Brain potentials reveal unconscious translation during foreign-language comprehension
伟大的头脑是天生的还是后天养成的英文文章
伟大的头脑是天生的还是后天养成的英文文章1. Introduction1.1 Statement of the issue1.2 Explanation of the significance of the issue1.3 Thesis statement2. Nature vs. Nurture Debate: The Origins of Great Minds2.1 Brief history of the nature vs. nurture debate2.2 Definitions of 'nature' and 'nurture' in the context of intelligence and greatness2.3 Overview of key arguments and evidence on both sides3. The Case for Nature: Innate Intelligence and Genetic Factors 3.1 The role of genetics in determining intelligence3.2 Evidence from twin and adoption studies3.3 Examples of prodigies and geniuses with exceptional abilities from a young age3.4 Scientific research on the heritability of intelligence4. The Case for Nurture: Environmental and Experiential Factors 4.1 The influence of education and upbringing on cognitive development4.2 Socioeconomic and cultural factors that contribute to or hinder intellectual growth4.3 Case studies of individuals who have ovee challenging circumstances to achieve greatness4.4 The impact of early childhood experiences on br本人n development5. The Interactionist Perspective: The Complex Interplay of Nature and Nurture5.1 The theory of gene-environment interaction5.2 The importance of both genetic predispositions and environmental influences5.3 Examples of research demonstrating thebined effects of nature and nurture on cognitive abilities5.4 Implications for education, parenting, and social policy6. Conclusion6.1 Restatement of the thesis6.2 Summary of key points6.3 Discussion of the implications for understanding and fostering greatness in individuals6.4 Suggestions for future research on the origins of great mindsGreat Minds: Nature or Nurture?The question of whether great minds are born or made has long been a topic of debate in the fields of psychology, genetics, and education. This essay will explore theplex interplay of genetic and environmental factors in the development of exceptional cognitive abilities, with a focus on the implications for understanding and fostering greatness in individuals.The nature vs. nurture debate has a rich and contentious history, with proponents on both sides presentingpelling arguments for their respective positions. On one hand, advocates of the'nature' side argue that intelligence is largely determined by genetic factors. Studies of twins and adopted siblings have provided convincing evidence for the heritability of intelligence, suggesting that genetic predispositions play a significant role in the development of cognitive abilities. Furthermore, the existence of prodigies and geniuses who exhibit exceptional talents from a young age supports the notion of innate intelligence.Conversely, proponents of the 'nurture' perspective emphasizethe crucial influence of environmental and experiential factors on cognitive development. Numerous studies have demonstrated the impact of education, socioeconomic status, and family upbringing on intellectual growth. Moreover, inspiring stories of individuals who have ovee adversity and achieved greatness through hard work and perseverance serve as powerful testaments to the potential for nurturing extraordinary minds.In reality, the origins of great minds are likely to be the result of aplex interplay of nature and nurture. The theory of gene-environment interaction suggests that genetic predispositions interact with environmental influences to shape cognitive abilities. This interactionist perspective underscores the importance of recognizing the multifaceted nature of human intelligence and the need to consider both genetic and environmental factors in understanding and fostering greatness.In conclusion, the origins of great minds are best understood as the result of the intricate interplay of nature and nurture. Genetics may provide a foundational predisposition for cognitive abilities, but environmental and experiential factors also play a crucial role in shaping and fostering greatness inindividuals. Recognizing the dynamic interplay of genetic and environmental influences has important implications for education, parenting, and social policy, as well as for the ongoing pursuit of knowledge in the field of psychology. Continued research into the origins of great minds will further our understanding of theplex factors that contribute to exceptional cognitive abilities and guide efforts to nurture and support the development of greatness in individuals.。
了不起的大脑器官 英文作文
了不起的大脑器官英文作文The Remarkable Organ of the BrainThe human brain is an extraordinary and complex organ that has long captivated the curiosity and fascination of scientists, philosophers, and thinkers throughout history. As the central control center of the body, the brain is responsible for a myriad of functions, from regulating our basic bodily processes to enabling our higher cognitive abilities and shaping our unique personalities.At its core, the brain is a remarkable biological machine, composed of billions of interconnected neurons that work together in intricate ways to process information, store memories, and generate the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that define the human experience. The brain's remarkable plasticity and adaptability allow it to constantly evolve and change in response to our lived experiences, a phenomenon known as neuroplasticity.One of the most remarkable aspects of the brain is its unparalleled complexity. Weighing in at just three pounds on average, the human brain contains an estimated 86 billion neurons, each of which can form thousands of connections with other neurons. This vast,interconnected network of cells gives rise to the brain's extraordinary computational power, enabling it to perform a dizzying array of tasks with seemingly effortless ease.The brain's primary regions, including the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem, each play a crucial role in our overall functioning. The cerebrum, for instance, is responsible for higher-order cognitive functions, such as language, reasoning, and decision-making, while the cerebellum is primarily involved in coordinating movement and maintaining balance. The brainstem, on the other hand, regulates essential involuntary functions like breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.Moreover, the brain's remarkable plasticity allows it to adapt and change in response to our experiences and environment. Throughout our lives, the brain is constantly rewiring its neural connections, a process known as neuroplasticity, which enables us to learn new skills, form new memories, and even recover from brain injuries or neurological disorders.One of the most fascinating aspects of the brain's plasticity is its ability to compensate for damage or dysfunction in certain regions. When one part of the brain is impaired, such as in the case of a stroke or traumatic brain injury, other areas of the brain can often take on new roles and responsibilities, allowing the individual toregain lost functions or develop new coping strategies.This remarkable adaptive capacity is also evident in the brain's remarkable resilience, as it is able to withstand a significant amount of damage and still maintain its core functions. The brain's intricate system of blood vessels, for instance, provides a redundant supply of oxygen and nutrients, ensuring that even if one area is deprived, the brain can still continue to function.Furthermore, the brain's remarkable complexity is mirrored in its incredible energy efficiency. Despite its relatively small size, the brain consumes a disproportionately large amount of the body's energy resources, accounting for approximately 20% of the body's total energy expenditure. This efficiency is largely due to the brain's highly specialized neural networks, which are able to communicate and process information with remarkable speed and precision.In recent years, advances in neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have provided unprecedented insights into the brain's inner workings, revealing the intricate patterns of neural activity that underlie our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These technologies have also helped researchers better understand the brain's role in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, paving the way for more targeted and effective treatments.Despite our growing understanding of the brain, however, many of its most fundamental mysteries remain elusive. How does the brain generate consciousness? How do we form memories and retrieve them? What is the neural basis of our emotions and personality? These questions and many others continue to captivate the curiosity of scientists and thinkers around the world, driving ongoing research and exploration into this remarkable organ.As we continue to unravel the secrets of the brain, it is clear that this remarkable organ is not only the foundation of our cognitive and emotional experiences, but also a testament to the incredible complexity and adaptability of the natural world. By continuing to study and understand the brain, we may unlock new insights that could greatly improve our lives and the lives of those affected by neurological and psychiatric disorders. The brain, truly, is an extraordinary and remarkable organ that deserves our ongoing fascination and scientific pursuit.。
阅读部分题目和答案望正确认识自己的提升空间
(1)We all like to feel needed. But new research suggests having a sense of purpose is good for our health, too.In a study of 7,000 people, those with the strongest sense of direction in life were over 70 percent less likely to suffer a stroke.The researchers 1 for other aggravating factors such as blood pressure and alcohol use and believe the 2 comes through regulating the immune system.It has long been thought that 3 meaningful activity after retirement is important for physical and mental health—which often declines 4 soon after retirement.But while past research focused on the 5 effects of negative psychological traits, such as depression and anxiety, new research is investigating how positive traits, such as 6 , protect against illness.In the recent study, men and women aged 50 and over were 7 for four to five years and completed psychological tests while researchers recorded strokes.The results show that the higher someone’s sense of purpose, the lower their risk of a stroke. Those with the greatest sense of purpose were 73 percent less likely to suffer a stroke compared to those with lowest.Other research has shown that positive mood can lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol(荷尔蒙皮质醇), also 8 in stroke.“Thi s is significant as we have a (n) 9 population and it helps show what behaviors prevent people from getting ill,” says Cary Cooper, professor of health psychology at Lancaster University. “Maybe10 is not good for some.”A accountedB AgingC ambitionD damagingE decreasingF DramaticallyG effectH graduallyI implicated J Optimism K outstanding L pursuingM retirement N Searched O tracked(2)The concept of man versus machine is at least as old as the industrial revolution, but this phenomenon tends to be most acutely felt during economic downturns and slow recoveries.Since technology has such a big 11 for eating up human jobs, this phenomenon will continue to structure our economy in ways we can’t immediately foresee.When there is exponential (指数的)12 in the price and performance of technology, jobs that were once thought to be 13 from automation suddenly become threatened. This is a powerful argument, and a scary one. And yet, john Hagel, author of The Power of Pull and other books, says the argument misses the reason why these jobs are so vulnerable to technology in the first place.Hagel says we have designed jobs in the U.S. that tend to be scripted and highly 14 ones that leave no room for individual initiative or creativity. In short, these are the types of jobs that machines can 15 much better than human beings. That is how we have put a giant 16 sign on the backs of American workers.It’s time to 17 the formula for how work is conducted, since we are still relying on a very 20th century 18 of work, Hagel says. In our 19 changing economy, we more than ever need people in the workplace who can take initiative and exercise their imagination to respond to 20 events. That’s not something machines are good at. They are designed to perfume very predictable activities.A appetiteB CalculateC competitionD distinctE exceedinglyF ImmuneG improvementH normI notion J Perform K rapidly L reinventM standardized N Target O unexpectedTEXT ABef ore my many years’ service in restaurant, I attended a top science university. At that time, I was finishing the project that would win me my professorship. In the end, it resulted in my becoming a kitchen employee.My forty-second birthday had made a lonely visit the week before, and I was once again by myself in the flat. Like countless other mornings, I ordered a donut from the toaster. “Yes, sir!” it replied with robotic relish, and I began the day’s work on the project. It was a magnificent machine, the thing I was making—capable of transferring the minds of any two beings into each other’s bodies.As the toaster began serving my donut on to a plate, I realized the project was in fact readyfoe testing. I took out the duck and the cat—which I had bought for this purpose—from their containers, and set about calibrating the machine in their direction. Once ready, I leant against the table, holding the donut I was too excited to eat, and initiated the transfer sequence. As expected, the machine whirred and hummed into action, my nerves tingling at its synthetic sounds.The machine hushed, extraction and injection pipes poised, scrutinizing its targets. The cat, though, was suddenly gripped by terrible alarm. The brute leapt into the air, flinging itself onto the machine. I watched in horror as the nozzles swung towards me; and, with a terrible, dizzy whorl of colours, felt my mind wrenched from its sockets.When I awoke, moments later, I noticed first that I was two feet shorter. Then I realized the lack of mu limbs, and finally it occurred to me that I was a toaster. I saw immediately the solution to the situation—the machine could easily reverse the transfer—but was then struck by utter inability to carry this out.After some consideration, using what I sup pose must be the toaster’s onboard computer, I devised a strategy for rescue. I began to familiarize myself with my new body: the