Evaluation on washback effects of College English Test Band 4
The effect of internal control deficiencies on the usefulness of earnings in executive compensation
The effect of internal control de ficiencies on the usefulness of earnings in executive compensation ☆Kareen E.Brown a ,1,Jee-Hae Lim b ,⁎a School of Accounting and Finance,University of Waterloo,200University Ave W (HH 289D),Waterloo,ON,Canada N2L 3G1bSchool of Accounting and Finance,University of Waterloo,200University Ave W (HH 289G),Waterloo,ON,Canada N2L 3G1a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Keywords:Sarbanes –Oxley ActInternal control material weaknesses (ICMW)Executive compensation EarningsSince SOX 404disclosures are informative about earnings,and due to the widespread practice of using earnings-based measures in executive compensation,this study examines whether reports of internal control material weaknesses (ICMW)under SOX 404in fluence firms'reliance on earnings in tying executive pay to ing 391(366)firm-year observations with reported ICMW and 3648(3138)firm-year obser-vations for CEOs (CFOs)reporting NOMW under SOX 404,we find a decreased strength in the association be-tween earnings and executives'(CEO and CFO)compensation when the firm reports an ICMW,and as the number of reported ICMW increases.In addition,we find this decreased weight on earnings for the more se-vere Company-Level than Account-Speci fic material weaknesses.Our study suggests that the ICMW report under SOX 404provides incremental information for executive compensation beyond that contained in reported earnings.©2012Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionThe accounting scandals at firms such as Enron and WorldCom highlighted de ficiencies in corporate governance that were charac-terised by low financial reporting quality and disproportionate pay-for-performance.2To discipline firms and restore investor con fidence,legislative authorities enacted the Sarbanes –Oxley Act.Among the re-forms is Section 404of SOX (SOX 404)which requires both the manage-ment and the external auditor to report on the adequacy of a firm's internal control over financial reporting.Prior research shows that,relative to non-disclosing firms,firms reporting material weaknesses in internal control (ICMW)have inferior accruals and earnings quality (Ashbaugh-Skaife,Collins,Kinney,&LaFond,2008;Bedard,2006;Doyle,Ge,&McVay,2007b ),and lower earnings –returns coef ficients (Chan,Farrell,&Lee,2008).Given the fact that SOX 404disclosures are informative about earnings,and due to the widespread practice of using earnings-based measures in executive compensation,this studyexamines whether reports of ICMW under SOX404in fluence firms're-liance on earnings in tying executive pay to performance.A long line of research shows that earnings-based performance measures are commonly used to motivate and reward executives be-cause such measures correspond to manager actions (Gjesdal,1981).However,there are two drawbacks to using earnings to evaluate ex-ecutive performance.First,because executives know how their ac-tions impact earnings,they can manipulate this measure to increase their wealth.Second,earnings do not fully re flect the long-term im-plications of recent executive decisions.Based on these factors,firms place varying weights on earnings in compensating their exec-utives,and the weights are determined by how sensitive earnings are to effort and on the precision ,or lack of noise,with which it re-flects executives'actions (Banker &Datar,1989;Lambert &Larcker,1987).However,there is evidence that CEOs are shielded from certain negative events,such as firm restructuring (Dechow,Huson,&Sloan,1994),or above the line losses (Gaver &Gaver,1998).Our main focus of inquiry is signi ficant because it builds on this line of research by showing that the sensitivity of compensation –performance relations varies cross-sectionally with the quality of the system producing the earnings information.Weak internal controls potentially permit accounting errors to occur and go undetected,increasing unintentional errors in accrual estimation and/or facilitating intentional earnings management (Doyle et al.,2007b ).A report of an internal control de ficiency,there-fore,signals that the manager is unable to provide reasonable assur-ance regarding the quality of reported earnings (Ashbaugh-Skaife et al.,2008;Bedard,2006;Chan et al.,2008;Doyle et al.,2007b ).Using the sensitivity-precision framework,the errors introduced byAdvances in Accounting,incorporating Advances in International Accounting 28(2012)75–87☆Data availability:Data used in this paper are publicly available and also can be requested from the authors.