Introduction to translation studies

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Chapter 1 Introductions to Translation

Further explanations to Yanfu’s criteria of translation
Faithfulness requires that the meaning in the target language should be faithful to the meaning of the original.
★Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Eugene Nida, 1974)
My work, my family, my friends were more than enough to fill my time.
原译：我干工作，我做家务，我有朋友往来,这些占用了我的全部时间。
改译: 我要工作,要做家务,要与朋友往来,这些事用全部时间应付还不够。
Further explanations to Yanfu’s criteria of translation
Characteristics of translation
A. Translators have to express what others say or write.
B. Translators have no right to correct or alter what the original writer has written, such as the content, the structure, the style, the selection of words, etc. They have to translate in the original style and with the original feeling. No alteration is allowed in translating.

英语翻译概论.ChapterOne ppt2

Comparative literature (transnationally & transculturally)
Contrastive analysis
Subject Name(1960s)
Science of translating Translatology
framework of the discipline
out research on translation A theoretical framework into which
professional translators or trainee translators can place their practical experience.
A few general distinctions
School of Cannibalism (De Campos) Postcolonial translation theory( T.
Niranjana, G. Spivak) Cultural Studies Approach (Lawrence
Venuti)
Discussion and research point
Cicero, Horace, St. Jerome( Septuagint Bible) , Luther,
Academic discipline: the second half of the twentieth century (linguistic-oriented)
Translation Workshop（I.A. Rechards, 1920s） reading and writing experiment
Nature, principles, criteria, techniques, history

Introduction to translation studies

Definitions of translation
The target language should be easy and smooth for people to read. Communicate with people speaking different languages, eg. exchange ideas or culture.
Characteristics of translation
Translate what is written or what is spoken. No right to change and correct the source language. To understand the source text and to express in the target text . Should not stick to the original meaning in translate and make your translation meet the customary expressions in the target language.
Translation Studies (Translatology)
Translatology is a general term of translation studies Translation Studies is the top level of translation Elements of social science and the humanities Dealing with the systematic study of the theory The Description and the application of translation, interpreting Translation can be Normative and Descriptive

IntroductiontoTranslationStudies.ppt

---activity---behavior/action--process---source side --- target side
---result---outcome-product--translated version
Modes of translation--Oral---consecutive interpreting---simultaneous interpreting Written renditions---complete/partial translation Shifted---sight translation---dubbing---subtitling---surtitling Computer-aided---tool---software---databases---internet
Chinese journals of translation
Initiating questions
What will make a good translation? What are factors influencing
translation? What will make a good translator? What will make up the translation
---the Second World War
---Decolonization and the Cold War (19451970)
---the expansion of the European Union (1990) (Dollerup 2007: 63)
The four climaxes of translation in China ---
The history of translation--In the West--Interpreting-----Alexander the Great (356-324 BC) ---the Spanish conquest of America (1492) ---the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) ---the First World War

英汉翻译理论与实践Introduction

汉语: 主题显著的语言 (topic-prominent language), 采用主题述题(topic-comment) 的句式 “ 话语 --- 说明结构” 汉语句子建立在意念主轴 (thought-pivot) 上英语: 主语显著的语言 (subject-prominent language), 几乎都采用主语- 谓语(subject-predicate) 的句式 “ 主语 --- 谓语结构” 英语句子建立在形式( 或主谓) 主轴(form-pivot) 上
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。
Written by Liu Zong-yuan Translated by Qian Zhong-shu
钱钟书：化境说—理想 sublimed adaptation “文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。” 所谓“化境”，就是原作向译文的“投胎转世”，文字形式虽然换了，而原文的思想、感情、风格、神韵都原原本本地化到了译文的境界里了，丝毫不留下翻译的痕迹，让读者读译作就完全像在读原作一样。
…on one sunny morning in June,… 六月的一天早上，天气晴朗…… Believe you can and you’re halfway there.— Theodore Roosevelt
10
Catford: The replacement of textural material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language.(TL). 奈达Nida: 所谓翻译，是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先在语义上，其次是文体上。 Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.

语域理论视域下《干校六记》两个英译本对比分析

摘要《干校六记》是由中国著名散文家、剧作家和翻译家杨绛所写的一部以文化大革命为背景的回忆性散文集。

这本书主要记述了杨绛及其丈夫钱钟书去干校接受劳动改造时的所见所闻，所感所悟，给人们了解文化大革命这一历史以及在这一历史阶段下知识分子的生活状况和精神世界提供了一份真实有效的参考资料。

无论是其艺术表现，还是其忠实于“文化大革命”这段历史的内容，都有很大的研究价值。

《干校六记》一经发表，陆续被翻译成日语、英语和法语版本，在文学界引起广泛关注。

其中英语版本有三个。

基于译者的不同国籍、语言和文化背景，本文选取葛浩文和章楚的英译本来进行对比研究。

两位译者都有着丰富的翻译经验。

前者是专门研究汉语文化且多年来一直致力于中国文学英译的翻译家，后者是多年从事联合国公文翻译的中国译员。

两译者对原文风格的理解与诠释不甚相同。

两个英译本体现了《干校六记》中描写的这段文革历史是如何在译者的笔下向西方传播的。

本研究将在语域理论的指导下进行。

语域理论是系统功能语言学的基础理论之一。

语域指的是由语场、语旨和语式三个情景语境变量决定的语言变异。

情景语境三要素则分别体现为语言语义层的经验功能、人际功能和语篇功能。

相应地，这些功能又分别体现为词汇语法层的及物性、语气和主位等系统和结构。

本文在语域理论的框架下对《干校六记》的葛浩文译本和章楚译本进行对比分析，目的并非是比较两个译本的优劣，而是探讨从语域视角看，两个译本各有何特点，哪一个译本更大程度的实现了与原文的语域对等。

通过定性和定量相结合的研究方法对原文和两个英译本的概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能的分析发现，葛浩文译本在语域的三个情景变量——语场、语旨、语式的表达上都更加贴近原文。