grill, the bread bin, the speaker and the spring mechanism. Through the device’s eye—with which it served its creations—I could see the internal telephone on the wall. Aiming carefully, I began pushing slices of bread at it. The toaster was fed by a large stock of the stuff, yet as more and more bounced lamely off the phone, I began to fear its exhaustion.1. What did the inventor intend to do with his machine?A. To test the function of the intelligent toaster.B. To create combination with different animals.C. To upgrade it to an entirely new kind of machine.D. To testify to its usefulness with his own body.2. An accident was triggered by ________.A. an unexpected act of the catB. a misconduct of the inventorC. flaws in the design of the machineD. sudden interference of a brute3. It is suggested that the inventor tried to rescue himself by _______.A. operating the computerB. reversing the programC. adapting to the body changeD. calling for help4. From the last paragraph, we can infer that________.A. the toaster may have run out of controlB. the person may destroy his new bodyC. the attempt to get out of the trouble may failD. the function of the machine maybe altered5. The passage is most likely extracted from a (an) ________.A. academic thesisB. entertainment magazineC. science fictionD. personal diaryTEXT BIt turns out you can size up personality just by looking at a person’s Facebook profile. While that may not seem like a big deal, it is providing fodder for academics who are trying to predict temperament based on the things we post online. If such predictions prove accurate, employers may have good reason to poke around our Facebook pages to figure out how we would get along with others at the office. And Pentagon officials want to use personality assessments to make better decisions on and off the battlefield.A recent study by researchers at the University of Maryland predicted a person’s score on a personality test to within 10 percentage points by using words posted on Facebook. “Lots of organizations make their employees take personality tests,” said Jennifer Golbeck, an assistant professor of computer science and information studies at the University of Maryland. “If you can guess someone’s personality pretty well on the Web, you don’t need them to take the test.”Golbeck and her colle agues at the university’s Human-Computer Interaction Lab—where she’s the co-director—surveyed the public profiles of nearly 300 Facebook users this year. They looked at users’ descriptions of their favorite activities and membership in political organizati on in political organizations. They also looked at Facebook’s public “About Me” and “Blurb” sections.The 300 participants then took a standard psychological exam that measures the “big five” personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.People who tested as extroverts on the personality test tended to have more Facebook friends, but their networks were more sparse than those of neurotics, meaning that their friends were less likely to know one another than were the friends of other Facebook users. People who tested asneurotic had more “dense” networks of people who know one another and share similar interests.The researchers also found that people with long last names tended to have more neurotic traits, perhaps because “a lifetime of having one’s long last name misspelled may lead to a person expressing more anxiety and quickness to anger,” according to the study. People who tested high on the neurotic scale also tended to use a lot of anxiety-associated words, such as “fearful” and “nervous”, on their Facebook posts. They also use words describing ingestion: “pizza”, “dish”, “eat”.Golbeck says she can’t explain that last correlation. “You’d have to get a psychologist on that one,” she said. “I t could be that people that are neurotic talk more about what they are eating. It could be a deep correlation that we can’t understand on the surface.”6. According to the passage, Facebook profiles may________.A. provide the researchers with fingers about personality traits.B. give some hints about the disposition of the employeesC. help Pentagon make decisions on and off the battlefieldD. take the place of personality assessments7. Golbeck and her colleagues used the following research methods EXCEPT ______.A. investigating the candidates’ membership in political organizationsB. probing into the candidates’ descriptions of their hobbiesC. studying some contents posted on Facebook’s public sectionsD. examining the candidates on their psychological characteristics8. It is implied that Facebook users with long last names tend to _____.A. have a wide circle of acquaintancesB. have net friends with similar interestsC. have some problems with ingestionD. Facebook profiles reveal personality traits to researchers9. Which of the following best summarizes the main idea of the passage?A. Facebook profile serve as a new approach of personality assessment.B. Two kinds of temperament can be discovered through lexical analysis.C. Network can provide more materials for psychological research.D. Facebook profiles reveal personality traits to researchers.10. What is the author’s attitude towards the research on Facebook?A. SkepticalB. IndifferentC. PositiveD. EnthusiasticTEXT CWhen people discuss solutions to “world hunger”, they tend to think in terms of the far-flung third world suffering from long years of drought. Yet, according to a new interactive map from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, hundreds of “food deserts” stretch across America, from the East Coast to West Coast. These “deserts” comprise 10 percent of the country. Moreover, 1 in 7 people in the U.S. now subsist on food stamps, and, in 2009, nearly 15 percent 50 million Americans ran short on food. Even for many members of the traditional middle class, America is no longer the Land of Plenty.A number of high-profile innovators have been attempting to address the Food Desert problem. The government has also stepped in with a number of initiatives to put an end to food deserts and related problems, such as childhood obesity. In 2007, the government launched a massive $400 million Healthy Food Financing initiative supported by Michelle Obama, with a goal of wiping out food deserts by 2017.The economic downturn, though, has taken much of the impact of these measures away, with more Americans than ever before now resorting to food pantries and even soup kitchens for their food needs. Even when things appear to have changed for the better, they haven’t---a image in the food desert. As The Economist pointed out this summer, recent numbers showing a substantial decline in the number of Americans living in “food deserts”---from 23.5 million in 2009 to 13.5 million in May---was actually due to a little sleight-of-hand.Clearly, throwing more money at the problem and offering tax incentives to supermarket chains to set up shop in the desert may not be best solution. The solution might only come from changing the system itself. Social innovators behind the collaborative consumption movement, foe example, advocate that any economic system be more inclusive of sharing and swapping. Poor or middle class Americans who can’t afford nutritious food would be able to swap economic goods or other items of value for that food.In an era of celebrity chefs and wall-to-wall cable TV cooking shows, now is it possible that America is unable to care and feed for its citizens? If Alexis de Tocqueville were to visit Americatoday, he would be astonished at how much Americans consumed. It’s heartening that the U.S. Department of Agriculture has a game plan to reduce the number of food deserts across the country. America’s silent food crisis is no longer limited in bighted urban zones---it is starting to reach what we used to refer to as “suburbia” as well.11. What can we learn from the first paragraph?A. The problem of world hunger is mainly caused by drought.B. About 10 percent of population in the U.S. is short of food.C. Only 1 in 7 people in American can get food stamps.D. Traditional middle class has been affected by food shortage.12. Which of the following statements would the author agree?A. Innovators are not capable of solving the food desert problem.B. The initiative supported by Obama was proven to be inefficient.C. Current measures failed to compensate foe the effect of recession.D. The actual number of people who are short of food has gone down.13. The author mentioned the following possible solutions EXCEPT_______.A. setting up more shops in remote areaB. encouraging supermarkets to take actionC. establishing an all-embracing systemD. permitting direct exchange of goods14. The example of Alexis de Tocqueville is mentioned to ______.A. sneer at the ignorance of the foreignersB. prove the development of the societyC. show bitterness over lower “food security”D. criticize those cable TV cooking shows15.Which of the following can serve as the title of the passage?A. Food Desert Spreading to Middle ClassB. Addressing the Problem of World HungerC. Suggestions for Raising Food SecurityD. Food Problem Worsened by RecessionTEXT DSusan Greenfield’s recent comments about how modern technology and social media are changing the way our brains work have caused quite a stir in the academic community: these changes, she claimed, are as important to understand as climate change. One interesting way of assessing the value of her statements is to look at the nature of the “reading brain”.To begin with, the human brain was never meant to read. Not next, not computer screens, not tablets. There are no genes or areas in the brain devoted uniquely to reading. Rather, our ability to read represents our brain’s protean capacity to learn something outside our repertoire by crea ting new circuits that connect existing circuits in a different way. Indeed, every time we learn a new skill, that is what we are doing.New capacities, however, change us, as the evolutionarily new reading circuit illustrates. After we become literate, we literally “think differently” about language: images of brain activation between literate and nonliterate humans bear this out. The brain’s plasticity allows an intrinsic variety of possible circus---there is no set genetic programme. For example, in the case of reading, this means there will be different reading brains depending on various environmental factors: the Chinese reading brain, for example, uses far more visual areas because there are more characters to learn.In 1968, Marshall McLuhan started conducting an experiment for Fordham University, in which he made students watch the same film on a cinema screen and television, and analysed their different reactions: the characteristics of the medium, his hypothesis went, will always influence what parts of the reading circuit are employed and to what extent. At the time, many laughed off McLuhan’s theory, but it stands out like an apt prelude to the decade we are having today. The characteristics of a medium like the book invite more focused attention.Like Professor Greenfields, my research group and I are concerned with how the acquisition of new capacities changes human development. In the case of reading, we know that the “expert reading brain” as we know it includes a beautifully complex circuit th at integrates simpler decoding skills with what I call “deep reading” processes such as critical analysis, analogical thought, inference and insight.The integration of the simpler and deeper reading process is not automatic and requires years of learning by the novice reader, as well as extra milliseconds for any expert to read a moresophisticated text. The readily is that today’s expert reading circuit was formed under very different conditions and with different mediums than those of our children’s.The question that our society must ask revolve around whether the time-consuming demands of the deep-reading processes will be lost in a culture whose principal mediums advantage speed, multitasking, and processing the next and the next piece of information. Will an immersion in digitally-dominated forms of reading change the capacity of the young readers to form and to develop their deep reading processes? No one at this moment possesses the evidence to answer these questions, but our children’s development a nd our species-intellectual evolution require that we confront them.16. The phrase “caused quite a stir” in the first paragraph is closest in meaning to _______.A. resulted in chaosB. triggered a conflictC. led to alterationD. aroused blockbuster17. Which of the following is INCORRECT about the reading function of the human brain?A. It develops by building more links.B. It cannot be used to do screen-reading.C. It depends on various zones of the brain.D. It varies among different human species.18. The experiment conducted in 1968 is mentioned to show ________.A. the effect of different media on reading modelsB. people’s different reactions to screen-readingC. new capacities people may develop with InternetD. people who watch TV a lot cannot focus attention19. According to the passage, the author feels ______about the reading skills of the young.A. only doubtfulB. confidentC. worriedD. optimistic20. The author has drawn a conclusion that _______.A. today’s children cannot develop complex skillsB. deep-reading process will be lost in the endC. our species evolution demands speed readingD. online reading depletes analytic thoughtPart I Basic Reading（20%, 1 point each）1.A2.G3.L4.F5.D6.J7.O8.I9.B 10.M 11.A 12.G 13.F 14.M 15.J 16.N 17.L 18.I 19.K 20.O Part ⅡAdvanced Reading (70%)Section A (40%, 2 points each)1.B2.A3.D4.C5.C6.B7.A8.B9.D 10.C 11.D 12.C 13.A 14.C 15.A 16.D 17.B 18.A 19.C 20.D Section B (30%, 2 points each)21. B 22. A 23. C24. NO 25. NOT GIVEN 26. YES 27. NOT GIVEN 28. E 29. G 30. H31. A 32. B 33. B 34. C35. C。
好奇心如何加强大脑的学习能力