⁎Corresponding author.Tel.:+15198884567x35702;fax:+15198887562.E-mail addresses:kebrown@uwaterloo.ca (K.E.Brown),jh2lim@uwaterloo.ca (J.-H.Lim).1Tel.:+15198884567x35776;fax:+15198887562.2For example Hall and Liebman (1998)report a 209%increase in CEO mean salary in large US firms from 1980to 1994,and Bebchuk and Grinstein (2005)document a 146%increase in CEO pay from 1993to 2003in S&P 500firms.Bebchuk and Fried (2004)ad-vance the theory that soaring executive pay is the result of managementpower.0882-6110/$–see front matter ©2012Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.adiac.2012.02.006Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectAdvances in Accounting,incorporating Advances inInternational Accountingj o u r na l h o me p a g e :ww w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l oc a t e /a di a cweak internal controls are likely to result in earnings that capture ex-ecutives'effort with low precision,diminishing its use as an assess-ment tool for evaluating managers'performance.Motivated by the optimal contracting hypothesis,we posit thatfirms with ICMW report earnings with lower precision-sensitivity.The purpose of this study is to examine whetherfirms reporting ICMW place relatively less weight on earnings compared tofirms reporting no ICMW(NOMW).In other words,whether ICMW reports influence compensation contracts is an empirical issue because,al-though ICMWfirms report lower earnings–returns coefficients (Chan et al.,2008),prior research does not suggest any direct associ-ation between the valuation role of earnings and its usefulness in compensating executives(Bushman,Engel,&Smith,2006).Under the null hypothesis,the sensitivity of executive compensation to earnings is unaffected by internal control deficiency.Consistent with prior research,we also examine the weight placed on earnings forfirms reporting two different types of ICMW:Account-Specific and Company-Level weaknesses(Doyle,Ge,&McVay,2007a, b,Doyle et al.,2007b).Account-Specific(AS)material weaknesses arise from routinefirm operations and may be resolved by additional substantive auditing procedures.When AS material weaknesses are identified,executives or auditors can easily audit around them by per-forming additional substantive pany-Level(CL)mate-rial weaknesses,on the other hand,are less easily resolved by auditor involvement and result from lack of resources or inexperience in main-taining an effective control system.Due to the pervasiveness of CL ma-terial weaknesses,the scope of audit efforts needs to be frequently expanded to deal with these more serious concerns regarding the reli-ability offinancial statements(Moody's,2006;PCAOB2004).The extent to which auditors are able to mitigate the negative effect on earnings of these two types of weaknesses would suggest less noise/greater preci-sion in earnings from Account-Specific relative to Company-Level weaknesses.The impact of precision times sensitivity on the weight of earnings for Account-Specific pany-Level material weaknesses is therefore the second empirical question.Using391(366)firm-year observations with reported ICMW and 3648(3138)firm-year observations for CEOs(CFOs)reporting NOMW under Section404of SOX,wefind a decreased strength in the associa-tion between earnings and CEO compensation when thefirm reports an ICMW,and as the number of reported ICMW increases.Our results are also robust to controls for variousfirm characteristics that prior studies have found to influence the role of earnings in compensation contracts,including earnings quality proxies such as earnings persis-tence(Baber,Kang,&Kumar,1998)and corporate governance charac-teristics(Chhaochharia&Grinstein,2009).In addition,for CL material weaknesses,wefind evidence of a lower strength in the earnings–compensation relation for the CEOs.Wefind no such result with AS material weaknesses suggesting that only CL weaknesses affect the weight placed on earnings in compensating CEOs.This study makes two contributions.First,it contributes to existing literature by making an examination of the role of earnings as a per-formance measure in executive compensation contracts(Bushman et al.,2006;Sloan,1993;among others),and by examining how infor-mation on the quality of afirm's internal controls influences