而章楚译本也在一定程度上与原文语域相符，但相比之下，葛浩文译本略胜一筹。

关键词：语域理论，话语范围，话语方式，话语基调，三大元功能CONTENTS原创性声明 (ii)DECLARATION (iii)ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (iv)ABSTRACT (v)摘要 (vii)CONTENTS (viii)Chapter One INTRODUCTION (1)1.1Research Background (1)1.2Research Objective (3)1.3Research Methodology (3)1.4Research Significance (4)1.5The Layout of the Thesis (4)Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW (6)2.1Previous Studies on Translation Based on Register Theory (6)2.1.1Previous studies on translation based on register theory abroad (6)2.1.2Previous studies on translation based on register theory at home (7)2.2Previous Studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and Its English Versions (10)2.2.1Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions abroad (10)2.2.2Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions at home (10)Chapter Three THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK (13)3.1Brief Introduction to Register Theory (13)3.2The Relations between Meta-functions of Language and Register Parameters.143.2.1Field and experiential function (14)3.2.2Tenor and interpersonal function (16)3.2.3Mode and textual function (18)Chapter Four A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE TWO ENGLISH VERSIONS OF GAN XIAO LIU JI FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF REGISTER THEORY..214.1The Analysis of Field (21)4.1.1Lexical choice (22)4.1.2Transitivity analysis of the source text and the target texts (28)4.2The Analysis of Tenor (39)4.2.1Mood system (40)4.2.2Modality system (46)4.3The Analysis of Mode (55)4.3.1Thematic and information structure (55)4.3.2Cohesion system (64)Chapter Five CONCLUSION (72)5.1Major Findings (72)5.2Limitations (77)REFERENCES (78)Chapter OneINTRODUCTION1.1Research BackgroundGan Xiao Liu Ji is written by Yang Jiang who is an outstanding writer, playwright and translator in China,after her return from the cadre school to Beijing. Gan Xiao Liu Ji is composed of six chapters which records that Yang Jiang and her husband Qian Zhongshu were forced to devolve to the cadre school from November 1969to March1972.In the Cultural Revolution,the cadre school(that is,the“May7”cadre school)is nominally a cadre school with labor and study as its main task,but in fact,it is a reform-through-labor farm that punishes revolutionary cadres and persecutes intellectuals.This event itself belongs to the absurd life in turbulent times, which contains the destruction and torture of cadres and intellectuals from the body to the spirit by far-left politics.However,the work does not straightforwardly describe the main content of life in the cadre school——to carry out endless political movements and struggles but takes the initiative to get away from political events, describing the trifles of life,comradeship and spousal love.Gan Xiao Liu Ji was serialized in China-Hong Kong Wide Angle magazine in1981,a single edition was published by SDX Joint Publishing Company in July of the same year.Soon after the publication of Gan Xiao Liu Ji,it was translated into Japanese by Japanese sinologist Nakajima,published by installments in Water Yan magazine in Japan in1982,and published in separate booklets.The three English versions were respectively translated by American sinologist Howard Goldblatt,Chinese scholar Djang Chu who was living in the United States and Australian scholar Geremie Barme.And the two French versions were published in Paris.In The History of Contemporary Chinese Literature,Hong Zicheng made comments on Gan Xiao Liu Ji,“Yang Jiang’s words are simple and implicit.Her tone is gentle.And She keeps a moderate distance to historical events and makes a calm examination of them.She focuses on the episodes of the events of the great age.In the account of her own experiences and feelings,shecan also see the times.”Gan Xiao Liu Ji is regarded as one of the most remarkable proses which describe the Cultural Revolution artistically.Based on the translators’different nationalities and linguistic backgrounds,this thesis makes a comparative study of two English versions of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu.Both Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu have rich experience in translation.While the former is a translator of Chinese literature with high status in the world,the latter is a Chinese translator who has been working in the United Nations for many years.Howard Goldblatt’s English version was evaluated as“the most prominent English translation of Chinese literature in the20th century”by the Times Literary Supplement.The two translators Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu represent the East and the West cultures.There are many differences in their educational backgrounds,views and values,their translation motivations and translation strategies so that the styles of their English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji are distinct.But each has its own virtues.It should be more appropriate to use these two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji to examine the translation events from the perspective of the register theory.Register theory originates from Malinowski’s thought of ter,Halliday, the founder of Systemic Functional Linguistics,put forward his thoughts of context and register,and incorporated register analysis into the theoretical system of the Systemic Functional Linguistics.Register refers to language variation determined by three situational context variables:field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse,which are respectively called field,tenor and mode for short.Field refers to what happens in the world,including the topic,participant,time,place,etc.Tenor refers to the relationship between participants,including the status and role of participants.Mode refers to the role of language in communication,including communication channels(spoken/written),media,rhetorical way,etc.For the Systemic Functional Linguistics,the change of any situational factor will give rise to different language variation and different types of register.The differences between registers determine the grammatical and lexical selection.The three elements of situational context are respectively associated with three strands of meanings,or “discourse semantics”,in the text.These three strands are known as“metafunctions”,which are the experiential function,the interpersonal function and the textual function. Specifically,the discourse of field,the discourse of tenor and the discourse of mode respectively stimulate the experiential meaning,the interpersonal meaning and the textual meaning in the semantic system.In other words,the discourse of field,the discourse of tenor and the discourse of mode are realized by the experiential function, the interpersonal function and the textual function of language in the discourse, respectively.Correspondingly,these three functions are embodied in the system and structure of the lexico-grammatical level,such as transitivity,mood and thematic structures(Halliday,1985,1994).1.2Research ObjectiveThe purpose of this thesis is not to find out the pros and cons of the two English versions,but to explore the characteristics of the two versions from the perspective of register and which version achieves register equivalence to a greater extent. Meanwhile,this thesis discusses the contents and methods of register analysis, specifically,from the perspective of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,which discusses the method of register analysis of the English translation of Gan Xiao Liu Ji, as well as the direction and standard of evaluation of the translation.1.3Research MethodologyThe analytical method used in this study is a combination of quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis.First of all,the lexico-grammatical analysis of the source text and the two target texts is carried out,that is,the functional grammatical analysis is carried out in the unit of clauses at the semantic layer.Through the analysis of the transitivity system,mood system and modality system,theme system and information system of the source text and the target texts,it will be clear that what forms of expression are chosen and what meanings are expressed in the three texts,that is, experiential meaning,interpersonal meaning and textual meaning.And then to compare the meanings conveyed by the three texts can reveal whether the two target texts are“equivalent”or“deviated”from the source text.Then based on the analysis of experiential meaning,interpersonal meaning and textual meaning of the source text and the two translated texts,the thesis will analyze the situational context of the three texts,that is,field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.In other words,the content,the participants and their relationships which are expressed in the text outside the language,and the linguistic medium,channel,rhetorical devices in which the original author chooses to express social meaning in the communication are analyzed.Finally,according to the analysis of the register of the source text and the two target texts,and the final judgment is made on whether the register of the two translated texts are equivalent to that of the source text or not.1.4Research SignificanceIn this study,the Systemic Functional Linguistics is used to study translation practice.The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the English versions of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu from the perspective of the register theory,and to obtain the register analysis methods of translation studies including Gan Xiao Liu Ji, and to evaluate the criteria and principles of the translation.In practice,this thesis has reference significance for translation practice,discourse analyses and translation studies related to Gan Xiao Liu Ji.In general,the register theory links the context and the various levels of the language system,which is conducive to comprehensively interpreting the circular process between the context and the language in the process of translation.Register theory provides a theoretical platform for comparison between the source text and the source context,the target text and the target context of Gan Xiao Liu Ji.1.5The Layout of the ThesisAccording to the nature and content of the study,this thesis is divided into five parts.Chapter one is a brief introduction to the background,object,significance and framework of the study.Chapter two is a literature review,summarizing the previous studies on theregister theory,translation practice based on the register theory,as well as the source text and two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji.Chapter three is the theoretical framework on which this research relies,that is, the description of the register theory.Chapter four is of great significance in the thesis,which is the author’s comparative analysis of the two English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji using the combination of qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis under the register theory.Chapter five is the conclusion made from the above analysis and the limitations of this study.Chapter TwoLITERATURE REVIEW2.1Previous Studies on Translation Based on Register TheoryThis part focuses on the studies at home and abroad of register theory and the combination of register theory and translation practice.2.1.1Previous studies on translation based on register theory abroadThere are many scholars studying translation from the perspective of register analysis abroad.Catford(1965)tried to establish a new theory of translation by analyzing the discourse involved in translation based on Halliday’s theory of Scale and Category Grammar.He also discussed the language variants in translation and introduced dialect,register,language type and way of language,and then put forward the concept of translation shift and classified the shift in translation.Ure(1971) initially defined the concept of the register from the perspective of lexical grammar, trying to distinguish the categories of register according to lexical categories.As far as Gregory(1988)concerned,in the translation studies,the research of the translatability can not leave the register equivalence alone.From the perspective of language use, Bell(1991)analyzed the three elements of the discourse:field,tenor and mode.He believes that social factors are closely related to the discourse,and the translator should analyze the original text based on the three parameters——field,tenor and mode before translating.As a translation theorist,Mona Baker(1992)investigated discourse analysis from a functional perspective.In her exploration of translation,she put emphasis mainly on the textual function of texts.Hatim and Mason(1990,1997) paid special attention to the meaning of context analysis.They studied the context from three aspects:communicative process,pragmatic behavior and symbolic communication.Among them,communicative process refers to the content of discourse theme,participants and their relationship,means of discourse and so on, which is actually the content of Halliday’s register analysis.House(1997,1981)putforward a systematic model of translation quality assessment based on register analysis.Steiner(1997)began to study translation from the perspective of the register in1997.Based on register analysis,Steiner(1998)explored the methods of analysis and evaluation of translation and put forward some new interpretations of some translation problems.Munday(2001)introduced and analyzed the main translation theories up to the end of the20th century.Among them,he analyzed and commented on the translation studies of House,Baker,Hatim and Mason whose studies were based on Halliday’s discourse analysis and register analysis.Matthiessen(2001) studied the translation in context,arguing that context is the greatest environment for translation and the value of the translation can be determined by using the field,the tenor and the mode.However,they only analyze the situational variables involved in the source text and lack systematic analysis