use your own sentence with a meaning other than the conceptual, the meaning is sometimes referred to as speaker‟s meaning, or contextual meaning.( ) 23. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.( ) 24. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.Part IV Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement. (1%×30=30%)25. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative26. The most important sociological use of language is the function, bywhich people establish and maintain their status in a society.A. performativeB. interpersonalC. phaticD. metalingual27. According to F. de Saussure, refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language28. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is saidto be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic29. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations ofthe speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission30. Which of the following statements is true of Jacob son‟s framework of languagefunctions?A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.B. The emotive function is to convey message and information.C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.D. The phatic function is to establish communion with others.31. Which of the following does not belong to the computational linguistics?A. machine translationB. corpus linguisticsC. speech recognitionD. empirical study32. deals with the way in which speech sounds are produced.A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Segmental phonologyD. Suprasegmental phonology33．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal34. According to G. B. Shaw‟s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existent word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as _____.A. goatB. hotC. fishD. foot35．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/36. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiced alveolar stopB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiced palatal affricateD. voiced labiodental stop37. The vowel is a low back vowel.A. /i:/B. /u/C. /æ/D. /a:/38. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features39. The word UN is formed in the way of .A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending40. Language has been changing, but such changes are not so obvious at all linguisticaspects except that of .A. phonologyB. lexiconC. syntaxD. semantics41. “Wife”, which used to refer to any woman, stands for “a married woman” in modernEnglish. This phenomenon is known as .A. semantic shiftB. semantic broadeningC. semantic elevationD. semantic narrowing42. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme43. Which of the following are converse antonyms? __________A. clever : stupidB. pass : failC. hit : missD. parent : child44. __________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes45. _____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by thelinguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences46. Which of the following is NOT …garden path‟ sentences?A. The man who hunts ducks out on weekends.B. The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi.C. Fat people eat accumulates.D. The horse that was raced past the fence fell.47. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts ina word.” This is known as _____.A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability48. ________ refer to the relationship that linguistic units have with other units because they may occur together in a sentence.A. Syntagmatic relationsB. Hypotactic relationsC. Paradigmatic relationsD. Paratactic relations49. For structuralists, ________is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent tothat of one or more of its constituents.A. coordinate constructionB. subordinate constructionC endocentric construction D. exocentric construction50. Look at the following examples:i) the man went to the theater ii) *man to the theater went theIt shows the importance of ______ in producing the acceptable utterance in a language. A. word order B. substitutability C. co-occurrence D. constituents51. deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense52. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Generative Grammar.B. Functional Grammar.C. Extended Standard Theory.D. The Minimalist Program.53. …Linguistic determinism‟ and …linguistic relativity‟ have alternatively been used torefer to _____.A. cross-cultural communicationB. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC. anthropological linguisticsD. ethnography of communication54. _____ is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.A. ConnotativeB. AffectiveC. DenotativeD. ReflectedPart V Directions: Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary.（第55题：10分；第56题：20分）注意：1) 拼写错误、用词错误、语法错误每处扣1分。

现代英语词汇学概论6polysemyandhomonymy

Research purpose and significance
To investigate the characteristics and patterns of polysemy and homonymy in English: This research aims to identify the characteristics and patterns of polysemy and homonymy in English, providing a better understanding of these phenomena.
详细描述：根据不同的分类标准，可以将同音异义词分为不同的类型。根据词性，可以将同音异义词分为名词同音异义词、动词同音异义词、形容词同音异义词等。根据词义，可以将同音异义词分为完全同音异义词和部分同音异义词。
Homonymy's discrimination method
总结词：辨析方法
详细描述：对于同音异义词的辨析，可以采用语境法、词源法、词义分析法等方法。语境法是通过上下文语境来判断词义的方法；词源法是通过词的来源和历史演变来判断词义的方法；词义分析法是根据词的语义特征和义素来分析词义的方法。
要点二
Language contact
When different languages come into contact, words from one language may borrow meanings from another language, leading to polysemy.
Secondary polysemy
When a word acquires a new meaning that is related to its original meaning but is not a fundamental change. For example, the word "gas" can mean any one of the elements or compounds that are gaseous at standard temperature and pressure, or it can refer to a type of fuel.