the earn-ings–compensation relation.We confirm that weak internal controls result in a diminished role for accounting measures in the CEO com-pensation relation,consistent with optimal contracting.Specifically, it is thefirms with CL weaknesses that reduce the weight on earnings in CEO cash compensation.Overall,ourfindings suggest that the in-formation in the ICMW report is incremental to,or more timely than,that provided by discretionary accruals or earnings persistence measures.Second,our study extends a growing body of literature on the rela-tion between executive compensation and ICMW in the post-SOX era. Carter,Lynch,and Zechman(2009)show that the implementation of SOX in2002led to a decrease in earnings management,and thatfirms responded by placing more weight on earnings in bonus contracts for CEOs and CFOs in the post-SOX period.Another study by Hoitash, Hoitash,and Johnstone(2009)suggests that the compensation of the CFO,who has primary responsibility for the quality of thefirm's internal controls,is penalized for reports of ICMW.Since prior evidence shows, and stresses the importance of,a performance-based compensation penalty for internal control quality as a non-financial performance mea-sure in the evaluation of executives,our study further investigates whether an ICMW impacts the weight of earnings in compensation con-tracts under the mandate of SOX404.We show thatfirms consider the strength of an earnings generation system and specifically choose to re-duce emphasis on earnings-based performance measures in determin-ing CEOs'cash compensation.The next section of this paper provides background information on the internal control disclosure practices required by the Sar-banes–Oxley Act,discusses the usefulness of earnings as a perfor-mance measure and further develops our hypotheses.The third section describes our sample and research design.The fourth section presents our descriptive statistics,results and sensitivity analyses. Thefifth section concludes the paper.2.Prior research and hypothesisSection404of SOX is one of the most visible and tangible changes tofirms'internal control systems in recent times[(Public Company Accounting Oversight Board(PCAOB)(PCAOB),2004)].3The pivotal requirement of Section404is that management assess the effective-ness of thefirm's internal controls overfinancial reporting and in-clude this information in thefirm's annualfinancial statements.This regulation increases scrutinization by thefirm's auditors because the manager assessments must then be separately attested to by the auditor.One of the benefits of the disclosures under Section404is that internal control information is now readily available and may be informative as a non-financial measure of executive performance (Hoitash et al.,2009).Numerous studies have examined the determinants and conse-quences of ICMW.Early studies document an association between ICMW andfirm characteristics,such as business complexity,organi-zational change,firm size,firm profitability and investment of re-sources in accounting controls(Ashbaugh-Skaife,Collins,&Kinney, 2007;Doyle et al.,2007a;Ge&McVay,2005).The implementation of SOX Section404has resulted in higher audit fees(Hoitash, Hoitash,&Bedard,2008;Raghunandan&Rama,2006),longer audit delays(Ettredge,Li,&Sun,2006)and improved audit committee quality(Krishnan,2005).Several studiesfind negative and significant cumulative abnormal returns(Beneish,Billings,&Hodder,2008;De Franco,Guan,&Lu,2005)and lower quality of earnings(Ashbaugh-Skaife et al.,2008;Chan et al.,2008)after SOX404disclosures.Closely related to our study is the literature that examines the as-sociation between earnings quality and ICMW.Chan et al.(2008) document a greater use of positive and absolute discretionary ac-cruals forfirms reporting ICMW than forfirms receiving a favourable report.Ashbaugh-Skaife et al.(2008)alsofind thatfirms reporting ICMW after the inception of SOX have lower quality accruals and sig-nificantly larger positive and negative abnormal accruals,relative to controlfirms.Both Ashbaugh-Skaife et al.(2008)and Bedard(2006)find evidence of improvements in earnings quality after the remedia-tion of ICMW under Section404,whereas Doyle et al.(2007b)claim lower-quality earnings under Section302,but not Section404.3SOX404sets separation implementation dates for“acceleratedfilers”(primarily largefirms),for“non-acceleratedfilers”(smallerfirms),and for foreignfirms.Specifi-cally,Section404rules required acceleratedfilers to comply beginning in2004,where-as compliance for non-acceleratedfilers and foreignfirms began in phases starting in 2006and ending in2009,at which time those two groups reach full compliance.76K.E.Brown,J.