of the target text.In recent years,the rise of Corpus Linguistics has provided a new tool for translation studies based on register theory. For example,Kruger(2012)focused on the register of the translated texts and found that there was relatively few register variation in the target text compared with the source text.Kreinkühle(2014)explored register shifts in scientific and technical translation.Neumann(2014)discussed the analysis of cross-linguistic register in translation studies at the theoretical and methodological level.These studies have achieved good results to a certain extent which provide a reference basis and direction for register research and make a certain contribution to the development of register theory.As for the related research of combining register theory and translation practice,it has gradually increased in recent years.However, more systematic methods that are used to analyse translation from the perspective of register theory need to be further improved,and the operational level of elaboration and examples need to be explored.2.1.2Previous studies on translation based on register theory at homeThe introduction of register theory into China was first done by Zhang Delu.He (1987)explained the status of this theory in the systemic functional grammar,thecharacteristics and functions of register.Guo(1989)also discussed the register theory in terms of the lexical level of language and language style.He introduced this theory into the Chinese to English translation and developed the application of this theory. Hu(2005)conducted the study on the equivalence of register in translation study.The equivalence in both the source and target text can be realized in both the form and content.Wu(2002)proposed how to grasp the register at the same time of “agreement”,and then achieve“fitness”in translation.Specifically,the target text is not only faithful to the content of the source text,but also faithful to the style of the source text.Tang(2002)elaborated on a combination of traditional stylistics with modern approaches to the analysis of language varieties and registers at various levels of comprehension of translation.Wang and Chai(2009)intended to integrate the concept of“register”in the Systemic Functional Linguistics into“transformation”, and put forward the concept of“register transformation”to expand the connotation of “transformation”at the level of pure language and connect the study of culture, context and text in the analysis of corresponding texts.Wang(2009)put forward the concepts of semantic drift and intertextual interference and analyzed the semantic drift and intertextual interference of polysemy.By comparing the Olympic slogan of China,the slogan of Asian Games in China and the slogan of Asian Games in Korea, Wang discussed how to evaluate the risk of translation choices in the context of semantic evolution to avoid possible negative intertextuality.Cao(2007)believes that in the process of translation,the translator’s grasp of the register of the original text helps the translator to understand the stylistic characteristics of the original text,so it is necessary to rebuild the register of the translated text corresponding to that of the original text.Then he(2016)chose specific examples in the translation of children’s literature to analyze and explore how the translator reproduces the register of the original text and what the suppositional social role of the translator acts in the context of the target text.While agreeing with Halliday’s thought of register,Gao(2013) found that register not only has the characteristics of situational context,but also has the characteristics of language.He(2014)applied the register analysis to the translation study and put forward the three-level model of register analysis oftranslation study.Then he(2015)proposed that the register has two sides,which provides the basis for the new concept of register reconstruction.Chen(Chen,Wang, &Zhang,2014)combined with the specific examples of Yang Xianyi’s and Hawkes’translation of Hong Lou Meng,exploring the correspondence of the register(field, register,tenor)of address translation in literary works,to ensure that the target text is faithful not only to the conceptual meaning of the original address,but also to the typological meaning of the potential structure of the text determined by the functional domain,in order to achieve its communicative and rhetorical functions.Liu(2016) compared the register space of English and Chinese with a qualitative method, concluding that the register level of Chinese is narrower than that of English.The root of the narrowing of register level in Chinese probably has a close relationship with the May4th Movement.From the perspective of register theory,Jing(Jing,&Duan,2017) discussed the equivalence of culture-loaded words in translation shift.Huang(Huang, &Sun,2017)conducted the research on the causes and methods of the register transformation in textual translation based on the register theory.And they put forward the strategy and type of three-step register transformation.Also,in recent years,many graduate students have written master’s degree theses in register and translation.These studies analyze different texts from the perspective of the register which have certain value and significance and provide different degrees of reference for further research.However,these studies are still in the introductory stage or primary stage in terms of research methods and perspectives.Most of these studies analyze different corpus based on the concept of three variables of situational context in the Systemic Functional Linguistics.The combination of register theory and analysis is not very close,that is,some analyses of translation are not built on lexical grammar which embodies the three language meta-functions,but on personal subjective impressions so that most of the analyses are interpreted at the linguistic level of words, sentences and so on.Some research is not deep and specific enough.2.2Previous Studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and Its English VersionsThis part combs the research thread of the source text and the two target texts of Gan Xiao Liu Ji at home and abroad.2.2.1Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions abroadHowever,according to the literature the author holds,few scholars are studying the translating characteristics of the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji,let alone studying that from the perspective of the register.The story itself is more welcome abroad.2.2.2Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions at homeGan Xiao Liu Ji is an outstanding work in the setting of the Cultural Revolution. It describes what the author Yang Jiang and her husband Qian Zhongshu saw,felt and realized in the special period of the Cultural Revolution,which not only shows people their difficult experiences,but also directly provides people with real and valuable materials for understanding this history.Yang Jiang has always enjoyed a high reputation in the Chinese literary world,and her literary attainments are quite high. The style of her article is unique,especially prose.Therefore,most of the domestic studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji focus on its plain and simple writing style and its historical or cultural significance.Zhang(1994)believes that Yang Jiang’s placid narration is to convey her inner feelings and depict her painful soul with moderation.Her self-soothing and self-deprecating words express the irony of this historical event.Li (2009)combed the process of publishing Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its increasing popularity in the literary circles at home and abroad and praised Yang Jiang’s plain and simple writing style and her pure and unfiltered aesthetic realm.Wu(1991) considers that it is narrow to put Gan Xiao Liu Ji into the type of“optimism”prose because there is the protest in calmness and sympathy.Thus,the author called it “indefinite-form prose”.Wei(2012)interpreted Gan Xiao Liu Ji from Yang Jiang’s female perspective and intellectual standpoint.Under the method of10“society-literature,”Zhu(2019)tried to utilize the theory of cultural memory to show how the memory of intellectuals was edited by the literature of that period in the Gan Xiao Liu Ji.These studies are based on Yang Jiang’s writing style and the deep implication conveyed in her writing,which slightly involves in the language level,but not in-depth.Since the publication of Gan Xiao Liu Ji,it has aroused widespread concern in Chinese academic circles.However,there is not much research on the English translation of the book.Chen(2010)explored the translation strategies adopted in the three English versions to reflect the salient meaning of reduplicative words and the translation model embodied by these translation strategies.Zhang(2010)pointed out that interpretation on the part of the translators could work out well only when it complied with the intention of the source texts and the authors by quoting examples of amplification from the two English versions(respectively translated by Goldblatt and Djang Chu)of Yang Jiang’s Gan Xiao Liu Ji.Deng(2011)tried to analyze the two English versions respectively translated by Djang Chu and Geremie Barme from three aspects:the translator’s interpretation of the source text,the translator’s translation strategy and translation style,in order to explain the embodiment of the translator’s subjectivity in the target text.Xu(2016)studied the translation process of Goldblatt’s English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji based on83letters between Goldblatt and editors, publishers,authors,scholars and readers in the period of translating Gan Xiao Liu Ji, which were collected by the Archives of Chinese Literature Translation at the University of Oklahoma.Besides,this topic has aroused many graduate students’attention in recent years. On the basis of the German scholar Albrecht Neubert’s viewpoint on the theory of translation competence,Wu(2017)made a comparative study of two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji which were respectively translated by Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu from aesthetic,thematic,linguistic,cultural,textual and transformational aspects combined with the characteristics of the source text.Based on the theory of adaptation,Wang(2018)discussed the adaptation made in the process of translating Gan Xiao Liu Ji by Howard Goldblatt,the corresponding translation methods and thefactors that affect the author’s choice of adaptation from four aspects:contextual relationship,structural object,the dynamics of adaptation and the degree of consciousness in the process of adaptation.Han(2018),from the perspective of social semiotics,studied the difficulties encountered in the process of the translation of the language meaning,and the compensation strategy adopted by Howard Goldblatt to minimize the loss of meaning in the translation process.There are not many pieces of research on the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji in China.Moreover,the above researches on the translation phenomena in the translated texts of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji is not thorough and comprehensive,and there are few examples revealing the characteristics of the translated texts.However,the above researches are of great significance to the study of the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji,which can enlighten future scholars.The author finds that no one has studied the translated texts of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji from the perspective of the register theory of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,and the results of the comparative study of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu are rare.Most domestic scholars tend to study Howard Goldblat’s English translation and his translation ability and style.Chapter ThreeTHEORETICAL FRAMEWORK3.1Brief Introduction to Register TheoryThe research of register analysis originated from Malinowski’s related researches.He put forward the concept of situational context in1923,he thought that language activities of human always occur in a specific context,and the use of language should consider the context in which it is located(Malinowski,1923). However,to succeed in verbal communication,especially when communicative activities occur between people who speak different languages,the role of culture can not be ignored,so Malinowski proposed the concept of cultural context in1935 (Malinowski,1935).The initial development of register analysis benefits from Firth. He incorporated Malinowski’s thought of situational context into his linguistic theory. In his opinion,linguistics is the study of meaning of language which is the function of language in context(Firth,1935).The concept of the register was first put forward by Reid when he studied bilingual phenomena in1956(Reid,1956).In the early1960s, Halliday,the funder of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,inheriting and developing the concept of situational context raised by Malinowski and relation theory of meaning presented by Firth,held that language varies with its function,and this linguistic variant distinguished by function was register.In1964,Halliday summarized that the situational context consists of three elements or variables,namely, field of discourse,mode of discourse and style of discourse.In1978,for the sake of avoiding ambiguity,Halliday transformed“style of discourse”into“tenor of discourse”(Halliday,1978).And these three situational variables are called the field, tenor and mode for short.Meanwhile,Halliday found that these three situational variables were related to the three metafunctions of language(experiential, interpersonal and textual function).He believed that a particular register was a given type of situation,which acted on the semantic system and selected and activated a specific semantic network.The meaning potential determined by this process is the。