The more curious we are about a topic, the easier it is to learn information about that topic. New research publishing online October 2 in the Cell Press journal Neuron provides insights into what happens in our brains whencuriosity is piqued1. Thefindings could help scientists find ways to enhance overalllearning and memory in both healthy individuals and those with neurological conditions. "Our findings potentially have far-reaching implications for the public because they reveal insights into how a form of intrinsic motivation -- curiosity -- affects memory. These findings suggest ways to enhance learning in the classroom and other settings," says lead author Dr. Matthias Gruber, of University of California at Davis.For the study, participants rated their curiosity to learn the answers to a series of trivia questions. When they were later presented with a selected trivia question, there was a 14 second delay before the answer was provided, during which time the participants were shown a picture of a neutral, unrelated face. Afterwards, participants performed a surprise recognition memory test for the faces that were presented, followed by a memory test for the answers to the trivia questions. During certain parts of the study, participants had their brains scanned via functional2 magnetic resonance3 imaging.The study revealed three major findings. First, as expected, when people were highly curious to find out the answer to a question, they were better at learning that information. More surprising, however, wasthat once their curiosity was aroused, they showed better learning of entirely4 unrelated information (face recognition) that they encountered but were not necessarily curious about. People were also better able to retain the information learned during a curious state across a 24-hour delay. "Curiosity may put the brain in a state that allows it to learn and retain any kind of information, like a vortex that sucks in what you are motivated to learn, and also everything around it," explains Dr. Gruber.Second, the investigators6 found that when curiosity is stimulated8, there is increased activity in the brain circuit related to reward. "We showed that intrinsic motivation actually recruits the very same brain areas that are heavily involved in tangible9, extrinsic10 motivation," says Dr. Gruber. This reward circuit relies on dopamine, a chemical messenger that relays messages between neurons.Third, the team discovered that when curiosity motivated learning, there was increased activity in the hippocampus, a brain region that is important for forming new memories, as well as increased interactions between the hippocampus and the reward circuit. "So curiosity recruits the reward system, and interactions between the reward system and the hippocampus seem to put the brain in a state in which you are morelikely to learn and retain information, even if that information is not of particular interest or importance," explains principal investigator5 Dr. Charan Ranganath, also of UC Davis.The findings could have implications for medicine and beyond. For example, thebrain circuits that rely on dopamine tend to decline in function as people get older,or sooner in people with neurological conditions. Understanding the relationship between motivation and memory could therefore stimulate7 new efforts to improve memory in the healthy elderly and to develop new approaches for treating patients with disorders11 that affect memory. And in the classroom or workplace, learning what might be considered boring material could be enhanced if teachers or managers are able to harness the power of students' and workers' curiosity about something they are naturally motivated to learn.词汇表:1 piquedv.伤害…的自尊心( pique的过去式和过去分词 );激起(好奇心)参考例句:Their curiosity piqued, they stopped writing. 他们的好奇心被挑起,停下了手中的笔。
当代研究生英语 第七单元 B课文翻译
价格的利润生物公司正在吞噬可改变动物DNA序列的所有专利。
这是对阻碍医学研究发展的一种冲击。
木匠认为他们的贸易工具是理所当然的。
他们买木材和锤子后，他们可以使用木材和锤子去制作任何他们所选择的东西。
多年之后来自木材厂和工具储藏室的人并没有任何进展，也没有索要利润份额。
对于那些打造明日药物的科学家们来说，这种独立性是一种罕见的奢侈品。
发展或是发现这些生物技术贸易中的工具和稀有材料的公司，对那些其他也用这些工具和材料的人进行了严格的监控。
这些工具包括关键基因的DNA序列，人类、动物植物和一些病毒的基因的部分片段，例如，HIV,克隆细胞，酶，删除基因和用于快速扫描DNA样品的DNA 芯片。
为了将他们这些关键的资源得到手，医学研究人员进场不得不签署协议，这些协议可以制约他们如何使用这些资源或是保证发现这些的公司可以得到最终结果中的部分利益。
许多学者称这抑制了了解和治愈疾病的进程。
这些建议使Harold得到了警示，Harold是华盛顿附近的美国国家卫生研究院的院长，在同年早期，他建立了一个工作小组去调查此事。
由于他的提早的调查，下个月出就能发布初步的报告。
来自安阿伯密歇根大学的法律教授，该工作组的主席Rebecea Eisenberg说，她们的工作组已经听到了好多研究者的抱怨，在它们中有一份由美国联合大学技术管理组提交的重量级的卷宗。
为了帮助收集证据，NIH建立了一个网站，在这个网站上研究者们可以匿名举报一些案件，这些案件他们相信他们的工作已经被这些限制性许可证严重阻碍了。
迫使研究人员在出版之前需要将他们的手稿展示给公司的这一保密条款和协议是投诉中最常见的原因之一。
另一个问题是一些公司坚持保有自动许可证的权利，该许可证是有关利用他们物质所生产的任何未来将被发现的产品，并且这些赋予他们对任何利用他们的工具所赚取的利润的支配权利的条款也有保有的权利。
Eisenberg说：“如果你不得不签署了许多这样的条款的话，那真的是一个大麻烦”。
“脑雾”我们需要了解更多
Psychology 心理世卫组织2022年3月的一份科学简报指出，在新冠大流行的第一年，全球焦虑和抑郁患病率增加了25%。
其中，年轻人、女性、患有哮喘、癌症和心脏病等基础病症的人，以及具有严重精神障碍的患者受影响最大。
文｜徐文姣 图｜南阳“脑雾”我们需要了解更多新冠与抑郁Psychology32岁的爱德华兹已经连续几周都夜不能寐，也记不清“阳过”后是3个月还是4个月都没来例假。
头痛也毫无规律、没完没了地折磨她。
作为一名毕业于临床心理健康咨询专业的研究生，爱德华兹知道自己正在抑郁和焦虑的两种症状中挣扎。
“我十分努力地从情绪低落中挣脱出来，但每次又会被强行拉回去，在出逃和被抓的来来回回中，情况好像变得越来越差。
”30岁的林登默斯也有类似的遭遇。
在从新冠康复后的几周内，难以自抑的悲伤和失眠让她猝不及防。
她总是莫名其妙就突然堕入心情的低谷，晚上要不睡不着，要不就一个接一个地不停做噩梦。
即使她醒着，大脑有时好像也并不清醒，甚至会蹦出一些非常阴暗的念头来，“伤害你的身体，说不定会好 受点”。
和爱德华兹不同的是，林登默斯是发”。
十几岁的时候，她曾患过抑郁症。
康复后的她性格活泼外向，现在还在纽约一家公司做企业宣传工作。
但新冠病毒似乎唤醒了她的身体记忆，再次将她拖回了那个看不见的牢笼里。
她又开始出现“社交焦虑”，害怕和朋友见面，周末在床上一趟一整天，躲着电话和信息。
在斗争了半年后，她还是选择了去看精神科，医生确诊她再一次患上了抑郁症。
抑郁情绪与新冠疫情相关也许我们并不像爱德华兹和林登默斯那样，有如此明显的抑郁和焦虑症状。
但很多人觉得即使自己身体已经“阳康”，心理仍会受到情绪低落、疲劳、冷漠、焦虑或其他情绪问题的困扰。
这可能表现为觉得自己周身乏力、做事打不起精神，感觉没有动力，也好像更容易掉眼泪、突然陷入暴躁或感觉悲伤。
这究竟是怎么回事？新冠感染和情绪抑郁真的有直接关系吗？到底是自己心理素质差，还是有可能真生病了？人事务部卫生系统中数百万人的健康信息。
科普解读人类大脑研究,揭示智力奥秘!
科普解读人类大脑研究，揭示智力奥秘！1. Introduction1.1 OverviewThe study of the human brain is a fascinating field that continues to unlock the mysteries of intelligence and cognition. Our ability to understand how the brain works and its relationship to human intelligence is crucial in various disciplines, including neuroscience, psychology, and artificial intelligence. In this article, we will delve into the research conducted on the human brain and aim to reveal the secrets behind our intellectual capabilities.1.2 Article StructureTo present a comprehensive understanding of human brain research and its implications for intelligence, this article is divided into several sections. We will begin with an overview of the human brain, exploring its structure, functions, and fascinating neural networks. The next section will discuss the methods and techniques employed in studying the brain, including neuroimaging technologies such as EEG and fMRI as well as experiments involving brain stimulation.Moving forward, we will explore the mechanisms behind intelligence and memory formation processes in section 4. This will include analyzing the role of cognitive psychology in brain research as well as delving into the intricacies of memory storage mechanisms. Additionally, we'll unveil the scientific principles underlying IQ tests to demystify their significance in assessing intelligence.Lastly, section 5 will provide a glimpse into future prospects and applications in brain research. We will analyze trends in the field of neurobiology for bio-inspired developments, predict breakthroughs in brain-machine interface technology, and shed light on how intelligent machines contribute to advancing our understanding of the human brain.1.3 ObjectivesThe primary objective of this article is to offer a comprehensive exploration of current knowledge regarding human brain research pertaining to intelligence. By providing insights into different aspects such as brain structure, experimental techniques, cognitive psychology's role, memory mechanisms, IQ testing principles, future prospects, and machine contributions —we aim to foster a greater understanding among readers about the complex workings of our most mysteriousorgan: the brain.2. 人类大脑概述2.1 结构与功能The human brain is a complex organ that plays a crucial role in our daily functioning. It is responsible for controlling and coordinating our thoughts, emotions, movements, and sensations. Structurally, the human brain can be divided into several major regions, each serving specific functions.The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres - the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. Each hemisphere has different functions and controls the opposite side of the body. The cerebrum is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, language processing, and decision-making.Beneath the cerebrum lies the cerebellum, which is involved in coordination, balance, and fine motor control. It helps us maintain posture and execute precise movements.The brainstem connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord and controls essential bodily functions such as breathing, heart rate regulation, and digestion. It also plays a role in relaying sensory information between different parts of the brain.Within the brain are billions of nerve cells called neurons that communicate with each other through electrical signals known as neurotransmitters. This intricate network allows information to be processed rapidly throughout various regions of the brain.2.2 奇妙的神经元网络Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information through electrical impulses. They have unique structures that enable them to receive, process, integrate, and transmit signals.At one end of a neuron is a cell body containing the nucleus which regulates cellular activities. From this cell body extend branching structures called dendrites that receive signals from other neurons.The axon is another critical component of a neuron which extends fromthe cell body and carries signals away to other neurons or target cells in muscles or glands. Some axons can be very long, allowing communication across different regions of the brain and body.The point of connection between two neurons is called a synapse. Synapses are where neurotransmitters are released from the axon of one neuron to bind with receptors on the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. This enables the transmission of information from one neuron to another in a highly coordinated manner.The intricate network formed by billions of neurons allows for complex neural processing, enabling us to perceive the world, make decisions, and respond to our environment.2.3 大脑皮层和下丘脑对智能的重要性The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum and plays a vital role in intelligence, perception, memory, language, and consciousness. It is composed of numerous folds and ridges known as gyri and sulci that increase its surface area, allowing for more neural connections.The cerebral cortex can be divided into different regions or lobes, eachresponsible for specific functions. For example, the frontal lobe is involved in decision-making and higher cognitive functions, while the temporal lobe plays a key role in auditory processing and memory.Beneath the cerebrum lies a region called the diencephalon which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information entering the brain while also influencing attention and consciousness. The hypothalamus regulates various bodily functions such as temperature control, hunger, thirst, and hormone production.Both the cerebral cortex and the subcortical regions such as the thalamus and hypothalamus are critical for overall brain function. Their complex interactions allow us to perceive our surroundings, process information efficiently, regulate bodily functions, experience emotions, and exhibit intelligent behavior.Understanding these fundamental aspects of human brain structure and function provides insights into how our incredible organ supports our cognitive abilities and lays the foundation for further exploration into the mysteries of human intelligence.3. 研究方法与技术3.1 神经影像学技术简介神经影像学是一种通过成像技术来研究大脑结构和功能的方法。
介绍大脑的英语文章
介绍大脑的英语文章xThe human brain is an amazing thing, but most of us don't take the time to think about it too much. The brain is the control center for the whole body. It controls your motor skills, processing power, memories, and emotions. It also plays a major role in your behavior and how you perceive the world.The brain is made up of billions of cells called neurons, which communicate with each other. It is believed that the brain's power comes from these neurons and their ability to connect and send signals. There are different areas of the brain that are responsible for different tasks, from motor control, to language processing, to memory, and more.The development of the brain is a long and complex process. From birth to 3 years old, the brain is developing rapidly, and during this period it is a child's most important learning period. As they grow, the brain starts to create networks of neurons by connecting and storing information. This is why it is important to give children stimulating experiences during this critical period of development.The brain is constantly changing throughout our lives. Our experiences, both good and bad, can shape it. It is evenpossible to create new brain cells in adulthood, something that wasn't believed to be possible until recently.The human brain is truly remarkable and capable of amazing things. It is the most complex organ in the body, and even the most advanced computers can't come close to its power. It is amazing to think that such a small organ can control so much of our lives.。
神经科学揭示大脑运作奥秘的英语作文
神经科学揭示大脑运作奥秘的英语作文Title: Unraveling the Mysteries of Brain Function: Insights from NeuroscienceIn the intricate tapestry of life's wonders, the human brain stands as a beacon of complexity and elegance, its workings shrouded in mystery for centuries. Neuroscience, the scientific discipline dedicated to unraveling these mysteries, has emerged as a beacon of light, illuminating the intricate pathways that govern our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.IntroductionThe human brain, a marvel of evolution, comprises billions of interconnected neurons, each a tiny universe of electrochemical activity. It is through these intricate connections that the brain processes information, stores memories, and generates consciousness. Neuroscience, fueled by advances in technology and research methodologies, has made remarkable strides in understanding this remarkable organ.Uncovering the BasicsAt its core, neuroscience explores how the brain processes information. It delves into the neural circuits that underlie perception, cognition, emotion, and motor control. The discovery of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, has revolutionized our understanding of mood regulation and addiction. Functional neuroimaging techniques, like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), have enabled researchers to visualize brain activity in real-time, revealing how different regions of the brain light up in response to various stimuli.Exploring ConsciousnessOne of the most elusive aspects of neuroscience is the study of consciousness. How does the physical brain give rise to the subjective experience of being? Researchers are exploring this question through studies on sleep, dreams, and altered states of consciousness. Theories of consciousness, ranging from the global workspace theory to integrated information theory, aim to provide a framework for understanding this fundamental aspect of human experience.Memory and LearningMemory, the cornerstone of our identity, is another major focus of neuroscience. From short-term to long-term memory, researchers are uncovering the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie memory formation and retrieval. The Hebbian theory of synaptic plasticity and the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation have shed light on how our brains encode and store information. Furthermore, studies on neuroplasticity have shown that the brain is capable of rewiring itself, even in adulthood, offering hope for treating conditions like Alzheimer's disease.Future ProspectsAs neuroscience continues to evolve, the implications for society are profound. From enhancing cognitive abilities and treating neurological disorders to developing ethical frameworks for emerging technologies like brain-computer interfaces, neuroscience promises to reshape our understanding of the human condition. The journey ahead is fraught with challenges, but the potential rewards are immeasurable—a deeper understanding of ourselves and the universe we inhabit.Translation:标题：揭示大脑功能奥秘：神经科学的洞察在生命奇迹的复杂织锦中，人类大脑作为复杂与优雅的灯塔，其运作方式数百年来一直笼罩在神秘之中。