-H.Lim/Advances in Accounting,incorporating Advances in International Accounting28(2012)75–87A recent study suggests thatfirms place greater weight on earn-ings in determining incentive pay after the passage of SOX,and other concurrent reforms,because the more stringent reporting envi-ronment in the post-SOX period of2002results in less earnings man-agement(Carter et al.,2009;Hoitash et al.,2009).Carter et al.(2009) report an increase in the weight placed on earnings changes as a de-terminant of executive compensation,and a decrease in the propor-tion of compensation via salary after SOX,that is larger for CEOs and CFOs than it is for other executives.In addition,Hoitash et al. (2009)claim that changes in CFO total compensation,bonus compen-sation and equity compensation are negatively associated with dis-closures of ICMW,suggesting a performance-based compensation penalty for poor internal controls in the evaluation of CFOs.However, the empirical literature has not yet addressed whether disclosures of ICMW in the post-SOX era influence the importance of earnings in de-termining executive pay.3.The role of earnings in executive compensation contractsPrior research has identified accounting earnings and stock returns as the two implicitfirm performance indicators commonly used to determine executive compensation.Accounting earnings are useful for determining executive compensation because they shield managers from market-wide variations infirm value that are beyond executives'control(Sloan,1993).Stock returns are useful because they anticipate future cashflows and reflect the long-term economic consequences of managers'actions(Sloan,1993).As a result,stock returns capture those facets of executive effort that are missing in earnings but are associated with compensation(Clinch,1991; Lambert&Larcker,1987).The usefulness of thefirm performance measures,such as earnings or returns in executive contracts,is deter-mined by its precision and sensitivity(Banker&Datar,1989),and the optimal weight on a performance measure increases as the precision times sensitivity(or the signal-to-noise ratio)increases.Sensitivity re-fers to the responsiveness of the measure to actions taken by the manager,and precision reflects the noise or variance of the perfor-mance measure conditional on the manager's actions.Consistent with prior studies,we model executive compensation as a function of both accounting earnings and returns.Based on this model specification,the weight on earnings as a performance measure,there-fore,is a function of its precision and sensitivity,relative to stock returns,in providing information about the efforts of managers.4.The impact of ICMW on the earnings–compensation relationIn this study we argue that,for several reasons,an ICMW report indicates that reported earnings capture executives'effort with less precision and is less sensitive to managerial effort thanfirms not reporting an ICMW.First,managers are potentially more likely to use accruals to intentionally bias earnings if internal controls are weak.A more effective internal control system allows less managerial discretion in the accrual process(Ashbaugh-Skaife et al.,2008;Doyle et al.,2007b),and thus reduces the ability of the management to ma-nipulate accruals for the purpose of increasing their compensation.Second,weak internal controls potentially permit accounting er-rors to occur and go undetected(Doyle et al.,2007b).An ICMW can impair the sensitivity of the earnings measure for executive compen-sation because the earnings offirms with ICMW may reflect delayed or untimely information(Chan et al.,2008).Further,the noise regard-ing managers'performance in reported earnings due to deficient in-ternal controls are likely to be unpredictable and may not be reflected in the properties of previously reported earnings numbers. For these reasons,the precision times sensitivity of earnings with regards to the manager's actions forfirms reporting ICMW is pre-dicted to be lower than that offirms not reporting a material weak-ness.If ICMW reports provide information about the precision-sensitivity relation of earnings,then they have the potential to impact the use of earnings in designing executive compensation.It is possible that the ICMW report provides no new