Translation study介绍

Translation Studies: An IntroductionRobert HodgsonSome Personal NotesThe world of modern translation studies (TS) is for many, if not most, Bible scholars and Bible translators uncharted, even unknown territory. This observation should not surprise us. An academic curriculum for most Bible scholars and Bible translators would not have included a TS element. In my case I only discovered TS by accident in 1997 at a conference in Strasburg, France on multimedia translation. Sponsored by an agency of the European Union, the conference introduced me to some of the founders and leaders of TS, especially those connected with the Louvain, Belgium-based Centre for Communication, Culture, and Translation (CETRA). I recall leaving Strasburg deeply moved by the sincere interest and warm reception that the TS colleagues had given Bible scholarship in general and media translation in particular.My Strasburg experience provided a kind of “awakening” for me as I realized that Bible translation had historical, theoretical, and practical ties with TS that had partly faded from view. I also felt that the fascination and appreciation of the Strasburg colleagues for Bible translation and scholarship had opened up doors for collaboration and mutual learning. Partly this TS fascination and appreciation for the Bible stemmed from the “newness” of TS and the antiquity of Bible translation, partly from the global spread of Bible work and from the astonishing range of data we bring from the field. To add to my delight I had discovered that Eugene Nida held a position of great honor among TS colleagues, partly as a Bible scholar and translator, partly as a linguist, partly as a polymath whose own interdisciplinary approach to translation matched the interdisciplinary approach of TS.Upon returning home from Strasburg, I flipped through the writings of Nida to learn more about how Nida’s world had intersected with that of TS. Although I don’t recall finding any reference to TS as such in Nida’s work, I did find many references to scholars associated with TS. Nida knew and treasured, for example, the work of Katarina Reis and Hans Vermeer, two German translation scholars and teachers who developed what is known as skopos theory, an approach to translating that focused on the requirements of the target audience and language, especially on the need to reproduce in the target text the skopos or purpose of an original text. It was clear to me (at least) that I had located one of the streams of modern TS that had fed into what Nida would later call dynamic and functional equivalence.1While in Strasburg I also learned of a major research and learning opportunity organized for two weeks each September by the TS community, the so-called CETRA seminar that 1 See Erroll Rhodes, trans., Translation Criticism.—the Potentials and Limitations. Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment. ABS and St. Jerome, 2000. (Katarina Riess, Moeglichkeiten und Grenzen der Uebersetzungskritik. Kategorien und Kriterien fuer eine sachgerechte Beurteilung von Uebersetzungen 1971). This translated work was a first effort to make German language TS resources available to a wider audience.met in Misano Adriatico (Rimini), Italy. I attended the CETRA seminar in 1999 as a student, and then returned each year after that as a teaching staff member, with a special remit for media translation of the Bible. Thanks to support from UBS and SIL2 colleagues, I was able to recruit students into a Bible track within the CETRA seminar. In 2007, this Bible track emerged on its own right as the Nida School for Translation Studies.The Origin and Scope of Modern TSModern TS began as an academic discipline in the years after WW II when the mass displacement of populations and the first inklings of a united Europe hasted thinking on new language and culture policies. Part of this thinking included researching and better understanding the role of translation in helping to stabilize populations and cultures, in creating a kind of Euro-literature that transcended the boundaries of older nation states, and in overcoming centuries-old distinctions between dominant languages/peoples and marginalized languages/peoples. The modern state of Israel in this same period provided another seedbed for TS research. There translators were working around the clock to put classics of world literature into modern Hebrew so as to create a national Israeli literature, a so-called literary poly-system, to use the term that Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar3 coined.If you look for TS as an academic and professional discipline today you will find it lodged often in western European universities and translation-training institutes, frequently in departments of comparative literature, for example, The Catholic University of Louvain, University College London, University of Manchester, and Tartu University in Finland. In the US, the University of Massachusetts-Amherst and SUNY-Binghamton support robust centers of TS work. The European Society of TS and now a counterpart in the USA, The American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association, bring TS scholars together at professional meetings. Leading journals include Target, The Translator, and Babel. Publishers such as Benjamins, Rodopi, and St. Jerome carry large inventories of TS monographs and reference worksThe scope of TS is vast because TS is not a single field but a composite, interdisciplinary network (some say tangle) of data, methods, theories, and hypotheses from fields as diverse as cultural studies, modern language studies, post-colonial studies, gender studies, cognitive linguistics, anthropology, sociology, brain research, semiotics, and media and communications studies. Stefano Arduini, a distinguished linguist at the University of Urbino and the director of the San Pellegrino Institute for Translating and Interpreting (the venue for the annual Nida School) uses the metaphor of the rhizome, a kind of knotted bulb or plant root, to describe TS. What all TS scholars share in common,2 Phil Noss, former Translation Studies Coordinator for UBS; Phil Towner, former UBS Director of Translation Services (now Dean of the Nida Institute); Freddy Boswell, former Director of Translation Services for SIL International, now President and CEO, SIL International.3 Itamar Even-Zohar , “Polysystem Theory.” Poetics Today 1(1-2, Autumn 1997), 287-310.however, no matter what specialized field they stand in, is a passion to research and better understand translations as instances of cultural mediation and human cognition. Some Key Concepts and Positions of TSBecause of the composite, interdisciplinary nature of TS it is risky to generalize and isolate key concepts and positions. But here are some that (to me at least) stand for concepts and positions that are both representative of TS and of special interest to Bible scholars and Bible translators. They include 1) the ubiquity of translation; 2) the target orientation of TS; 3) the role of audience understanding; 4) a concern with the ethics of translation that includes a protest against the invisibility of the translator; 5) an understanding of translation as cultural mediation rather than as simply literary production; 6) an inclusive concept of translation that brings together a wide-ranging set of phenomena including literary, Bible, audiovisual, multimedia, technical, legal, and scientific translation, as well as film dubbing and subtitling, and conference interpreting, both consecutive and simultaneous.1. Ubiquity of TranslationJosé Lambert, who along with figures such as Gideon Toury, Theo Hermans, and James Holmes is one of the founders of modern TS, still gives an annual presentation at the CETRA research seminar on the ubiquity of translation. He always begins by asking: Is there any institution, period of history, or field of human activity that does not include translation in some form? The answer seems to be No. Classic literature including sacred texts such as the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament rely heavily on translation for their dissemination. This is no less true of standard children’s literature, for example, Grimm’s fairy tales and Aesop’s fables.Wire services (AP, Reuters) that provide feeds for television, radio, internet, and news papers draw on translation and interpreting services to turn foreign language source material into mother tongue reports. Technical, scientific, touristic, and legal texts are regularly translated for global consumption. Without translation and interpreting services there would be no political and military institutions such as the European Union, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and the United Nations. Nor would we have multi-national corporations such as General Electric, nor humanitarian agencies such as World Vision, nor international religious bodies such as churches and Bible societies. The arts and entertainment sectors regularly depend on dubbing, subtitling, superscripting, adaptation, rewriting and other translation strategies to communicate with global audiences.TS has drawn an important consequence from this observed ubiquity of translation and interpreting: it has given translation the status of an object of academic research, worthy of the most careful and rigorous study and scrutiny from as many different vantage points and fields of interest as possible. By so raising translation to the status of a research object, TS has declared as obsolete a long-held (and still widespread notion) of translation and interpreting as derivative literature and discourse, less valuable than original literature and discourse. TS rejects any notion of translation and interpreting as products of untrained hack workers, destined for poor pay and invisibility. For TS,translation and interpreting represent a universal and elevated form of human discourse, of self-disclosure, of cultural, moral and spiritual formation and mediation. The ubiquity and new status of translation has profound consequences for the ethics of translation as we will indicate below.Point to Ponder: Given the alleged ubiquity of translation and interpreting, and the new status of translation as an object of scientific research for TS, are Bible societies and their supporting churches investing enough in the scientific study of (Bible) translation and interpreting as objects of research (as opposed to training, production, evaluation, testing, distribution and marketing)?2. Target orientationThe above- mentioned skopos theorists Reiss and Vermeer (and now today Christiane Nord) helped steer our attention toward an important goal for translation: recreating in a target language the skopos or purpose of an original. In focusing attention on the purpose of a document, these theorists (who were also at the same time translation educators and trainers) helped us understand that translation includes not only a linguistic and cultural task but also a teleological one.4If one goal of translation is transferring the purpose of a source text to a target text (in addition to transferring linguistic and cultural messages), then some adjustments in the information flow and architecture of a text are often necessary. A client once commissioned a translator to render into French a Finnish-language travel brochure that was designed originally to prompt Finnish-speaking people to visit their own country. The information in the Finnish source text fore-grounded the natural wonders of Finland, including the lush varieties of flora and fauna. The translator knew well the French-speaking target audience and realized that this audience would be less interested in the original’s emphasis on Finland’s vast evergreen forests, hiking trails, elk and reindeer herds, and cross-country skiing programs. So she rearranged the information to lay greater stress on Finland’s extensive culinary delights, including cuisine based on the wild game, mushroom hoards, and berry fields lodged in Finland’s evergreen forests. The target orientation of TS means, however, more than just treating purpose as a goal of translational activity. It also means that the status of a target language and the needs of a target audience and target culture command our attention as translators as much as the status of the original and the needs and expectations of the original audience and culture. Bible societies and their translators will, I think, feel on familiar ground here since the target orientation of TS matches nicely the commitment of Bible societies to translate in functionally equivalent ways for heart languages.One consequence of this target orientation is a leveling of the playing field in terms of minority and majority languages and cultures. If you study the language policy of the4It is my hunch (though I cannot develop the point here) that Eugene Nida picked up from skopos theory what became a kind of axiom (however problematic) for Bible translators, namely the idea that a translation should recreate in the target audience the same response as the original did in the original audience.European Union5—heavily influenced by modern TS-- you will notice two things. Older distinctions between dominant (for example, German, French, English, Spanish) languages and so-called minority ones (for example, Catalan, Basque, Flemish, Finnish) have (in principle) disappeared. All languages, regardless of the number of speakers and the status of their cultures are (in principle) equal. To make this point even more obvious, the European Union Translation Commission has done away with the distinction between original source texts and translated target texts. European Union documents are prepared in a kind of Euro-English that goes through a machine translation first draft before ending up on the desks of mother tongue translators. Thanks to this process, no one language may claim the superior status of a source or original language.Point to ponder: In developing translation priorities and policies, Bible societies may find it significant (or not) to study the consequences that TS has drawn from its position on language priorities and the merit of so-called minority languages. What might some of the consequences be for Bible translation?3. Role of audience understandingRelated to the target orientation of modern TS is a deep respect for the power of audiences and markets to judge what actually functions as a translation. Gideon Toury formulated a classic hypothesis on this point: it is an audience that determines whether or not a translation functions as a translation.6 Toury was thinking especially of the power of modern Israeli reading audiences who since the end of the Second World War have been buying and consuming vast amounts of translated literature, especially Russian literature as part of a national effort to build a literary poly-system for the modern state of Israel. In his research Toury has noted the fluid state of translated literature in literary poly-systems.7 As audience tastes change so does the list of accepted translated texts within a poly-system.One consequence of this hypothesis is interesting for Bible translation. It suggests that neither the credentials of the translator(s), nor the underlying translation theory, nor the branding of an authorizing agency, nor the price point, nor the binding, nor the endorsements count as much as audience expectations and acceptability. Intuitively, Bible societies know the power of an audience. They would not expect a King James Version-only church to accept the Good News Translation or the Contemporary English Version, or vice-versa. In fact, Bible translation offers prima facie evidence for another TS hypothesis about the power of an audience, the creation of pseudo-translations (originals that function in the mind of an audience as translations) and pseudo-originals (translations that function in the mind of an audience as original.8 A case in point is the position that the King James Version holds in some circles: it is not viewed as a5 The European Union website (http://europa.eu/) is iconic in this regard. The 23 official languages are listed in no particular order. The language policy is given at http://europa.eu/languages/en/home.6 G. Toury, Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, Benjamins, 1995, 23-39, 147-166.7 G. Toury, “Literature as a Polysystem,” Hasifrut, 18-19, 1-19. 