提升结构中名词短语移动的句法-研究

AcknowledgementsAfter entering this school for my master degree, I have made up my mind to work hard on my major—Linguistics. However, as a freshman in my first year of postgraduate, I was totally confused about how to study and which aspect I shall focuson. Just at this moment, fortunately, I met my teachers who are both knowledgeableand amiable, among who are Xiang Chengdong, Liu Hongwei, Bai Liru, Zhang Lei mang other teachers and also I invited Professor Zhao Yanchun as my supervisor. During this period, I accumulate a large amount of knowledge from myteachers’guidance. I would like to deliver my sincere gratitude to all my teachers. ProfessorZhao Yanchun, as my supervisor, especially gives me much help in my study and my fulfillment of this thesis.From Professor Zhao, one of the most important harvests I learn iscriticalthinking, which is totally different from how I think before. In previous study, Ialways receive and learn knowledge passively. Therefore, learning by roteandmechanical memorizing occupies most of my time and even sometimes I have no idea how to apply the knowledge I acquire to practice use. After I am equippedwithcritical thinking taught by Professor Zhao, I surprisingly find that not everythingwritten on paper or in books is absolutely right and in addition, regarding to the sametopic, if we choose a different perspective to explore, we can get even extremelydifferent conclusion. By applying this method to academic study, what we can gain faroutweighs what we expected before. What is more, not only can critical thinking beused in academic events, it can also be used in many others fields of our sociallife.Secondly, the deep impression Professor Zhao left on me is his patience, diligence and perseverance. Every week, no matter how busy Mr. Zhao is, he will organize us to get together taking a regular meeting where we talk about theresult orharvest of our recent study. Meanwhile, many shining points that I use in mythesisare accumulated in these regular meetings. So, Professor Zhao’s guidance to me islong lasting. Again, I will show my acknowledgement to my supervisor, ProfessorII万方数据Zhao.There are also many classmates worth my acknowledgement, helping me in the process of my preparing the thesis. I am deeply moved by my classmates’consideration and help in both study and life. Especially, my roommates’encouragement and support to me make me motivated. Thank you to all of you.III 万方数据摘要上世纪五十年代，转换生成语法是对语言学界最有冲击力的理论之一，它的出现极大的改变了人们对传统语言学研究的认识，使语言学研究从注重语言表层现象的研究逐渐过渡到了对语言深层结构的理性思考上。

12 The Lexical Approach词汇教学法

▪ It reflects a belief in the centrality of the lexicon to language structure, L2 learning, and L use, and in particular to multiword lexical units or “chunks” that are learnt and used as single items.
Approach: Theory of Learning
– Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions, and examples contributes to turning input into intake, although formal description of rules probably does not help. – Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules but on an accumulation of examples from which learners make provisional generalizations. Language production is the product of previously met examples, not formal rules. – No linear syllabus can adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of acquisition.
Approach: Theory of Language
▪ Chomsky’s influential theory of language about the lexical view holds that only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel creations and that multiword units functioning as “chunks” or memorized patterns form a high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation. ▪ The role of collocation is also important in lexically based theories of language. Collocation refers to the regular occurrence together of words. Different types of lexical units play a central role in learning and in communication.

Chomsky and his Tg Grammar

Transformational-Generative Grammar:

1. a kind of grammar represented by formulars; 2. a mode about language competence; 3. the aim : the internalized language; 4. a means for description; 5. the core: LAD
The development of this theory:

1. The Classical theory:
In this theory, his aim is to make linguistics a science. 3 features: emphasis on generative ability of language; introduction of transformational rules; grammatical descriptions regradless of meaning. This mode is mainly made up by Phrase Structure Rules (短语结构规则) and Transformation(转换规则).
His Early theories (1957)

Innateness hypothesis Language acquisition mechanism Deep structure and surface structure Phrase structure rules Transformations Competence The underlying knowledge about the ﹠ system of rules. performance

西方主要翻译理论学派总结

most basic structures of Chomsky’s model,for Nida,kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate(详尽复杂的) surface structures[用来构成语言复杂表层结构的基本结构成分].Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor(受体)language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:Literal transfer字面转移--minimal最低度~--literary书面~2）Analysis:generative-transformational grammar（转换生成语法by Chomsky）’s four types of functional classEvent(verb)事件：行动、过程等发生的事Object(noun)实体：具体的人和物Abstract(quantities and qualities,adjective)抽象概念Relational(gender,qualities,prepositions and conjunctions)关系2,Basic factors in translation1)The nature of message:content V.S.form2)The purpose(s)of the author/translatorTypes of purposes identified by Nida:①for information②suggest a behavior③imperative(祈使，命令)purpose3)The audiences(4types):children;new literates;average literate adult;specialists3,Relatedness(相关)of language&culture4,Two basic orientations(方向)in translating1)Formal Equivalence(F-E):focuses on the message itself,in both form and content.•Principles governing F-E:①grammatical units语法单元②consistency in word usage词语用法前后一致，连贯性③meanings in terms of the source context源语语境意义2)D-E(dynamic equivalence):①based on the principle of equivalent effect(•Principles governing it)②aiming at complete naturalness of expression;③unnecessary to understand the source culture.•Economic~can be transferable with cultural~.实际上三种形式均可互相转化。