2010年英语一第四篇阅读译文
2010年英语一第四篇阅读译文
【最新版】
目录
1.文章背景和研究目的
2.研究方法和过程
3.研究结果和分析
4.研究意义和结论
正文
这篇文章是一篇 2010 年英语一第四篇阅读译文。
文章主要介绍了一项关于人类认知的研究，研究目的是探索人类大脑如何处理和记忆信息。
为了达到这个目的，研究者们采用了一系列先进的科学研究方法和技术。
首先，研究者们选取了一组志愿者，让他们完成一系列的记忆任务。
这些任务包括了记忆单词、图片和数字等不同类型的信息。
在完成任务的过程中，研究者们利用功能性磁共振成像技术（fMRI）对志愿者的大脑活动进行了实时监测。
研究结果显示，人类大脑在处理不同类型的信息时，会有不同的反应。
例如，记忆单词时，大脑的语言区会活跃起来；而记忆图片时，视觉区则会变得活跃。
这表明，人类大脑具有高度的专业性，不同区域负责处理不同类型的信息。
此外，研究还发现，大脑在记忆信息时，会根据信息的重要性和关联性进行筛选和整理。
例如，当志愿者被要求记忆一组单词时，那些与个人生活和经历相关的单词更容易被记住。
这说明，大脑在记忆过程中，会根据信息的个人相关性和实际应用价值进行筛选。
这项研究为我们揭示了人类大脑在处理和记忆信息过程中的一些规律。
这些规律对于我们了解人类的认知过程、提高学习和记忆效率具有重
要意义。
同时，这项研究也为相关领域的科学家提供了新的研究方向和思路。
总之，这篇文章通过介绍一项关于人类认知的研究，让我们深入了解了大脑在处理和记忆信息过程中的机制。
脑科学的黑科技 英语
脑科学的黑科技英语Brain Science: The Dark TechnologyThe field of brain science has been rapidly evolving, unlocking secrets and unveiling remarkable advancements that were once thought to be the realm of science fiction. From the ability to read and manipulate human thoughts to the development of brain-computer interfaces, the breakthroughs in this domain have been both awe-inspiring and unsettling. As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the human mind, we find ourselves confronted with a double-edged sword – the immense potential for good, and the equally daunting potential for abuse.One of the most captivating developments in brain science is the ability to read and interpret human thoughts. Through the use of advanced neuroimaging techniques and machine learning algorithms, researchers have demonstrated the feasibility of decoding the neural patterns associated with specific thoughts and mental states. This technology has profound implications for fields such as mental health, cognitive enhancement, and even lie detection. Imagine a world where the inner workings of the mind are no longer hidden, where our thoughts and emotions can be accessedand analyzed with unprecedented precision.While this level of insight into the human mind holds immense potential for improving our understanding of the brain and developing more effective therapies, it also raises significant ethical concerns. The prospect of having our most private thoughts and memories accessible to others, without our consent, is a chilling thought. The implications of such technology in the hands of governments, corporations, or malicious actors are far-reaching and potentially devastating. Imagine the implications of a totalitarian regime that can monitor and manipulate the thoughts of its citizens, or a corporation that can exploit the neural patterns of its employees to maximize productivity and profit.Another remarkable development in brain science is the advancement of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). These technologies aim to create a direct communication pathway between the human brain and external devices, allowing for the control of various electronic systems through the power of thought alone. From prosthetic limbs that can be controlled by the mind to gaming experiences that are entirely driven by neural activity, the potential applications of BCIs are truly staggering.However, the development of these technologies has also raised concerns about the ethical implications of merging the human mindwith machines. Questions of personal autonomy, privacy, and the blurring of the line between human and machine become increasingly complex. Imagine a world where our thoughts and actions are no longer solely our own, but are influenced or even controlled by external devices or software. The potential for manipulation, addiction, and the erosion of individual agency becomes a pressing concern.Moreover, the advancement of brain science has also led to the exploration of neural enhancement technologies. From the development of drugs and devices that can improve cognitive function to the prospect of direct brain-to-brain communication, the ability to augment and expand the capabilities of the human mind is a tantalizing prospect. Yet, this too comes with its own set of ethical quandaries.The prospect of creating a class of "enhanced" individuals raises concerns about fairness, equity, and the potential for societal stratification. If access to these technologies is limited or unevenly distributed, it could lead to the creation of a divide between those who can afford the enhancements and those who cannot. This could exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities, further marginalizing already disadvantaged groups.Furthermore, the long-term effects of neural enhancementtechnologies on the human brain and psyche are largely unknown. The potential for unintended consequences, such as cognitive impairments, personality changes, or the disruption of natural cognitive development, must be carefully considered before widespread adoption.As we continue to delve deeper into the realm of brain science, it is crucial that we approach these advancements with a keen sense of ethical responsibility. The power to read, manipulate, and enhance the human mind is a double-edged sword, and we must ensure that the pursuit of scientific progress is balanced with a deep consideration of the moral and societal implications.Policymakers, researchers, and the public must engage in robust and ongoing dialogues to establish robust ethical frameworks and regulatory mechanisms that can guide the development and deployment of these technologies. Only through a collaborative and thoughtful approach can we harness the immense potential of brain science while mitigating the risks and preserving the fundamental rights and dignity of the human individual.The future of brain science is both exciting and daunting. As we unravel the mysteries of the mind, we must remain vigilant and committed to ensuring that these advancements serve the greatergood of humanity, rather than becoming the tools of oppression, exploitation, or the erosion of our shared humanity.。
脑子一片空白英语作文高级词汇
脑子一片空白英语作文高级词汇The human mind is a remarkable and complex entity, capable of astounding feats of cognition, creativity, and problem-solving. Yet, there are times when this remarkable organ seems to falter, when the synapses fail to fire and the thoughts become nebulous and indistinct. This phenomenon, often referred to as a "blank mind," can be a source of frustration, confusion, and even anxiety for those who experience it.At its core, a blank mind is a temporary state of mental stagnation, where the individual struggles to conjure up coherent thoughts or engage in meaningful cognitive processes. It is as if the mind has been shrouded in a dense fog, obscuring the usual clarity and vibrancy of one's mental landscape. This disorienting experience can manifest in various ways, from the inability to focus on a task at hand to the sensation of having one's thoughts drift aimlessly without purpose or direction.One of the primary factors contributing to a blank mind is the overwhelming nature of modern life. In an era marked by constantstimulation, information overload, and the relentless demands of work, family, and social obligations, the mind can become fatigued and overwhelmed, leading to a state of cognitive exhaustion. The sheer volume of inputs and expectations can tax the brain's limited resources, causing it to retreat into a protective mode of mental inactivity.Moreover, the prevalence of stress and anxiety in contemporary society can also play a significant role in the emergence of a blank mind. When the mind is consumed by worries, fears, and ruminations, it becomes increasingly difficult to focus on the present moment and engage in productive thought processes. The constant mental chatter and the physiological responses associated with stress can create a mental environment that is inhospitable to clear and focused thinking.Furthermore, certain medical conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, and cognitive impairments, can also contribute to the experience of a blank mind. In these cases, the underlying neurological or psychological factors can disrupt the brain's normal functioning, leading to difficulties in information processing, memory retrieval, and decision-making.Despite the discomfort and frustration associated with a blank mind, it is essential to recognize that this phenomenon is a natural andcommon occurrence. The human brain is not a machine that operates with unwavering efficiency; it is a dynamic and adaptive organ that requires rest, nourishment, and stimulation to function optimally. The occasional moments of mental stagnation should not be viewed as a personal failure or a sign of intellectual inadequacy, but rather as a natural response to the demands and stresses of daily life.In fact, the experience of a blank mind can serve as a valuable opportunity for introspection and self-care. By recognizing the signs of mental fatigue and taking proactive steps to address it, individuals can cultivate strategies to manage and overcome these episodes of cognitive disruption.One effective approach is to engage in mindfulness practices, such as meditation or deep breathing exercises. These techniques can help to quiet the mind, reduce anxiety, and promote a greater sense of present-moment awareness. By learning to focus on the breath or the sensations in the body, individuals can train their minds to become more resilient and adaptable in the face of mental challenges.Additionally, incorporating physical exercise into one's routine can be a powerful tool for combating a blank mind. Regular physical activity has been shown to enhance cognitive function, improvemood, and reduce stress levels, all of which can contribute to a more focused and productive mental state.Moreover, ensuring adequate sleep, proper nutrition, and hydration can also play a crucial role in maintaining cognitive health and preventing the onset of a blank mind. The brain, like the rest of the body, requires proper nourishment and rest to function at its best, and neglecting these fundamental needs can lead to a deterioration of mental capacities.Finally, engaging in activities that stimulate the mind, such as reading, learning a new skill, or participating in intellectually challenging hobbies, can help to keep the brain active and adaptable. By continuously challenging and expanding one's cognitive abilities, individuals can build resilience and reduce the likelihood of experiencing prolonged periods of mental stagnation.In conclusion, the experience of a blank mind, while undoubtedly frustrating, is a common and natural occurrence that can be managed and overcome through a combination of self-awareness, self-care, and proactive cognitive engagement. By recognizing the underlying causes and adopting strategies to address them, individuals can cultivate a more resilient and adaptable mind, better equipped to navigate the demands of modern life. Embracing the occasional moments of mental stagnation as opportunities forgrowth and rejuvenation can ultimately lead to a more fulfilling and productive cognitive experience.。
探秘大脑的奥妙,了解人类思维的本质
探秘大脑的奥妙，了解人类思维的本质1. Introduction1.1 OverviewThe human brain is a fascinating and complex organ that plays a crucial role in our existence. It is responsible for everything we perceive, feel, think, and do. Understanding the mysteries of the brain and unraveling the essence of human thinking has been a topic of great interest to scientists and researchers for centuries. In this article, we will delve into the intricacies of the brain's wonders to gain insights into the nature of human cognition.1.2 Article StructureTo comprehensively explore the mysteries of the brain and our thinking processes, this article is divided into several sections. We will begin by examining the structure and functions of the brain in Section 2, which will provide us with a foundation for understanding its inner workings. In Section 3, we will delve into the basic principles underlying human thinking, including cognitive processes, information processing, emotions' relationship with thought, and unconscious decision-makingprocesses.In Section 4, we will shift our focus towards establishing connections between the brain and behavior through an exploration of topics such as motor control's role in shaping ideologies and beliefs, the mechanisms behind memory formation and learning processes within the brain, as well as the development of creativity and imagination.Finally, in Section 5, we will draw conclusions based on our findings throughout this article and discuss exciting prospects for future research directions within this field. Additionally, we will emphasize how gaining knowledge about the brain can unlock infinite possibilities within human thinking while highlighting the importance of exploring one's potential through cognitive understanding.1.3 PurposeThe purpose of this article is to enlighten readers about one of humanity's greatest enigmas –how our brains work to shape our thoughts and actions. By providing an overview of current knowledge about the structure and functions of the brain while exploring fundamental principles underlying human thinking patterns, we hope to instill a sense of wonder about our cognitive abilities.Moreover, through the examination of the brain's relation to behavior, we aim to demonstrate the intricate interplay between neural processes and our daily lives. Ultimately, this article seeks to inspire further interest in the field of neuroscience and encourage readers to embrace the limitless potential that lies within their own minds.Note: This response has been provided solely based on the given information and does not contain any web links or additional references.2. 大脑的构造与功能2.1 大脑的生理结构大脑是人类思维和认知能力的核心器官。