1974. [Hebrew. Extensive English summary: i-iii.]8 Toury, ibid., 40-52.translation but as a de facto original. The Latin Vulgate within the Roman Catholic Church functioned for centuries as a pseudo-original.From the perspective of multimedia Bible translation and communication studies, the work of Paul Soukup, S.J. has advanced our understanding of the power of audiences in similar ways. His research into models of audience understanding examines critically, for instance, the one-way, bullet model of communication in which a sender (read “translator”) “shoots” information and meaning into the head of receiver. He contrasts the bullet model with a dialogic model of communication in which a sender (read “translator”) and a reader or viewer negotiate the relevance and meaning of information). Soukup points to the television remote control as an example of the power of audiences to shape their own programming.9Point to Ponder: Where do Bible societies stand in regard to the modern discussion of the power of audiences? Are we closer to the bullet model of thinking or the dialogic one?4. Ethics of translationIn 2001, TS scholar Anthony Pym edited a special edition of the journal The Translator which was devoted to the topic of the ethics of translation.10 This edition made it plain that the theme of ethics, raised provocatively already by Lawrence Venuti in 1998,11 had engaged the attention of the TS guild. At the invitation of the UBS Translation Services Coordinator Phil Noss, Pym lectured on ethics and translation at the 2003 UBS Triennial Translation Workshop in Iguassu Falls, Brazil. Subsequently, Noss’s successor, Phil Towner, launched a UBS seminar on the topic, one of the fruits of which is the recent publication by Esteban Voth,12 UBS translation coordinator for the Americas.In its simplest form, the ethics of translation deals with the decisions (and their assumptions and after-effects) that translators, clients, translation agencies, Bible societies, churches, publishers, and even consumers make as they design, implement, and respond to translation policies, translation projects, translation marketing strategies, and translation resourcing.Translation policies establish, for example, norms such as similarity, fidelity, and equivalence and strategies such as adaptation, re-writing, paraphrasing, or (in Bible societies) functional and formal equivalence approaches; they also determine priorities among products (books, films, audio tapes, television programming) and languages and people groups (minority and majority) determined “worthy” and “needy” of translation. Translation projects make decisions about the composition, training and oversight of9 P. Soukup, S.J., “Understanding Audience Understanding,” in P. Soukup, S.J. and R. Hodgson, Jr., eds., From One Medium to Another. Communicating the Bible through Multimedia. ABS and Sheed & Ward, 1997, 91-107; “Communication Models, Translation, and Fidelity,” in Fidelity and Translation. Communicating the Bible in New Media. ABS and Sheed & Ward, 219-231.10 Anthony Pym., ed., The Return to Ethics. Special issue of The Translator. St Jerome Publishing, 2001.11 Lawrence Venuti, The Scandals of Translation. Toward an Ethics of Difference. Routledge, 1998.12/publications/article.aspx?articleId=754.teams, and about the scope of a project and its deadlines; translation marketing strategies determine when, where, and how to present a translation product to a consuming public in an increasingly competitive marketplace. Translation resourcing must decide how to market translation to philanthropic communities that are increasingly “investment” minded and want some level of involvement in the deploying of their investments. Translation resourcing must decide how to distribute ever scarcer resources among a multitude of translation projects and interests.In each of these areas, decisions are made with clear ethical components. Lawrence Venuti, for instance, has raised the issue of the inevitable invisibility of the translator with all of the consequences for the low pay and diminished social and professional status of translators and interpreters.13 Himself an award-winning translator of Italian literature into English, Venuti presses home the point that translators are authors in their own right, and that publishers and commissioning agents owe the same respect to the translator of a work as they do to the original author. After all, translators create new works that would otherwise not be available.Point to Ponder: Do you agree or disagree that there is an ethical component within Bible translation? How would you assess Venuti’s assertion that a translator has the same right to recognition as an original author? How would Venuti’s position affect Bible society policies that (often) preclude the identification of translators and translation team members?5. Translation and cultural mediationTranslation is often thought of as a linguistic and literary activity which of course it is. But translation is also an act of cultural mediation. Consider the case of Shakespeare. Reviewing John Pemble’s Shakespeare Goes to Paris: How the Bard Conquered France14, Lenard R. Berlanstein writes: “The first French translation of Shakespeare’s works appeared in 1746, and the term “shakespearien” entered the French language in the 1780s. For the next two centuries, French cultural leaders would contend with Shakespeare’s genius and its import for their own cultural traditions… John Pemble argues that Shakespeare was ‘crucial to the long and painful adjustment of French consciousness to a world in which France and the French were no longer paramount.’” 15 One way that translation functions as a form of cultural mediation is by presenting translated works to an established literary poly-system. Such is the case with French translations of Shakespeare that entered the French literary canon in the eighteenth century. Another way is through the creation of what Antony Pym has described as the‘inter-culture.” 1613 Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility. A History of Translation. Routledge, 1995.14 Continuum, 2005.15/vol5reviews/berlanstein.html.16 Anthony Pym, Negotiating the Frontier: Translators and Intercultures in Hispanic History. St. Jerome, 2000.An inter-culture is an ideological and material space that is created and inhabited by translators who must live and work in a world they create when they bring together two unrelated languages, cultures and people groups in a single space--a translator’s (or translation team’s) mind and workshop. An inter-culture is neither the source culture nor the target culture, but the meeting ground for both. Pym’s analysis of Bible translation in medieval Spain--a venue that brought together Christian, Jewish and Islamic scholar-translators-- sparked the hypothesis of translational inter-cultures.One effect of an inter-culture is to transform, through translation, both a source and target culture, or at the very least our understanding of those cultures. The Lakota Sioux translation project of the Nida Institute is a case in point. The preparation of a Scripture portion combining prophetic texts on God’s care for the poor and marginalized with short devotionals by Lakota pastors created an inter-cultural space (literally the basement of a local Lutheran church!) inhabited by the translation team, community checkers and the Bible society consultants. Out of that inter-culture came a Scripture portion that treated the Sioux people, not as outsiders and heathen in need of purging from traditional culture before they could be redeemed, but as part of God’s people, not in spite of, but because of their Lakota heritage. Out of that same inter-culture in the basement of a Lutheran church came transforming moments for the dominant culture. Lakota Sioux translator and community activist Rosalie Little Thunder spoke to an American Bible Society fundraising event about how the portion had validated traditional Lakota culture and instilled new pride and hope into the team and their communities. In her presentation, Rosalie Little Thunder met not unexpectedly with mixed responses. Some attendees’ spoke about how Rosalie had helped them overcome their own cultural biases toward native Americans; other attendees felt less inclined to address the issues of cultural biases.Point To Ponder. Would you agree or disagree that Bible Societies represent the kind of inter-cultures that Pym is describing? If Bible societies do represent inter-cultures, are there any implications of this role for our own ethics of translation?6. What is Translation?When Doug Douglas Robinson published in 1997 What is Translation? Centrifugal Theories and Critical Interventions, 17 he took a snapshot of a decade of TS research into definitions of translation as a process. Looking over the field, he found definitions as diverse as cultural mediation, manipulation of literature, rewriting, word substitution, and re-presentation. Other surveys from this period found wide-ranging definitions of translation as a product, definitions that identified everything from books, audio-tapes, films, television programming, art work, and artistic performances as the material expression of translation.1817 Kent State University Press, 1997.18Yves Gambier and Henrik Gottlieb, eds., Concepts, Practices, Research: Papers presented at two conferences held Sept. 26-27, 1997, near Rimini, Italy and Oct. 15-16, 1998, Berlin, Germany Benjamins, 2001.In the years since these and other surveys, the question What is Translation? has yielded ever more sophisticated analyses and definitions of translation as process and product. Today researchers from TS and Bible translation regularly ask, for example, What is a translation norm?19 What is translation epistemology?20 and What is translation methodology?21Behind this granular approach to translation that is broadening our understanding of translation as process and product lie several factors. One is the kind of descriptive research conducted by TS into all the phenomena that have historically functioned as translations, whether they were called translations or not. Another is the brute market forces that demand translation media products (including Bibles) that go beyond printed books.22 Another is the active audience phenomenon, which Gideon Toury and Paul Soukup have so solidly researched from the perspectives of comparative literature and communications studies, respectively. Another is research into secondary orality, literacy, and intelligence that make it plain that humans depend on many media and forms of expression, not just reading and writing, for information, education, and spiritual formation.I believe that there is another factor involved, one that goes back to work that connected translation and semiotics (the study of signs, sign-systems, and meaning-making).23 This body of research commended to us a view of translation that treated translation as the exchange of meaning not just between two natural languages, say, biblical Hebrew and modern English, but as an exchange of meaning between any two sign systems, say between novel and its film adaptation, between speaking and interpreting in sign language, and between biblical text and the studio and performing arts.One postulate of a semiotic approach to translation is that in principle all sign systems are equally valid modes of expression within their own contexts and limitations. The dance of honey bees is as perfect a communication tool for hungry honey bees as is modern spoken French for French-speaking peoples. Of course in practice, translators and their clients (at least since the Gutenberg revolution) have privileged one sign system—writing—and one material expression—the book. But a semiotic approach to translation would query this privilege especially when and if it means that resources earmarked for19 Christina Schaeffner, ed., Translation and Norms. Multilingual Matters, 1999.20 Anthony Pym, “On Historical Epistemologies of Bible Translating,” in P.Noss., ed., The History of Bible Translation, vol. 1. Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2007, 195-21521 Lourens de Vries. “Introduction to Section III: Methodology of Bible Translation” in P. Noss, ed.; The History of Bible Translation, vol. 1. Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2007, 267-278.22 Logos Software is an example of a for-profit company that has specialized in the development and marketing of digital Scripture resources.23 Umberto Eco, A Theory of Semiotics. Indiana University Press, 1976; Umberto Eco and Siri Nergaard, “Semiotic Approaches to Translation,” in Mona Baker and Kirsten Malmkjaer, eds., Routledge Dictionary of Translation. Routledge, 1998, 218-222. Towards the end of his career, Eugene Nida began to integrate social-semiotics into his own work. See Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard, From One Language to Another. Nelson, 1986; Robert Hodgson, Jr., “Semiotics, Fidelity, and New Media Translation,” in Paul Soukup and Robert Hodgson, eds., Fidelity and Translation. Papers Read at the TTW 1997, Mérida, Mexico. ABS and Sheed & Ward, 1997, 233-248.。