新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题

Chapter 4SyntaxWhat is syntax?----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “ arrangement ” or out together ”.Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with orwithout appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.What is a sentence?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in acertain order in accordance with grammatical rules.A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively whatstrings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.Knowledge of sentence structureStructural ambiguityStructural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. Forexample, the sentenceTom said he would come yesterdaycan be interpreted in different ways.Word orderDifferent arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the wordsTom, loveand Mary, we may sayTom loves Mary or Mary loves Tom.Grammatical relationsNative speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. Forexample, in The boats are not big enough and We don’ t have enough boats, the word enough isrelated to different words in the two sentences.RecursionThe same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example,I know that you arehappy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you arehappy.Sentence relatednessSentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.Syntactic categoriesA syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another withoutloss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:The child found the knife.A policeman found the knife.The man who just left herefound the knife.He found the knife.All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). Thenoun phrases in these sentences function as subjectThe. knife, also a noun phrase, functions asobject.Traditional grammarIn traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs(predicates), predicatives, ⋯Structural grammarStructural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.Transformational-generative (TG) grammar1Adequacy of observationAdequacy of descriptionAdequacy of explanationWriting a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules – phrase structure rules andtransformation rules –which are followed by speakers of the language.TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.Systematic-functional grammarBackground and the goal of systemic-functional grammar M.A. K. HallidayLanguage is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realizedthrough forms.The three meta-functions of languageIdeational functionInterpersonal functionTextual functionCategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.The criteria on which categories are determinedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criterion of determining a word ’ s category is its distribution.Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rulesThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called aphrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det) + N +(PP) ⋯⋯ e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual) + V + (NP) ⋯⋯ e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg) + A + (PP) ⋯⋯ very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP) ⋯⋯ on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The XP ruleNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be ofthe same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Phrase elementsSpecifierHeadComplementSpecifiers----Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typicallymark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl; There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put ⋯;asentencelike- construction may also function as a complement such as in I believed that she“ was innocent. I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up. ”That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Sentences (the S rule)S NP VPS NP infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘ Infl ’ ) as their heads, which indicatest ensehesentenceandagreement. ’Infl realized by a tense labelInfl realized by an auxiliaryTransformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDeep structure & surface structureWh-movementMove α and constraints on transformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C.Auxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Deep structure & surface structure3John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentencesmight be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that areflying are dangerous.Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s ub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisThe organization of the syntactic componentWh-movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?What can you talk about ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 4： SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3.Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding ontoanother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrasesrather than grammatical knowledge.12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19.A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22.XP can be written as (specifier) X (complement), X is called the_____.23.In a tree diagram, _____is the root of tree.24.The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed________.III.There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind ofnative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A.transformational rulesB.generative rulesC.phrase structure rulesD.x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC.noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35.syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39.grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42.D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43.What are the basic components of a sentence?44.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45.Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46.What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47.What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.VI. Given examples for word classes by using the words in the following sentence.Her dog always sleeps under the old tree.VII. Construct a sentence that has the following sentences.S Det, A, N, V, P, Det, NVIII. For each of the following sentences, supply three distinct surface structure sentences which may be regarded as derived from them:a.I told him to stop the car.b.He took his coat off.IX. Draw tree diagrams for each of the following entences.1.Mary advised John to see the dentist.2.Mary promised John to see the dentist.3. A clever magician fooled the audience.4.The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.5.They knew that the senator would win the election.6.The mouse ran up the rock.7.The mouse ate up the cheese.8.John gave Mary the book.9.John gave the book to Mary.10.John went to the supermarket.11.The man who came to see me last night is my brother.12.The candle on the desk blows in the wind.13.She passed him the hammer and saw through the window. (2 tree diagrams)14.The boy saw the girl in the car. (2 tree diagrams)15.Flying planes can be dangerous. (2 tree diagrams)16.Old men and women were more careful. (2 tree diagrams)17.The man in the room helps me every day.18.John is easy to please.19.John is eager to please.Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the following terms:35.syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consistsof a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37.coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38.syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(calleda lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39.grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40.linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type intoanother type.42.D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takesplace. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPThe boy likes the music.746. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in(A)to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C)It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D)They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. Itis believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.8。