大脑被植入了芯片英语作文
大脑被植入了芯片英语作文The Ethical Implications of Brain Chip Implants.Introduction.The advent of brain chip implants, devices that interface directly with the human brain, has sparked both excitement and concerns. While these technologies hold immense potential for treating neurological disorders and enhancing human abilities, they also raise profound ethical questions that demand careful consideration. This essaywill explore the ethical implications of brain chip implants, examining their potential benefits and risks, and arguing for the need for a comprehensive ethical framework to guide their development and use.Potential Benefits.Brain chip implants offer a tantalizing array of potential benefits. They could revolutionize the treatmentof neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and Alzheimer's. By directly stimulating or inhibiting specific brain regions, implants can alleviate symptoms, restore lost functions, and improve quality of life.Moreover, implants could enhance human abilities in numerous ways. They could provide people with sensory capabilities beyond the natural range, such as the ability to see in infrared or hear ultrasonic frequencies. They could also improve cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. This potential for human augmentation raises questions about the limits of human enhancement and the implications for social equality.Potential Risks.The potential benefits of brain chip implants must be weighed against the associated risks. One major concern is the possibility of unintended consequences. Implants could disrupt normal brain function, leading to cognitive impairments, seizures, or even permanent damage. Thereliability and longevity of these devices are also factors to be considered, as any malfunction or failure could have severe consequences.Another risk is the potential for privacy and security breaches. Brain chip implants could potentially provide access to a person's thoughts, feelings, and memories. This raises concerns about unauthorized data collection, manipulation, or surveillance. The use of implants to influence behavior or manipulate emotions could also raise ethical alarms.Ethical Framework.Given the profound ethical implications of brain chip implants, it is imperative to develop a comprehensive ethical framework to guide their responsible development and use. This framework should address issues such as:Autonomy and Consent: Individuals must have the right to make informed decisions about whether or not to receive a brain chip implant. This requires clear and accurateinformation about the potential benefits and risks.Justice and Equity: Access to brain chip implants should be equitable, regardless of socioeconomic status or other factors. The distribution of these technologies must promote social justice and avoid creating further disparities.Safety and Efficacy: Implants should be subject to rigorous testing and regulatory oversight to ensure their safety and efficacy. The burden of proof should rest with manufacturers to demonstrate the benefits outweigh the risks.Privacy and Security: Robust measures must be in place to protect the privacy and security of data collected from brain chip implants. Individuals must have control over their own data and consent to its use.Cognitive Liberty: Brain chip implants should not be used to restrict cognitive freedom or alter a person's fundamental beliefs or values without their explicitconsent.Governance and Oversight: A multidisciplinary body should be established to provide ongoing oversight and guidance on the development and use of brain chip implants. This body should include experts from neuroscience, ethics, law, and the humanities.Conclusion.The potential benefits of brain chip implants are undeniable, but so are the ethical challenges they present. By carefully considering the ethical implications and developing a comprehensive ethical framework, we can harness the transformative potential of these technologies while mitigating their potential risks. The responsible development and use of brain chip implants will require collaboration between scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public at large. By engaging in open and informed dialogue, we can shape the future of these technologies in a way that benefits all of humanity.。
The Wonders of the Human Brain
The Wonders of the Human Brain The human brain is an incredible organ that continues to baffle scientists and researchers with its complexity and capabilities. It is the control center of the body, responsible for everything from basic functions like breathing and heart rate to complex processes like decision-making, problem-solving, and creativity. The wonders of the human brain are truly remarkable, and understanding its intricacies can provide valuable insights into human behavior, cognition, and overall well-being. One of the most fascinating aspects of the human brain is its ability to adapt and change over time. This phenomenon, known as neuroplasticity, allows the brain to reorganize itself in response to new situations, experiences, or injuries. This means that the brain has the remarkable ability to recover from trauma, learn new skills, and form new connections throughout life. Understanding neuroplasticity has significant implications for rehabilitation and therapy, as it suggests that the brain is not a fixed entity, but rather a dynamic and adaptable organ that can be influenced and shaped. Another wonder of the human brain is its capacity for creativity and innovation. The brain is capable of generating new ideas, solving complex problems, and producing works of art and literature. Creativity is a fundamental aspect of human nature, and the brain plays a central role in this process. Understanding the mechanisms behind creativity can provide valuable insights into how to foster and nurture this ability in individuals, as well as how to harness it for practical applications in various fields. Furthermore, the human brain is the seat of human consciousness, enabling individuals to experience emotions, thoughts, and perceptions. The intricate network of neurons and neurotransmitters in the brain gives rise to the rich tapestry of human experience, from joy and love to sadness and pain. Understanding the neural basis of consciousness and emotions can shed light on mental health disorders and provide new avenues for treatment and intervention. By unraveling the mysteries of the brain, we can gain a deeper understanding of what it means to be human and how we can support mental and emotional well-being. In addition, the human brain is also responsible for the formation and storage of memories. Memories shape our identity and provide the foundation for learning and decision-making. The brain's ability to encode, store, and retrieve memories is a complexand intricate process that is still not fully understood. Studying memory formation and retrieval can have profound implications for education, cognitive enhancement, and the treatment of memory-related disorders. By unlocking the secrets of memory, we can potentially improve learning outcomes, enhance cognitive function, and develop new therapies for memory loss and cognitive decline. Moreover, the human brain is the source of human intelligence, enablingindividuals to process information, reason, and make decisions. The brain's cognitive abilities are extraordinary, allowing humans to learn new skills, adapt to new environments, and navigate complex social interactions. Understanding the neural basis of intelligence can have far-reaching implications for education, artificial intelligence, and cognitive enhancement. By gaining insights into the mechanisms underlying human intelligence, we can potentially develop newstrategies for learning and problem-solving, as well as new technologies that mimic the cognitive abilities of the human brain. In conclusion, the wonders of the human brain are truly awe-inspiring. From its capacity for adaptation and change to its role in creativity, consciousness, memory, and intelligence, the brain is a marvel of nature. Understanding the complexities of the human brain has the potential to revolutionize our approach to education, therapy, and technology, as well as deepen our understanding of what it means to be human. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the brain, we can look forward to new breakthroughs that will enhance our well-being and expand the frontiers of human knowledge.。
The mysteries of the brain Neuroplasticity
The mysteries of the brainNeuroplasticityIntroduction The human brain is a complex organ that is responsible for controlling every aspect of our lives. It is the center of our thoughts, emotions, and actions. For many years, scientists believed that the brain was a static organ that could not change once it had reached maturity. However, recent research has shown that the brain is actually capable of changing and adapting in response to new experiences and information. This phenomenon is known as neuroplasticity, and it has revolutionized the way we think about the brain. Historical Background The concept of neuroplasticity is not a new one. In fact, it has been studied for over a century. The first studies on neuroplasticity were conducted in the late 1800s by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish neuroscientist. He discovered that the brain was made up of individual cells called neurons, and that these neurons could change their shape and form new connections with other neurons. This discoverylaid the foundation for future studies on neuroplasticity. In the 1960s, Michael Merzenich, a neuroscientist at the University of California, San Francisco, conducted groundbreaking research on neuroplasticity. He discovered that the brain could change in response to sensory input, and that this change was not limited to early childhood. This discovery challenged the long-held belief that the brain was a static organ that could not change once it had reached maturity. Perspectives and Opinions There are different perspectives and opinions surrounding the topic of neuroplasticity. Some scientists believe that neuroplasticity is the key to treating a wide range of neurological disorders, such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, and Alzheimer's disease. They believe that by stimulating the brain's natural ability to change and adapt, it is possible to repair damaged neural pathways and restore function to the brain. Others are more skeptical of the potential benefits of neuroplasticity. They argue that while the brain is capable of changing and adapting, this process is not always beneficial. For example, the brain can become "plastic" in response to chronic pain, leading to the development of maladaptive neural pathways that perpetuate the pain. They also argue that the brain's natural ability to change and adapt can be limited by factors such as age,genetics, and environmental factors. Case Studies and Examples There are numerous case studies and examples that illustrate the key points of neuroplasticity. One example is the case of a man named John Pepper, who was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease at the age of 55. Despite taking medication,his symptoms continued to worsen. However, he discovered that by changing his gait and walking with smaller steps, he was able to reduce his symptoms and improve his quality of life. This is an example of how neuroplasticity can be harnessed to improve function in the brain. Another example is the case of London taxi drivers. These drivers are required to pass a rigorous test known as "The Knowledge," which involves memorizing the streets and landmarks of London. Studies have shown that this process of learning and memorization leads to changes in the brain'sstructure and function, particularly in the hippocampus, which is responsible for spatial memory. Critical Evaluation Overall, the concept of neuroplasticity has significant potential for improving our understanding of the brain and treating neurological disorders. However, it is important to approach this topic with a critical eye. While neuroplasticity can be harnessed to improve function in the brain, it can also lead to maladaptive changes that perpetuate dysfunction. Additionally, the brain's natural ability to change and adapt is not unlimited,and is influenced by factors such as age, genetics, and environmental factors. Future Implications and Recommendations Moving forward, it is important for scientists to continue studying neuroplasticity and its potential applications. This research could lead to new treatments for neurological disorders, as well asa better understanding of how the brain works. However, it is also important to approach this topic with caution and skepticism, and to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits of interventions that target neuroplasticity. Ultimately, a better understanding of neuroplasticity could lead to significant improvements in our ability to treat neurological disorders and improve brain function.。
阿尔伯特爱因斯坦的介绍
Occupation
Physicists, thinkers, philosophers
Graduated School
Zurich Federal Institute of technology University of Zurich 苏黎世联邦理工学院 苏黎世大学
Primary Achievement Put forward the theory of relativity and mass-energy equation 提出相对论及质能方程 explain the photoelectric effect解释光电效应
In May, he finished the treatise On the power of the moving body dynamics《论动体的电动 力学》, present the special relativity principle independently and completely , and created a new era of physics. At 28, he was promoted to be a first-level technicians in the Patent Office.
据威尔特森研究的结果，爱因斯坦大脑左右半球的顶下 叶区域，比常人大15％，非常发达。大脑后上部的顶下 叶区发达，对一个人的数学思维、想象能力以及视觉空 间认识，都发挥着重要的作用，这也解释了爱因斯坦为 何具有独特的思维，才智过人。
Another feature of Einstein's brain, many parts of the surface do not have the groove (back channel), the groove like the roadblock, block nerve cells,it is difficult to contact with each other .If there are no these barriers in the brain, nervous cells can freely contact, making the brain's thinking extremely active.