Introducing Translation Studies 1PPT课件

翻译是基于源文本、参照情景、以功能为导向、复杂而又连续性的活动，构建目的语文本，提供给另一种语言和文化的接受者。
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What is translation?
(e) any utterance which is presented or regarded as a ‘translation’ within a culture, on no matter what grounds (Toury 1995)
pieces is submitted, respetively on October 9th, 16th,23th and 30th.
Writt
The key concepts covered in this lecture
The definition of translation Interpreting as a form of Translation
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What is translation?
c) the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are written or oral form… or whether one or both languages are based on signs (Brislin 1976)
归根结底，翻译是展现言语，可以视为在一种文化背景里的‘转换’。
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Concluding remarks:
to enhance your awareness of stylistic options in terms of social roles and kinds of language activity.

Unit 1 An Introduction to Translation

所谓翻译，是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息，所谓翻译，是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息，首先是意义，其次是文体。先是意义，其次是文体。英国翻译理论家 Peter Newmark
“Translation is a craft of consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”. ”
钦州学院外国语学院《应用翻译》精品课程课件
An Introduction to Translation
Enter
主讲：主讲：司继涛 E-mail：sjitao@ mail：
Content
Definitions of Translation
Criteion of Translation
• 严复：信达雅严复：
• 信（faithfulness) —— 忠实于原文。忠实于原文。 • 达(expressiveness) —— 指的是译文主要是指语言通顺易懂、符合规范。指的是译文主要是指语言通顺易懂、符合规范。 • 雅 (elegance) —— 译文的形式优雅、流畅有文采。译文的形式优雅、流畅有文采。
Five o‘clock shadow 能译成“五点钟的阴影”吗？
新英汉美国小百科》就知道是指男子的络腮胡子，《新英汉美国小百科》就知道是指男子的络腮胡子，早上刮干净后到下午五点有长出的胡子茬。上刮干净后到下午五点有长出的胡子茬。
• 专业知识（百科知识）：翻译的内容无所不包，译者不可专业知识（百科知识）能做到无所不知。因此译者要量力而为，选择自己欲从事的翻译领域，如文学翻译、科技翻译、经贸翻译、医学翻译、法律翻译、军事翻译等等。恰当地确定翻译的范围可以最大限度地发挥自己的潜能，能事半功倍，胜任愉快。 • 表达能力：翻译是译者用另外一种语言表达一种语言表达表达能力：的思想。由于两种语言文化的差异，我们甚至因此说翻译比创作还难。一个优秀或合格译者应当像作家一样有很强的写作能力，这是对译者的基本要求之一。否则，无论你对原文理解多么准确透彻，都难以将原作的精髓表达出来。。

翻译理论书籍

翻译理论书籍翻译理论是研究翻译的基本原则、方法和规律的学科。

作为翻译工作者，熟悉翻译理论对于提高翻译质量、提升个人素质非常重要。

以下是一些推荐的翻译理论书籍。

1. 《翻译研究概论》(An Introduction to Translation Studies) - Jeremy Munday这本书是一本广泛使用的翻译理论教材。

它介绍了翻译研究的基本概念、发展历程、不同的研究方向和方法。

作者还讨论了翻译的社会和文化影响，对于理解翻译的多重层面具有很大的帮助。

2. 《翻译研究中的问题与变革》(Translation Studies: Questions and Answers) - Gideon Toury这本书集中讨论了翻译研究中的一些重要问题，如翻译的定义、翻译的社会角色、译者的角色和责任等。

作者还探讨了翻译研究从传统模式到更现代的方法和理论的转变。

这本书对于思考翻译的本质和重要性很有帮助。

3. 《翻译研究的非西方视角》(Translation Studies from Non-Western Perspectives) - Kobus Marais这本书通过介绍一系列非西方的翻译研究案例，探讨了不同文化对翻译的理解和实践。

作者讨论了翻译在非西方文化中的重要性以及与西方翻译理论的关系。

这本书展示了全球翻译研究的多样性和复杂性。

4. 《翻译素描》(Translation: A Very Short Introduction) -Matthew Reynolds这本书是一本简明的介绍翻译的入门读物。

作者阐述了翻译的基本原则和技巧，并且用生动的例子解释了各种翻译问题和挑战。

这本适合没有太多翻译背景的读者，对于理解翻译的基本概念很有帮助。

5. 《翻译研究手册》(The Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies) - Carmen Millán and Francesca Bartrina这本手册提供了最新的翻译研究领域的综合性指导，包括各种不同的翻译理论和研究方法，以及研究中的关键主题。

introducting translation studies

introducting translation studies
Introducing Translation Studies是一本介绍翻译研究领域的书籍，涵盖了翻译理论、方法和实践等方面的内容。

这类书籍旨在向读者介绍翻译的基本概念、历史、理论和相关研究方法。

这本书通常包括以下主题
翻译理论：介绍不同的翻译理论，例如等价理论、功能对等理论、文化转换理论等，以及这些理论如何影响和指导翻译实践。

翻译方法：探讨翻译的不同方法和策略，例如直译、意译、文化调整、语体转换等，在不同语言和文化背景下的应用。

翻译的社会和文化影响：探讨翻译对社会、文化、政治和经济领域的影响，以及在全球化时代的重要性。

历史和发展：介绍翻译研究领域的历史演变，从传统的观点到现代研究的发展和趋势。

这类书籍旨在为读者提供一个全面的入门，使他们能够了解翻译的基本概念、关键理论和实践方法。

不同的书籍可能在深度和内容上有所不同，因此可以选择适合自己需求和兴趣的那本来阅读。

Introducing Translation Studies 笔记

17th century Cowley England 17th century John Dryden England 18th century A.F. Tytler England 19th century
Metaphrase
Schleiermacher (divided texts business philosophical) 19th-early 20th F. Newman ! cent. Britain M. Arnold ! for elite Throughout the centuries debate on form vs. content occurred. Traduttore, traditore = ‘the translator is a traitor’
The Holmes/Toury ‘map’ of translation studies1: Translation studies: 1 ‘Pure’ a) Theoretical (translation theory) i) General ii) Partial (1) Medium restricted (a) By machine: Alone/With human aid (b) By humans: Written/Spoken: consecutive/simultaneous (2) Area restricted (specific languages) (3) Rank restricted (word/sentence/text) (4) Text-type restricted (genres: literary, business, technical translations) (5) Time restricted (periods) (6) Problem restricted (specific problems e.g. equivalence) b) Descriptive (DTS) i) Product oriented (examines existing translations) ii) Process oriented (what happens in the mind of a translator) iii) Function oriented (a study of context / ’sociotranslation studies’ / cultural-studies-oriented translation)

翻译原理入门ABriefintroductiontoTranslation

翻译原理入门ABriefintroductiontoTranslationA Brief introduction to Translation翻译原理入门I. Definition翻译的定义Translation, speaking, implies rendering from one language into another of something written or spoken. It is, essentially the faithful representation, in one language of what is written or spoken in another. It is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL-the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL-target language).II. Qualifications of a translator翻译者必备的素质1) A translator must be well acquainted with the source language.We are inclined to feel too confident of our comprehension when we are reading foreign literary works. We think we know it from A to Z, yet, when we start translating it we find it difficult and there are many points misunderstood. We are playing the fool with ourselves because of careless reading, Therefore, translation serves as the best possible approach to the study of foreign languages.2) A translator must be well acquainted with the target language.Let's take Yan Fu for instance: When Yan Fu, a famous translator in the Qing Dynasty, was translating "Evolution and Ethics and other Essays", the title turned out to be the crux（症结）that caused him to cudgel his brains （绞尽脑汁）day and night and look pale for it. His wife worried very much representation of the title for quite time and eventually had it translated into《天演论》which has since deserved high praise uptill now.3) A translator must be armed with necessary professional knowledge.4) A translator must be armed with the ability to live his part.As famous play writer Maryann pointed out: "a translator must enter into the spirit of character (regard himself as one that plays a role in a play). That is to say, he seems1. Present at the very spot.（亲临其境）2. Involved in the very occurrence.（亲历其事）3. Witnessing the very parties concerned.（亲睹其人）4. Interating the very utterances.（亲道其法）5. Experiencing the very joy and annoy.（亲尝其甘，亲领其苦）6. Sharing the very weal and woe.（亲享其福，亲受其哀）7. Partaking of the glee and grief.（亲得其乐，亲感其悲）5) A translator must be armed with the excellent ability of expressiveness and vivid imagination."Toiling yourself and endure hardship for obtaining a well-chosen word" just as the famous poet Du Fu did "Never give up until an amazing poetic masterpiece is gained". （“为求一字稳，耐得五更寒”，象诗圣杜甫那样具有“语不惊人死不休”得精神与毅力）III. Criteria of Translation 翻译的标准Speaking of criteria of translation, as early as in the T ang Dynasty, the learned Monk Xuan Zhuang designed criteria of translation with emphasis placed on accuracy and general knowledge. In the Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu established a three character standard in translation：“信”faithfulness,“达”expressiveness and “雅”elegance, which are similar to "triness" by Herbert Rotheinstein（赫伯特·罗森斯坦）。

英汉语比较与翻译研究方向硕士研究生推荐阅读书目

英汉语比较与翻译研究方向硕士研究生推荐阅读书目[1] 英汉语对比与翻译类阅读书目Carl James，Contrastive Analysis, 青岛出版社，2005。

许余龙，《英汉语对比概论》，上海外语教育出版社潘文国，《汉英与对比纲要》，北京语言文化大学出版社，1997。

杨自俭、李瑞华，《英汉语对比研究》，上海外语教育出版社1990。

周志培，《英汉对比与翻译中的转换》，华东理工大学出版社，2003。

彭宣维，《英汉语篇综合对比》，上海外语教育出版社，2000。

朱永生等，《英汉语篇衔接手段对比研究》，上海外语教育出版社，2001。

英汉语对比与翻译（1）上海外语教育出版社英汉语对比与翻译（2）上海外语教育出版社英汉语对比与翻译（3）上海外语教育出版社英汉语对比与翻译（4）上海外语教育出版社英汉语对比与翻译（5）上海外语教育出版社英汉语对比与翻译（6）上海外语教育出版社[2] 翻译理论与实践类阅读书目：张培基，《英译中国现代散文》，上海外语教育出版社，1999。

刘士聪，《汉英、英汉美文翻译与赏析》，译林出版社，2002。

乔萍、瞿淑蓉、宋洪玮，《散文佳作108篇》，译林出版社，2002。

杨平编，名作精译——《中国翻译》汉译英选萃，青岛出版社，2005。

毛荣贵，《新世纪大学英汉翻译教程》，上海交通大学出版社，2002。

毛荣贵，《新世纪大学汉英翻译教程》，上海交通大学出版社，2002。

毛荣贵，《翻译美学》，上海交通大学出版社，2005。

居组纯，《高级汉译英语篇翻译》，清华大学出版社，2000。

居组纯，《汉译英翻译强化训练》，上海辞书出版社，2004。

黄新渠，《译海浪花——黄新渠译文译诗选集》，四川民族出版社，2002。

陈文伯，《译艺》，世界知识出版社，2004。

陈文伯，《教你如何提高汉译英技巧》，世界知识出版社，1999。

John Pinkham, 《中式英语之鉴》外语教学与研究出版社，2000。

方梦之主编，《实用文本汉译英》，青岛出版社，2003。

1 An Introduction to Translation

Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terห้องสมุดไป่ตู้s of meaning, and second in terms of style.
language the ideas which have been expressed
in another language.
The Nature of Translation
• 1. Translation is a skill: can be obtained by more practice and training • 2. Translation is a science: There are laws to follow. • 3. Translation is an art: Translation is creative, especially for literary translation • ...translation is first a science, which entails the knowledge and verification of the facts and the language that describes them-here, what is wrong, mistakes of truth, can be identified; secondly, it is a skill, which calls for appropriate language and acceptable usage; thirdly, an art, which distinguishes good from undistinguished writing and is the creative, the intuitive, sometimes the inspired, level of the translation; lastly, a matter of taste, where argument ceases, preferences are expressed, and the variety of meritorious translation is the reflection of individual differences. （Newmark ）

英语作文介绍大学翻译专业

英语作文介绍大学翻译专业Introduction to University Translation Major。

Translation is an art, a science, and a bridge that connects different cultures and languages. In today's globalized world, the demand for skilled translators is higher than ever. Universities around the world have recognized this need and have established translation majors to train professionals capable of breaking down language barriers and facilitating communication across borders. This essay aims to provide an in-depthintroduction to the university translation major, exploring its significance, curriculum, and career prospects.Significance of Translation Major。

The translation major plays a crucial role in promoting cultural exchange, facilitating international business, and advancing global understanding. As businesses expand globally and international communication becomes morefrequent, the need for competent translators has grown exponentially. A translator is not merely someone who converts text from one language to another; they are cultural mediators who understand the nuances, idioms, and subtleties of both languages. They ensure that the essence and meaning of the original text are preserved while making it accessible and relatable to the target audience.Curriculum Overview。

introducing translation study

introducing translation study
翻译研究（Translation Studies）是一门跨学科的学科，旨在研究翻译的本质、过程、方法和结果。

它涉及语言学、文学、文化学、心理学等多个领域，旨在深入理解翻译现象和翻译过程中涉及的各种因素。

翻译研究的主要目标是提高翻译质量和效果，促进跨文化交流和理解。

它不仅关注翻译的文本转换过程，还关注翻译与其他文化、社会和政治因素之间的关系。

翻译研究的发展经历了多个阶段，从早期的语言学转向到文学和文化的转向，再到近年来跨学科和多维度的研究方法。

在这一过程中，翻译研究逐渐成为一门独立的学科，并与其他学科领域进行了深入的交叉研究。

在翻译研究中，研究者会采用多种方法和技术，包括实证研究、文献综述、案例分析等。

他们还会使用各种工具和资源，例如语料库、计算机辅助翻译工具等，以深入探索翻译的本质和过程。

总的来说，翻译研究是一个不断发展和演进的领域，其研究成果不仅有助于提高翻译的质量和效果，也有助于促进跨文化交流和理解。

9.德语翻译学导论

中国海洋大学本科生课程大纲一、课程介绍1.课程描述：德语翻译学导论旨在向以翻译模块为重点修读方向的学生系统梳理翻译学科的基本概念与知识，总结翻译理论发展历史，选择重要流派进行重点介绍，帮助学生建立对翻译学科的系统认知，初步掌握翻译学科的基本研究思路与方法。

2.设计思路：本课程首先从翻译理论的最基本的概念入手，梳理翻译的定义，介绍德国重要翻译家的翻译行为与心得，进而以时间为序梳理翻译实践活动的方法与历史特征；课程重点是三个翻译学派的介绍与分析（描述性翻译学派，阐述学派，功能学派）。

课程的主要性质是理论知识研读，因此本课程设计是加大学生的自主学习比重：第一，要求学生必须课前完成必读书目与资料的预习工作，课堂上教师有针对性的讲解重点与难点，以精讲与课堂讨论为主；第二，学生必须完成专题报告，期末提交论文，通过独立的研读某个课题，训练学生的科学工作方法，提升学生的理论积累与实战能力。

3. 课程与其他课程的关系：开始本课程学习时，学生应该已经掌握3000单词，基本具备德语语法能力，在听、说、读、写等方面达到了较高水平，能够借助工具书阅读各类德语资料并具备较好的书面表达能力。

- 1 -先修课程：学生应先修过大一至大二所有德语专业核心课程，《德汉翻译入门》是本课程的基础课程。

二、课程目标德语翻译学导论作为德语专业高年级学生的一门专业知识层面的选修课程，是翻译模块的三门专业课程之一。

学生在成功修读大三上学期《德汉翻译入门》课程的基础上，选择本课程进一步深入学习翻译理论知识。

通过本课程的学习，学生需要掌握翻译学的基本概念和理论，了解翻译学科发展历史及发展趋势；了解翻译学科重要流派的理论/研究方法与思路；培养学生用翻译学理论分析具体语言现象的能力，丰富知识构成，加强学习兴趣和认识，从而进一步巩固本科阶段的学习，为研究生阶段的学习打下坚实的理论基础。

三、学习要求要完成所有的课程任务，学生必须：1.开始本课程学习时，已经掌握约3000德语常用单词，有扎实的语法基础，并具备较好的文本阅读能力，在听、说、读、写等方面达到了中级水平，能够借助工具书阅读各类德语资料并具备较好的书面表达能力。