实验设计的基本类型及特点 (1)
10/28/2014
生字密度对阅读理解的影响（舒华，《心理与教育研究中的多因素实验设计》， 1994）
Y Y nY Y Y Y
2 2 ij .. .j .. ij .j j 1 i1 j1 j1 i1
p
n
p
p
n
2
SS总变异＝(7)2 (4)2 ...... (3)2 (5)2 296
10/28/2014
实验设计的基本类型
• 单因素实验设计
实验设计的基本类型
–主效应检验 (main effect) –多重比较 (multiple comparison)
• 两因素实验设计
–主效应检验 (main effect) –交互作用 (interaction) –简单效应检验 (simple effect)
10/28/2014
问题：
1、为什么交互作用不显著，不需要再做简单 效应检验？
2、简单效应的意义如何表示？
两因素混合设计
实验设计模型：
两因素混合设计
实验设计模型：
10/28/2014
两因素混合设计
实验设计模型：
实验设计模型
平方和的分解：
在几种情况下，需要使用混合设计：
1. 当研究中的两个变量中有一个是被试变量，如被试的性 别、年龄、能力，研究者感兴趣这个被试变量的不同水平 对另一个因素的影响。
10/28/2014
• 完全随机实验设计的平方和分解： SS总变异 = SSA + SSB + SSAB + SS单元内 251.8 = 80.6 + 81.1 + 56.6 + 33.5
• 混合实验设计的平方和分解： SS总变异 = SSA+SS被试(A)+SSB +SSAB +SSB×被试(A) 251.8 = 80.6 + 30.5 + 81.1 + 56.6 + 3.0
智力潜能英文作文
智力潜能英文作文Title: Unveiling the Depths of Intellectual Potential。
The human mind is a vast and intricate landscape, capable of boundless exploration and innovation. At the core of this complexity lies the concept of intellectual potential, a dynamic force that drives individuals to push the boundaries of knowledge and achievement. In this essay, we delve into the depths of intellectual potential, exploring its nature, manifestations, and significance in shaping the course of human progress.At its essence, intellectual potential encompasses the innate capacity of individuals to think critically, solve problems, and generate creative ideas. It is not merely a measure of intelligence but rather a multifaceted attribute influenced by genetics, environment, and personal experiences. While some may possess natural aptitude in certain areas, the realization of intellectual potential often requires nurturing and development through education,practice, and exposure to diverse stimuli.One of the most intriguing aspects of intellectual potential is its variability among individuals. While some may excel in academic pursuits, others may demonstrate remarkable talent in artistic endeavors, scientific inquiry, or entrepreneurial ventures. This diversity underscores the richness of human cognition and underscores the importanceof recognizing and cultivating talent in all its forms.Moreover, intellectual potential is not static butrather dynamic, evolving over time in response to learning, challenges, and experiences. It is a lifelong journey of growth and discovery, characterized by continuousadaptation and refinement of skills and knowledge. As individuals engage with new ideas and confront obstacles, they have the opportunity to unlock previously untapped reservoirs of potential, propelling them to new heights of achievement.The manifestations of intellectual potential are myriad and far-reaching, permeating every facet of human endeavor.In the realm of academia, it fuels groundbreaking research, drives scientific innovation, and fosters interdisciplinary collaboration. In the arts, it inspires masterpieces of literature, music, and visual expression that resonate across cultures and generations. In business and technology, it drives entrepreneurship, fuels technological advancement, and shapes the global economy.However, the full realization of intellectual potential is not solely contingent upon individual effort but is also influenced by external factors such as access to resources, opportunities, and support systems. Socioeconomic disparities, institutional barriers, and systemicinequalities can hinder the development and expression of intellectual potential, perpetuating cycles of disadvantage and limiting the contributions of marginalized individuals and communities.Therefore, fostering an environment that nurtures and celebrates intellectual potential is paramount tounleashing the collective talents of humanity. Thisrequires investment in education, equitable access toopportunities, and the cultivation of inclusive spaces where diverse perspectives are valued and respected. By harnessing the full spectrum of human talent, we can confront the challenges of the present and pave the way for a brighter, more innovative future.In conclusion, intellectual potential is a fundamental force that drives human progress and innovation. It is a dynamic and multifaceted attribute that varies among individuals and evolves over time. By recognizing and nurturing intellectual potential in all its forms, we can unlock new possibilities, unleash human creativity, and shape a more prosperous and equitable world for generations to come.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Brain potentials reveal unconscious translation during foreign-language comprehensionGuillaume Thierry*†‡and Yan Jing Wu †*Economic and Social Research Council Centre for Research on Bilingualism in Theory and Practice,University of Wales,Bangor LL572DG,United Kingdom;and †School of Psychology,University of Wales,Bangor LL572AS,United KingdomEdited by Dale Purves,Duke University Medical Center,Durham,NC,and approved June 15,2007(received for review November 8,2006)Whether the native language of bilingual individuals is active during second-language comprehension is the subject of lively debate.Studies of bilingualism have often used a mix of first-and second-language words,thereby creating an artificial ‘‘dual-lan-guage’’context.Here,using event-related brain potentials,we demonstrate implicit access to the first language when bilinguals read words exclusively in their second language.Chinese–English bilinguals were required to decide whether English words pre-sented in pairs were related in meaning or not;they were unaware of the fact that half of the words concealed a character repetition when translated into Chinese.Whereas the hidden factor failed to affect behavioral performance,it significantly modulated brain potentials in the expected direction,establishing that English words were automatically and unconsciously translated into Chi-nese.Critically,the same modulation was found in Chinese mono-linguals reading the same words in Chinese,i.e.,when Chinese character repetition was evident.Finally,we replicated this pattern of results in the auditory modality by using a listening compre-hension task.These findings demonstrate that native-language activation is an unconscious correlate of second-language comprehension.bilingualism ͉event-related potentials ͉language access ͉semantic priming ͉unconscious primingSome studies in cognitive neuroscience have suggested that fluent bilinguals can effectively inhibit their first language when accessing word meaning in their second language based on the word form (1).However,this finding conflicts with functional neuroim-aging data showing overlapping cortical representation of the two languages (2,3).A number of psycholinguistic experiments have also suggested that the two languages mastered by one individual are constantly coactivated and interactive (4–7),whereas others have provided evidence for language independence (8,9).It therefore remains an open question whether or not bilingual individuals can effectively suppress all interference from their first language when processing their second language (10).Previous studies have made extensive use of cross-language priming (6,9,11)or overt translation tasks (12,13)to compare native-and second-language activation in bilinguals.For example,reaction time is reduced in French–English bilinguals when the English word money is presented after the French word coin ‘‘corner’’relative to when it is presented after feuille ‘‘leaf.’’How-ever,mixing stimuli from two languages creates an artificial context that necessarily biases the output of behavioral tests toward a bilingual or ‘‘dual-language’’activation pattern (14).For that mat-ter,translation tasks are even more biased because they require conscious access to both languages.In fact,any experiment mixing stimuli from two languages or using interlingual homographs is likely to activate both languages,even if native-language activation is not automatic during everyday second-language comprehension.By contrast,studies using the masked priming paradigm,in which participants are generally unaware of the prime,can be considered functionally monolingual (15–17).However,in such studies,the magnitude of the priming effect is strongly influenced by the level of masking,especially when the prime is presented very briefly (e.g.,50ms)in the second language (18,19).Here,we avoided artificial dual-language activation and attenuations relating to masking by testing implicit native-language access in conditions where both the prime and the target are fully visible in a second-language context free of any explicit reference to the first language.Event-related potentials (ERPs)provide a continuous account of brain activity time-locked to an external stimulus.The fine temporal resolution of ERPs makes them an ideal tool for investigating neural stages of language comprehension.One well established ERP correlate of language processing is the N400,which has been shown to index semantic integration processes (20,21)and uncon-scious priming (ref.22;for a review,see ref.23).ERP studies have revealed aspects of second-language processing that cannot be detected on the basis of behavioral measurements alone (refs.24–26;for a review,see ref.27).We collected behavioral and electrophysiological data in 15Chinese–English bilinguals who acquired English after the age of 12(late fluent bilinguals)and 15monolingual controls performing a semantic relatedness task exclusively on English word pairs.In each trial the prime and target words were either related in meaning (e.g.,post –mail )or not (e.g.,train –ham ;Table 1).Unknown to the participants,half of the word pairs were chosen such that they shared a character when translated into Chinese.The words train and ham ,for instance,are not related in meaning but their Chinese translations Huo Che and Huo Tui have a Chinese character in common.This made the design a fully balanced 2ϫ2factorial design with one overt factor (semantic relatedness)and one hidden factor (character repetition in Chinese).Mandarin Chinese is an ‘‘ideographic language,’’radically different from languages written in the Roman alphabet (e.g.,English or French).Therefore,any significant effect of the concealed Chinese character repetition in bilinguals reading English words would demonstrate spontaneous activation of the native language.We also tested 15Chinese monolingual controls on Chinese translations of the English ma-terial.Finally,the full experimental design was tested again in the auditory modality in 45other participants (15in each of the three experimental groups).ResultsThe main results reported here are those of the reading experiment and the listening experiment is regarded as a replication study.Behavioral (Surface)Effects.In the reading experiment,as expected,English participants responded faster to semantically related than to unrelated word pairs (F 1,14ϭ32.2,P Ͻ0.001;Fig.1A )and showed no effect of concealed Chinese character repetition (F 1,14ϭ1.9,P Ͼ0.1).Error rates were unaffected by semantic relatednessAuthor contributions:G.T.and Y.J.W.designed research;Y.J.W.performed research;G.T.and Y.J.W.analyzed data;and G.T.and Y.J.W.wrote the paper.The authors declare no conflict of interest.This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.Abbreviation:ERP,event-related potential.‡Towhom correspondence should be addressed.E-mail:g.thierry@.©2007by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA12530–12535͉PNAS ͉July 24,2007͉vol.104͉no.30 ͞cgi ͞doi ͞10.1073͞pnas.0609927104(F1,14ϭ1.7,PϾ0.1)or Chinese character repetition(F1,14ϭ0.7, PϾ0.1).The same overall pattern of performance was found in the Chinese–English bilingual participants(Fig.1B).Semantically re-lated word pairs were responded to faster than semantically unre-lated word pairs(F1,14ϭ28.4,PϽ0.001)and no effect of Chinese character repetition was found(F1,14ϭ0.2,PϾ0.1).Similarly,error rates were not significantly affected by either factor(semantic relatedness,F1,14ϭ2.2,PϾ0.1;Chinese character repetition, F1,14ϭ3.6,Pϭ0.08).In the Chinese monolingual participants reading Chinese trans-lations of the English words,semantically related word pairs were responded to faster than semantically unrelated word pairs(F1,14ϭ10.4,PϽ0.001)but we found an interaction between semantic relatedness and Chinese character repetition for both reaction times (F1,14ϭ20.6,PϽ0.001)and error rates(F1,14ϭ11.6,PϽ0.01;Fig. 1C).Post hoc pairwise comparisons showed that semantically unrelated words sharing a Chinese character yielded significantly longer reaction time and higher error rates than all other conditions (all PϽ0.01).In the listening experiment,the same overall pattern of behav-ioral performance was found in the English monolinguals and the Chinese–English bilinguals(all PϽ0.001;Fig.1D and E).In Chinese monolinguals,however,there was a main effect of semantic relatedness on error rates(F1,14ϭ4.88,PϽ0.05)and reaction times (F1,14ϭ35.1,PϽ0.001),such that semantic relatedness increased error rates and decreased reaction times(Fig.1F).ERP(Implicit)Effects.In the reading experiment,we found early differences between the repeated character and unrepeated char-acter conditions betweenϷ30andϷ90ms in English monolinguals and Chinese–English bilinguals but not Chinese monolinguals(Fig. 2,blue boxes).In the interest of clarity,these differences,attributed to low-level perceptual processing induced by inexorable word length differences(see Discussion and Experimental Procedures), are addressed separately.In English monolinguals,semantic relatedness reduced ERP mean amplitude significantly between350and500ms(F1,14ϭ89, PϽ0.0001),which is the N400component typical window(20,21). Hidden Chinese character repetition had no effect in the N400Table1.Experimental design and stimulus examplesChinese character repetition (implicit factor)Semantic relatedness(explicit factor) Semanticallyrelated(Sϩ)Semanticallyunrelated(SϪ)Repetition(Rϩ)Post–Mail Train–HamYou Zheng–You Jian Huo Che–HuoTuiSRE4.34(Ϯ0.40)SRE1.50(Ϯ0.35)SRC4.03(Ϯ0.64)SRC1.27(Ϯ0.26)No repetition(RϪ)Wife–Husband Apple–TableQi Zi–Zhang Fu Ping Guo–ZhuoZiSRE4.28(Ϯ0.47)SRE1.37(Ϯ0.44)SRC3.93(Ϯ0.65)SRC1.26(Ϯ0.24)Each cell contains one example of an English word pair,its MandarinChinese translation,the corresponding Chinese Pin Yin(alphabetic transpo-sition of the phonological form),and the mean semantic relatedness of thewords in English(SRE)and Chinese(SRC).Standard deviation of the meanrelatedness is given in parentheses.SRE of word pairs was rated on a scale from1to5by a group of25native English speakers,and the Chinese translations(SRC)were rated by a group of21native Chinese speakers.None of theevaluators were involved in the ERP experiments.Difference in semanticrelatedness was highly significant between Sϩand SϪpairs(PϽ0.0001for allpairwise comparisons),but there was no difference in semantic relatednessinduced by Chinese character repetition,whether it was hidden(English)orvisible(Chinese;PϾ0.1for all pairwisecomparisons).Fig.1.Reaction times(bars,left axis)and error rates(bullets,right axis)for the Chinese–English bilinguals(B and E)and the two monolingual control groups [English(A and D)and Chinese(C and F)].(A–C)Reading experiment.(D–F)Listening experiment.Conditions in which the target was semantically related/ unrelated are labeled Sϩ/SϪ,respectively.Conditions in which one Chinese character was repeated/not repeated are labeled Rϩ/RϪ,respectively.Stars indicatesignificant differences(PϽ0.05).Error bars depict standard deviation in all cases.Thierry and Wu PNAS͉July24,2007͉vol.104͉no.30͉12531NEUROSCIENCErange in this group (F 1,14ϭ1.89,P Ͼ0.1),and no other amplitude modulation was found on other main ERP components (Fig.2A ).In Chinese–English bilinguals,there was a main effect of seman-tic relatedness (F 1,14ϭ12.2,P Ͻ0.004),which was significantly smaller in magnitude than that found in English monolinguals (F 1,29ϭ14.79,P Ͻ0.001).Critically,we also found a hidden Chinese character repetition main effect (F 1,14ϭ8.3,P Ͻ0.01),which did not interact with the semantic effect (F 1,14ϭ0.18,P Ͼ0.1).Mean N400amplitude was reduced for semantically related targets as compared with unrelated targets and for targets that shared a Chinese character with the prime through translation as compared with targets with no character repetition.Moreover,the N400modulation elicited by semantic relatedness was of greater magnitude and lasted longer than that induced by character repe-tition.No other ERP peak was modulated in amplitude or latency by the experimental factors (Fig.2B ).In Chinese monolinguals who read Chinese translations of the English stimuli,the same pattern of priming was found as was seen in bilinguals (Fig.2C ).There was a main effect of semantic relatedness (F 1,14ϭ23.5,P Ͻ0.0001)and overt Chinese character repetition (F 1,14ϭ5.13,P Ͻ0.04),but no interaction (F 1,14ϭ0.53,P Ͼ0.1).Interestingly,the N400modulation induced by semantic relatedness was greater and more durable than that elicited by character repetition,reproducing the pattern of variations found in Chinese–English bilinguals.In addition,in this group we found a main effect of overt Chinese character repetition on the amplitude of the P2component (F 1,14ϭ8.1,P Ͻ0.02),between 150and 200ms.The P2was reduced by character repetition priming but was insensitive to semantic priming (F 1,14ϭ0.02,P Ͼ0.1)and there was no interaction (F 1,14ϭ0.09,P Ͼ0.1).ERP scalp topographies were not significantly different either between the three groups with regard to the semantic relatednessmain effect or between the Chinese–English bilinguals and Chinese monolinguals with regard to the Chinese character repetition main effect (Fig.3).Replication of ERP Effects in the Auditory Modality.In the listeningexperiment,ERP effects overall replicated those found in the reading experiment.(i )In English monolinguals,semantic related-ness reduced ERP mean amplitude significantly between 350and 500ms (F 1,14ϭ24.3,P Ͻ0.0001)but Chinese character repetition had no effect (F 1,14ϭ0.33,P Ͼ0.1)and there was no interaction (F 1,14ϭ0,P Ͼ0.1;Fig.4A ).(ii )In Chinese–English bilinguals,there was a main effect of semantic relatedness (F 1,14ϭ19.3,P Ͻ0.001)and the Chinese character repetition also reduced N400amplitude significantly (F 1,14ϭ5.2,P Ͻ0.05),in the absence of an interaction between the two factors (F 1,14ϭ0.3,P Ͼ0.1;Fig.4B ).(iii )In Chinese monolinguals who listened to Chinese translations,there was a main effect of semantic relatedness (F 1,14ϭ20.5,P Ͻ0.0001)and overt Chinese character repetition (F 1,14ϭ4.9,P Ͻ0.05)and no interaction (F 1,14ϭ0.05,P Ͼ0.1;Fig.4C ).As in the reading experiment,the N400modulation induced by semantic relatedness was greater and more durable than that elicited by character repetition in both the Chinese–English bilinguals and the Chinese monolingual controls.In the latter group,moreover,the P2was reduced by character repetition priming (F 1,14ϭ7.5,P Ͻ0.02)but was insensitive to semantic priming (F 1,14ϭ1.5,P Ͼ0.1)and there was no interaction (F 1,14ϭ0.1,P Ͼ0.1).The only results that differed in the listening experiment from those in the reading experiment were:(i )the absence of differences between 30and 90ms in all groups and contrasts,and (ii )the more extended time course of the N400modulation by semantic relat-edness (slightly earlier onset and longerduration).Fig.2.ERP results in the reading experiment for English monolinguals (A ),Chinese–English bilinguals (B ),and Chinese monolinguals (C ).All waveforms depict brain potential variations in the linear derivation of a group of nine electrodes centered on Cz where the N400component is typically maximal (FC1,FC2,FCz,C1,C2,Cz,CP1,CP2,CPz).Color boxes indicate significant differences elicited by semantic relatedness in the N400range (orange)and significant differences elicited by form repetition in the P2range (pink)and the N400range (purple).Early perceptual variations attributed to differences in word length are highlighted in blue.Note that the latter do not perseverate into the N1/P2window.12532͉ ͞cgi ͞doi ͞10.1073͞pnas.0609927104Thierry andWuDiscussionUsing an implicit priming paradigm,we tested whether Chinese–English bilinguals spontaneously access Chinese translations when reading or listening to English words.Despite the absence of any measurable effect of concealed Chinese character repetition on the behavioral performance of bilingual participants,this hidden rep-etition modulated ERPs,just as it did in monolingual Chinese controls overtly exposed to character repetition in Chinese.The character repetition priming was indexed by an amplitude reduction of the N400component,which is known to be sensitive to overt (20,21)and unconscious (22)semantic priming and to repetition priming (28,29).ERP modulations elicited by the two factors appeared in the same temporal window and can only be explained by activation of Chinese translations in bilinguals,be-cause semantic relatedness and character repetition were built in as independent factors (Table 1).Furthermore,the activation of translation equivalents was unconscious because,at debriefing,none of the bilingual participants reported being aware of the hidden factor when questioned about the English words presented.All participants showed the well established N400modulation by semantic priming (20,21),whether words were presented in their first or their second language and whether they were presented visually or auditorily.It is noteworthy,however,that the magnitude of the N400modulation was larger in English monolinguals than in Chinese–English bilinguals,even though the two groups of partic-ipants read the same words.Such observations have been made previously (30–32)and can be related to the relative efficiency of semantic access in first and second languages,respectively.§The fact that English monolinguals only showed an effect of semantic relatedness in the ERPs confirmed that the N400mod-ulation by Chinese character repetition seen in the bilinguals was not caused by spurious,confounding semantic effects but was genuinely induced by implicit character repetition priming.Fur-thermore,the pattern of semantic relatedness and character rep-etition priming seen in bilinguals was remarkably similar to that found in Chinese monolinguals reading Chinese translations.Inparticular,both groups of Chinese participants displayed large N400modulations by semantic priming and smaller,less durable N400modulations by character repetition,whether the latter was implicit (Chinese–English bilinguals)or overtly perceived (Chinese mono-linguals).This pattern is consistent with previous reports of weaker variations in the N400range elicited by orthographic and/or pho-nological overlap between words as compared with semantic rela-tionships (34,35).Critically,the character repetition effect was of similar amplitude in Chinese–English bilinguals and Chinese bilin-guals,which is fully consistent with spontaneous activation of translation equivalents in the bilinguals.Furthermore,this charac-ter repetition effect was found in both a reading and a listening task,which demonstrates that it is modality-independent.Note,however,that this effect need not be symmetrical,i.e.,effects of second-language knowledge on first-language processing are likely to be weaker (36,37).Our previous attempt to identify spontaneous translation effects failed to show Chinese activation in the absence of interference with semantic processing in English (10).We see two reasons the independence of the two factors described here was never shown before to our knowledge.(i )In ref.10,word concreteness (see ref.38for a definition)was not controlled and post hoc comparisons of available concreteness ratings (39)for the stimuli used at the time revealed significant differences between conditions.(ii )The Chi-nese translations of the previous stimulus set were one to three Chinese characters in length,and the repeated character was not systematically positioned at the same place in the translations.The first issue might have affected the route by which bilingual partic-ipants accessed the meaning of English words in the different conditions (40–42).Moreover,word concreteness is known to affect the amplitude of the N400,such that concrete words tend to elicit greater N400amplitudes than abstract words (43,44).In sum,uncontrolled concreteness effects probably introduced noise into the response pattern of monolingual English controls and not necessarily with the same effect and to the same extent as in Chinese–English bilinguals.The second issue is likely to reduce repetition priming because no systematic unconscious template can be formed in which to expect character repetition to occur.In addition,the degree to which repetition priming is reduced need not be the same for semantically related and unrelated conditions.Here,(i )we matched words for lexical frequency and concrete-ness between conditions,(ii )translations systematically involved two Chinese characters,(iii )character repetition consistently ap-peared at the same position within Chinese translations of each word pair (see Experimental Procedures ),and,critically,(iv )we also tested a control group of 15Chinese monolinguals presented with the Chinese translations of the English material.The parallel results obtained for Chinese–English bilinguals and Chinese monolingual controls strongly support the conclusion that the mechanisms operating explicitly in monolinguals and implicitly in the bilinguals are analogous.This conclusion is further supported by the replica-tion in the auditory modality.Because Chinese monolingual participants actually saw or heard the repeated Chinese characters,we expected to see some early orthographic and/or phonological priming effect of Chinese char-acter repetition in these groups.Indeed,the P2component sensitive to perceptual priming (29,45)was significantly reduced when a Chinese character was repeated but was unaffected by semantic relatedness (Figs.2C and 4C ).This P2modulation,which preceded the N400effect by at least 100ms,was seen in neither Chinese–English bilinguals nor English monolinguals.The absence of a priming effect before the N400window in bilinguals also suggests that translation took place at a late,possibly postlexical processing stage,i.e.,during and after word meaning retrieval.The only measurable effect of Chinese character repetition in the behavioral data were found in the reading experiment in Chinese monolingual participants,who were explicitly aware of the repeti-tion.Reaction time and error rate were both significantly greater§Wenote that the waveform structure in the semantically related condition differed between English monolinguals and Chinese–English bilinguals.This difference may be accounted for by partial overlap with P300-type activity peaking Ϸ600ms in the case of lexical–semantic tasks and associated with target detection in English monolinguals(33).Fig.3.Scalp topographies of ERP differences elicited by the two experimen-tal factors [semantic relatedness (Upper )and character repetition (Lower )]for English monolinguals (A ),Chinese–English bilinguals (B ),and Chinese monolinguals (C ).Thierry and WuPNAS ͉July 24,2007͉vol.104͉no.30͉12533N E U R O S C I E N CEwhen the second word of a pair shared