Introducing Translation Studies《翻译研究入门知识点总结》

Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsName: Zhu MiClass: English 1122013/12/24Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsI.Main issues of translation studies1.1T he concept of translationThe term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.—interlingual translationThe Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper”On linguistic aspects of translation’gave his categories as intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation.1.2W hat are translation studies?Written and spoken translations traditionally were for scholarship and religious purposes.Yet the study of translation as an academic subject has only really begun in the past fifty years, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S.Holmes.Reasons for prominence: first, there has been a proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both and undergraduate and postgraduate level; second, other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on the practice of literary translation; the 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages; in addition, various translation events were held in India, and an on-line translation symposium was organized.1.3A brief history of the disciplineThe practice of translation was discussed by, for example, Cicero and Horace and St Jerome;their writings were to exert an important influence up until the twentieth century.The study of translation of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century.Before that, translation had normally been merely an element of language learning in modern language courses, known for the grammar-translation method.With the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s, the grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute.In the USA, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. Running parallel to it was that of comparative literature.Another area in which translation become the subject of research was contrastive analysis.The continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated an inherent and gutlink with translation. And it began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.—Eugene Nida1.4T he Holmes/Toury “map”James S.Holems’s” The name and nature of translation studies” was regarded as “generally accepted as the founding statement for the field”. He puts forward an overall framework, describing what translation studies covers. It has been subsequently presented by Gideon Toury.Another area Holmes mention is translation policy, where he sees the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.“Translation policy”would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes description.1.5D evelopments since the 1970sContrastive analysis has fallen by the way side. The linguistic-oriented “science”of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but the concept of equivalence associated with it has declined.Germany has seen the rise of theories centred on text types and text purpose, while the Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar, which vies language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context, has been prominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK.The late 1970s and 1980s also saw the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism.The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group and the UK-based scholars.The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts, with Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira, postcolonial translation theory.II.Translation theory before the twentieth century2.1“Word-for-word” or “sense-for-sense”?Up until the second half of the twentieth century, translation theory seemed locked in what George Steiner calls a ”sterile” debate over the “triad” of“literal”, ”free”and “faithful”translation. The distinction goes back to Cicero and St Jerome.Cicero said,”…keeping the same ideas and forms…but in language which conforms to our usage…I preserved the general style and force of the language.”He disparaged word-for-word translation.St Jerome said,”…where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense.”2.2Martin LutherLuther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would beunable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible. He focuses on the TL and the TT reader and his famous quote:” You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’re speaking to them in German.”2.3Faithfulness, spirit and truthFlora Amos notes that early translators often differed considerably in the meaning they gave to terms such as “faithfulness”, “accuracy” and even the word “translation” itself.Louis Kelly in The True Interpreter calls the “inextricably tangled”terms “fidelity”, ”spirit”and“truth”.Kelly considers that it was not until the twelfth century that truth was fully equated with “content”. By the seventeenth century, fidelity had come to be generally regarded as more than just fidelity to words, and spirit lost the religious sense and was thenceforth used solely in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language.2.4Early attempts at systematic translation theory: Dryden, Dolet andTytlerFor Amos, the England of the seventeenth century—with Denham, Cowley and Dryden—marked an important step forward in translation theory with” deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and meaning”.John Dryden reduces all translations to three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. He is author-oriented.Etienne Dolet is TL-reader-oriented and sets out five principles in his 1540 manuscript The Way of Translating Well from One Language into Another”:1.The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.2.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen themajesty of the language.3.The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.4.The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.5.The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness. Alexander Fraser Tytler has three general “laws” or “rules”:1.The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2.The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3.The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.2.5Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreignWhile the 17th century had been about imitation and the 18th century about the translator’sduty to recreate the spirit of the ST for the reader of the time, the Romanticism of the early nineteenth century discussed the issues of translatability or untranslatability.In 1813, the German theologian and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote On The Different Methods of Translating and put forward a Romantic approach to interpretation based on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.He first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text:1.the “Dolmetscher”, who translates commercial texts;2.the “übersetzer”, who works on scholarly and artistic texts.How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together is the real question. He considers there to be only two paths open for the “true”translator: Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as and moves the writer toward the reader.Schleiermacher’s consideration of different text type becomes more prominent in Reiss’s text typology.The “alienating”and “naturalizing”opposites are taken up by Venuti as “foreignization”and “domestication”.Additionally, the vision of a “language of translation”is pursued by Walter Benjamin and the description of the hermeneutics of translation is apparent in George Steiner’s “hermeneutic motion”.2.6Translation theory of the ninetieth and early twentieth centuries inBritainIn Britain, the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century focused on the status of the ST and the form of the TL.Francis Newman emphasized the foreignness of the work by a deliberately archaic translation.Matthew Arnold advocated a transparent translation method.2.7Towards contemporary translation theoryGeorge Steiner lists a small number of 14 writers who represent “very nearly the sum total of those who have said anything fundamental or new about translation”, includes St Jerome, Luther, Dryden and Schleiermacher and also takes us into the 20th century with Ezra Pound and Walter Benjamin, amongst others.He covers a range of theoretical ideas in this period: We have seen how much of the theory of translation—if there is one as distinct from idealized recipes—pivots monotonously around undefined alternatives: ”letter”or “spirit”, ”word”or “sense”. The dichotomy is assumed to have analyzable meaning. This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand.Translation theory in the second half of the 20th century made various attempts to redefine the concepts “literal”and “free”in operational terms, to describe “meaning”in scientific terms, and to put together systematic taxonomies of translation phenomena.Case studiesThe criteria for assessing the translations are given:1.accuracy: the correct transfer of information and evidence of complete comprehension.2.the appropriate choice of vocabulary, idiom, terminology and register;3.cohesion, coherence and organization;4.accuracy in technical aspects of punctuation, etc.III.Equivalence and equivalent effect3.1Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalenceIn his paper “On linguistic aspects of translation”, he describes three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation and he goes on to examine key issue of interlingual translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence.Jakobson approaches a now-famous definition: “Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics.”He thinks poetry is “untranslatable”, which requires “creative” transposition.3.2Nida and “the science of translating”3.2.1The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmaticsMeaning is broken down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. There are three techniques: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.3.2.2The influence of ChomskyNoam Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules. The key features of this model can be summarized:1.Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is2.transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another,to produce.3. a final surface structure,which itself is subject to phonological and morphemicrules.Nida presents a three-stage system of translation (analysis, transfer and restructuring).This involves analysis using generative-transformational grammar’s four types of functional class: events, objects, abstracts and relationals.3.2.3Formal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalent effectFor Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the “four basic requirements of a translation”, which are1making sense;2conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3having a natural and easy form of expression;4producing a similar response.3.3Newmark: semantic and communicative translationIn Newmark’s Approaches to Translation and A Textbook of Translation,he suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of “semantic” and “communicative”translation.3.4Koller: Korrespondenz and AquivalenzWerner Koller examines more closely the concept of equivalence and its linked term correspondence. And he also goes on to describe five different types of equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence.IV.The translation shift approach4.1Vinay and Darbelnet’s modelThe two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, which hark back to the “literal vs. free” division.The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition and modulation and of which oblique translation includes are equivalence and adaptation.The seven main translation categories are described as operating on three levels; these three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book. They are: the lexicon, syntactic structure and the message.A further more important parameter taken into account by Vinay and Darbelnet is that ofservitude and option.They continued by giving s list of five steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT:1.Identity the units of translation.2.Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of theunits.3.Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message.4.Evaluate the stylistic effects.5.Produce and revise the TT.They consider the unit of translation to be a combination of a“lexicological unit”and a “unit of thought”.4.2Catford and translation “shifts”Catford makes an important distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence, which was developed by Koller.Catford considers two kinds of shift: shift of level and shift of category.Most of Catford’s analysis is given over to category shifts. These are subdivided into four kinds: structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts/rank shifts and intra-system shifts.4.3Czech writing on translation shiftsIn the 1960s and 1970s some writing introduces a literary aspect, that of the “expressive function”or style of a text.4.4Van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model of translationshiftsKitty van Leuven-Zwart applies shift analysis to the descriptive analysis of a translation, attempting both to systematize comparison and to build in a discourse framework above the sentence level.The model is “intended for the description of integral translations of fictional texts”and comprises a comparative model and a descriptive model.Shifts are divided into three main categories with numerous subcategories. The three main categories are modulation, modification and mutation.V.Functional theories of translation5.1Text typeKatharina Reiss’s work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. Her functional approach aims initially at systematizing the assessment of translation.Three text types—informative, expressive and operative types—are given by Reiss and presented visually by Cheserman.Reiss also lists a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria by which the adequacy of a TT may be assessed.5.2Translational actionTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter, compounds involving intercultural transfer.5.3Skopos theoryHans J. Vermeer introduces skopos into translation theory in the 1970s as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating, as it deals with a translational action that is ST-based.5.4Translation-oriented text analysisChristiane Nord’s Text Analysis in Translation makes a distinction between two basic types of translation production —documentary translation and instrumental translation.VI.Discourse and register analysis approachesVII.Systems theoriesVIII.Varieties of cultural studiesIX.Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translation X.Philosophical theories of translationXI.Translation studies as an interdiscipline。

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Translation techniques
Operational Level Translation Experience Presentation Skill Translating Work (include diction, amplification, omission, repetition, conversion, Restructuring, negation and division)
Categories of nslation
From the angle of disposal. * Full-text translation * Abridged translation (partial translation) * Adapted translation (translation plus editing).
Characteristics of translation
Translate what is written or what is spoken. No right to change and correct the source language. To understand the source text and to express in the target text . Should not stick to the original meaning in translate and make your translation meet the customary expressions in the target language.
Mimi Isabella Niki Sonia
Definitions of translation
A process of transferring the source language into equivalent language with the meaning unchanged. Transcribe the source language base on its style and manner.
Definitions of translation
The target language should be easy and smooth for people to read. Communicate with people speaking different languages, eg. exchange ideas or culture.
Nature of translation
In terms of : a discipline / subject of curriculum, such as Science, besides having its own rules, laws and an occupation or a profession. In terms of : the specific pieces, such as Art. In terms of : a process.
Translation theory
Which is a kind of generalization of translation . Translation theory is very abstract. Answering the question of “Why to translate” . Can find out the problems and offer the solutions.
Translation Studies (Translatology)
Translatology is a general term of translation studies Translation Studies is the top level of translation Elements of social science and the humanities Dealing with the systematic study of the theory The Description and the application of translation, interpreting Translation can be Normative and Descriptive
Categories of translation
From the angle of languages. * Native languages (source languages) * Foreign languages (target languages) From the angle of mode. * Oral interpretation * Written translation * Machine translation.
Categories of translation
From the angle of symbols * Intralingual translation * Interlingual translation * Intersemiotic translation From the angle of materials * Science and technology * Literary translation * Political essays * Practical writing

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