a Chinese character but was unrelated in meaning to the first (S ϪR ϩ).Here,the conflict may have arisen in semantically unrelated pairs that share a Chinese character because the repetition implicitly hinted at a semantic link that was not actually present.The absence of such a behavioral effect in the bilingual participants further supports the view that first-language activation was implicit and unconscious.In the lis-tening experiment,however,the S ϪR ϩcondition did not yield longer reaction times or greater error rates than the S ϩR ϩcondition.There are two possible explanations for this result.When words were presented auditorily,(i )the repeated characters were temporally further apart than when words were presented visually,and (ii )characters were perceived phonologically whereas their visual form was likely to activate both orthographic and phonolog-ical representations.One peculiarity of the reading experiment data was the finding of significant differences between Ϸ30and Ϸ90ms between the R ϩand R Ϫconditions in the English monolinguals and the Chinese–English bilinguals (Fig.2D and E ).We interpret this difference as a consequence of word length differences between conditions (see Experimental Procedures )because such differences (i )have been found to elicit ERP modulations within 100ms of stimulus onset (46–48),(ii )were significant in both Chinese–English bilinguals and English monolinguals who were exposed to the same stimuli,(iii )were not found in the Chinese monolinguals who read Chinese translations of equal length in all conditions,(iv )were not found in comparisons between S ϩand S Ϫconditions,which did not differ with respect to average stimulus word length,and (v )did not persist beyond 100ms in either the Chinese–English bilinguals or the English monolinguals.Critically,these early dif-ferences did not affect the N1/P2complex and therefore cannot account for significant main effects of character repetition later seen in the N400time window.Finally,it is noteworthy that suchearly differences were not seen at all in any of the groups in the listening experiment,and yet a clear N400effect was also seen for character repetition in that experiment.In sum,our electrophysiological results reveal an automatic translation process in late fluent bilinguals that could not be detected with traditional behavioral measures.This finding pro-vides an account for parallel,language-nonselective activation models of bilingual word recognition (49,50).In fact,although we found no evidence of prelexical access to native translations when bilinguals read or listen to words in their second language,the postlexical translation mechanism revealed by the N400reduction appears to be totally automatic and unconscious (22).Access to word meaning in a second language may thus well be direct but it nevertheless spontaneously activates the native language lexicon.ConclusionNeuroimaging studies have shown common or partially overlapped cortical areas associated with the two languages of bilinguals in a variety of tasks (3,51–56).These tasks systematically involve spoken or written words from the two languages or require switching mentally between languages.The present study makes a direct observation of spontaneous lexical activation of the native language during an experiment involving only second-language stimuli.This result suggests that native-language activation operates in everyday second-language use,in the absence of awareness on the part of the bilingual speaker.Future studies will determine how proficiency in a second language affects implicit native-language activation and the extent to which interactions between first and second languages are asymmetrical.Experimental ProceduresParticipants.We tested 90participants in total:30native English speakers,30Chinese monolinguals,and 30Chinese–Englishbilin-Fig.4.ERP results in the listening experiment for English monolinguals (A ),Chinese–English bilinguals (B ),and Chinese monolinguals (C ).All waveforms depict brain potential variations in the linear derivation of a group of nine electrodes centered on Cz where the N400component is typically maximal (FC1,FC2,FCz,C1,C2,Cz,CP1,CP2,CPz).Color boxes indicate significant differences elicited by semantic relatedness in the N400range (orange)and significant differences elicited by form repetition in the P2range (pink)and the N400range (purple).12534͉ ͞cgi ͞doi ͞10.1073͞pnas.0609927104Thierry andWuguals.All had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and self-reported normal hearing.They gave written consent to take part in the experiments that were approved by the ethics committee of the University of Wales.Participants were controlled for age(19–25 years),level of education,and handedness(right)across groups. The bilingual participants were first exposed to English at the age of12;by the time of testing,they were studying at a British university and had lived in the United Kingdom for a mean of18.3months (Ϯ4.78).All bilinguals used English in their everyday life and had an English proficiency score of6or6.5as measured by the International English Language Testing System(/ candidates/findoutmore/article255.aspx).Stimuli.The200word pairs used were matched across experimental conditions for lexical frequency and word concreteness(39).The repeated Chinese characters were both logographically and pho-nologically identical and always appeared in the same position in the two words of a pair(Table1).In the reading experiment,no English word hadϾ11letters and all Chinese translations featured two Chinese characters.Conditions were not balanced for average word length in English,however,because of the need to control the other experimental factors.As a consequence,average visual word length was significantly longer in the repeated character conditions(Rϩ) as compared with the unrepeated conditions(RϪ;PϽ0.001). There were no other differences in visual word length between conditions.Participants viewed two blocks of100word pairs presented in a pseudorandomized order.After a prestimulus in-terval of200ms,the first word was flashed for500ms at fixation followed by the second word after a variable interstimulus interval of500,600,or700ms.In the listening experiment,the average length of English words was4.9Ϯ2phonemes.There were no significant differences in the number of phonemes in pairwise comparisons between conditions(all PϾ0.1).Participants heard digitized words pronounced by a native female speaker of English or Chinese.Prime words were presented within a1,000-ms time window followed by a target word after a variable interval of500, 600,or700ms.No word was repeated in either of the studies. Participants were instructed to indicate whether the second word was related in meaning to the first by pressing keys.Response sides were fully counterbalanced between blocks and participants.ERP Recording.Electrophysiological data were recorded in refer-ence to Cz at a rate of1kHz from64Ag/AgCl electrodes placed according to the extended10–20convention.Impedances were keptϽ5k⍀.Electroencephalogram activity was filtered on-line band pass between0.1and200Hz and refiltered off-line with a 25-Hz,low-pass,zero-phase shift digital filter.Eye blinks were mathematically corrected,and remaining artefacts were manually dismissed.There was a minimum of30valid epochs per condition in every subject.Epochs ranged fromϪ100to1,000ms after the onset of the second word.Baseline correction was performed in reference to prestimulus activity,and individual averages were digitally re-referenced to the global average reference.ERP data were collected simultaneously to behavioral data.ERP Data Analysis.Peak detection was carried out automatically, time-locked to the latency of the peak at the electrode of maximal amplitude on the grand-average ERP.Temporal windows for peak detection were determined based on variations of the Global Field Power measured across the scalp(57).Peak amplitudes were subjected to a repeated measures ANOVA with semantic related-ness(related/unrelated),character repetition(repeated/ unrepeated),and electrode(63levels)as factors using a Green-house-Geisser correction where applicable.Pairwise differences between conditions were considered significant when differences were above threshold(PϽ0.01)forϾ30ms over a minimum of three clustered electrodes.Topographical analyses were based on mean amplitudes measured over63electrodes distributed over the entire scalp.Between-group comparisons involved calculating main-effect contrasts(semantically unrelated–semantically related and no character repetition–character repetition)and differences in mean amplitudes were entered into a between-subject repeated measures ANOVA with63levels of electrodes.Interactions involv-ing the electrode factor were controlled by using within condition vector normalization(58).We thank Jean-Franc¸ois De´monet,Tim Fosker,Steve Luck,Clara Martin, Marilyn Vihman,and two reviewers for useful discussions and Mark Roberts for technical assistance.This work was supported by Economic and Social Research Council Grant ES/E024556/1and Biotechnology and Biological Science Research Council U.K.Grant S18007.Y.J.W.is sup-ported by the Overseas Research Scheme.1.Rodriguez-Fornells A,Rotte M,Heinze HJ,Nosselt T,Munte TF(2002)Nature415:1026–1029.2.Kim KH,Relkin NR,Lee KM,Hirsch J(1997)Nature388:171–174.3.Chee MW,Tan EW,Thiel T(1999)J Neurosci19:3050–3056.4.Kroll JF,De Groot AMB(2005)Handbook of Bilingualism:Psycholinguistic Approaches(Oxford Univ Press,New York).5.Kroll JF,Stewart E(1994)J Mem Lang33:149–174.6.Dijkstra T,Timmermans M,Schriefers H(2000)J Mem Lang42:455–464.7.Dijkstra T,Van Heuven WJB(2002)Biling Lang Cogn5:175–197.8.Scarborough DL,Gerard L,Cortese C(1984)J Verb Learn Verb Behav23:84–99.9.Gerard LD,Scarborough DL(1989)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn15:305–313.10.Thierry G,Wu YJ(2004)NeuroReport15:1555–1558.11.Beauvillain C,Grainger J(1987)J Mem Lang26:658–672.12.De Groot AMB,Hoeks JCJ(1995)Lang Learn45:683–724.13.Dufour R,Kroll JF(1995)Mem Cogn23:166–180.14.Grosjean F(1998)Biling Lang Cogn1:131–149.15.De Groot AMB,Nas GLJ(1991)J Mem Lang30:90–123.16.Gollan TH,Forster KI,Frost R(1997)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn23:1122–1139.17.Brysbaert M,Van Dyck G,Van de Poel M(1999)J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform25:137–148.18.Grainger J,Frenck-Mestre C(1998)Lang Cogn Proc13:601–623.19.Jiang N(1999)Biling Lang Cogn2:59–75.20.Kutas M,Hillyard SA(1980)Science207:203–205.21.Kutas M,Hillyard SA(1984)Nature307:161–163.22.Luck SJ,Vogel EK,Shapiro KL(1996)Nature383:616–618.23.Kutas M,Federmeier K(2000)Trends Cogn Sci4:463–470.24.Kotz SA,Elston-Guttler KE(2004)J Neurolingu17:215–235.25.McLaughlin J,Osterhout L,Kim A(2004)Nat Neurosci7:703–704.26.Tokowicz N,MacWhinney B(2005)Stud Second Lang Acquisition27:173–204.27.Mueller JL(2005)Second Lang Res21:152–174.28.Osterhout L,Holcomb P(1995)in Electrophysiological Studies of Human Cognitive Function,ed Coles MRM(Oxford Univ Press,Oxford),pp171–215.29.Liu Y,Perfetti CA,Hart L(2003)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn29:1231–1247.30.Ardal S,Donald MW,Meuter R,Muldrew S,Luce M(1990)Brain Lang39:187–205.31.Kutas M,Kluender R(1991)in Cognitive Electrophysiology:Basic and Clinical Applications,eds Heinze HJ,Munte TF,Mangun GR(Birkhauser,Boston),pp183–210.32.Hahne A(2001)J Psycholinguist Res30:251–266.33.Polich J,Donchin E(1988)Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol70:33–45.34.Rugg MD,Barrett SE(1987)Brain Lang32:336–361.35.Perrin F,Garcia-Larrea L(2003)Brain Res Cogn Brain Res17:36–47.36.Van Wijnendaele I,Brysbaert M(2002)J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform28:616–627.37.Van Hell JG,Dijkstra T(2002)Psychon Bull Rev9:780–789.38.Fliessbach K,Weis S,Klaver P,Elger CE,Weber B(2006)NeuroImage32:1413–1421.39.Coltheart M(1981)Q J Exp Psychol33:497–505.40.Paivio A,Clark JM,Lambert WE(1988)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn14:163–172.41.Paivio A,Desrochers A(1980)Can J Psychol34:388–399.42.De Groot AMB(1992)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn18:1001–1018.43.Kounios J,Holcomb PJ(1994)J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn20:804–823.44.West WC,Holcomb PJ(2000)J Cogn Neurosci12:1024–1037.45.van Schie HT,Wijers AA,Kellenbach ML,Stowe LA(2003)Brain Lang86:300–325.46.Assadollahi R,Pulvermuller F(2003)NeuroReport14:1183–1187.47.Hauk O,Pulvermuller F(2004)Clin Neurophysiol115:1090–1103.48.Hauk O,Davis MH,Ford M,Pulvermuller F,Marslen-Wilson WD(2006)NeuroImage30:1383–1400.49.Dijkstra T,Van Heuven WJB(1998)in Localist Connectionist Approaches to HumanCognition,eds Grainger J,Jacobs AM(Lawrence Erlbaum,Hillsdale,NJ),pp189–225.50.Lemhofer K,Dijkstra T(2004)Mem Cogn35:533–550.51.Chee MW,Soon CS,Lee HL(2003)J Cogn Neurosci15:85–97.52.Illes J,Francis WS,Desmond JE,Gabrieli JD,Glover GH,Poldrack R,Lee CJ,Wagner AD(1999)Brain Lang70:347–363.53.Frenck-Mestre C,Anton JL,Roth M,Vaid J,Viallet F(2005)NeuroReport16:761–765.54.Rodriguez-Fornells A,van der Lugt A,Rotte M,Britti B,Heinze HJ,Munte TF(2005)JCogn Neurosci17:422–433.55.Tan LH,Spinks JA,Feng CM,Siok WT,Perfetti CA,Xiong J,Fox PT,Gao JH(2003)HumBrain Mapp18:158–166.56.Crinion J,Turner R,Grogan A,Hanakawa T,Noppeney U,Devlin JT,Aso T,Urayama S,Fukuyama H,Stockton K,et al.(2006)Science312:1537–1540.57.Picton TW,van Roon P,Armilio ML,Berg P,Ille N,Scherg M(2000)Clin Neurophysiol111:53–65.58.McCarthy G,Wood CC(1985)Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol62:203–208.Thierry and Wu PNAS͉July24,2007͉vol.104͉no.30͉12535N E U R O S C I E N CE。