information to compensation committees or that the committees fully adjust for earnings characteristics in designing executive compensation con-tracts.In such case,we wouldfind no association between executive cash compensation and reported earnings.However,if effective inter-nal controls provide information on the sensitivity-precision of earn-ings,then an ICMW report has the potential to impact the strength of the relation between accounting earnings and executive compensa-tion.We predict that the relation between executive compensation and accounting earnings is lower forfirms that report ICMW.This leads to ourfirst hypothesis:H1.Firms that report ICMW have lower accounting earnings–executive compensation relation thanfirms with NOMW.5.The impact of ICMW type on theearnings–compensation relationDepending on the underlying cause of the ICMW,additional monitor-ing mechanisms or substantive testing can mitigate the negative effects of poor internal controls and impact the weight placed on earnings in exec-utive compensation contracts.Consistent with Doyle et al.(2007a,b),we categorize ICMW disclosures into two categories that may have different impacts on the earnings–compensation relation.First,Account-Specific (AS)material weaknesses arise from routinefirm operations and relate to controls over specific account balances,such as accounts receivable,in-ventory,and legal proceedings,or transaction-level processes.When AS material weaknesses are identified,executives or auditors can easily audit around them by performing additional substantive procedures.In contrast,Company-Level(CL)material weaknesses reflect is-sues beyond the direct control of the executives and relate to more macro-level controls such as the control environment,general per-sonnel training,organizational-level accountability,or the overallfi-nancial reporting processes.Due to the pervasiveness of CL material weaknesses,the scope of audit efforts needs to be frequently expand-ed to deal with these more serious concerns regarding the reliability of thefinancial statement(Moody's,2006;PCAOB,2004).We there-fore expect a more negative association between disclosures of Company-Level material weaknesses and the weights of earnings in the compensation contract relative to Account-Specific weaknesses. pany-Level ICMW have a stronger negative association with the accounting earnings–executive compensation relation than do Account-Specific ICMW.6.Sample selection and research design6.1.Sample selectionWe use several sources of data:(1)Audit Analytics,(2)Compu-stat,(3)CRSP,(4)ExecuComp,(5)firms'financial statements and (6)Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe.We start by collecting data from Section404disclosures of auditors'opinions on ICMW overfinancial reporting fromfirms'Form10-Kfilings from January2004to Decem-ber2006.4To ensure that the identified acceleratedfilers under SOX 404pertain to a material weakness in internal control,we follow up our initial search offirms that receive adverse opinions on their ICMW in the Audit Analytics database with a manual check through Lexis-Nexis.For our sample period,we identify9899observations 4According to PCAOB(Standard No.2),three types of internal control overfinancial reporting exist:(1)a control deficiency,(2)a significant deficiency,or(3)material weaknesses.Since publicfirms are only required to disclose material weaknesses in Section404,our main empirical test uses all Section404reports available on Audit An-alytics,which includes3864firm-year observations from2004to2006.77K.E.Brown,J.-H.Lim/Advances in Accounting,incorporating Advances in International Accounting28(2012)75–87with clean reports and1399observations that received adverse opin-ions on theirfinancial reporting with at least one type of internal con-trol problem as a material weakness.After controlling for duplicates or non-acceleratedfilers from2004to2006,we validate1336adverse reports and9865clean reports for a total of11,201observations.5 Our research design examines the change in executive compensa-tion in the year following the ICMW.For ICMW in the years 2004–2006,we require compensation data for2004–2007to compute the change in compensation.We eliminate513ICMW and5999 NOMW(532ICMW and6415NOMW)firm-year observations for the CEO(CFO)due to missing salary and bonus data in thefirms'proxy statements or in ExecuComp.Next,we collect stock return and account-ing information from CRSP and Compustat respectively,resulting in a loss of399ICMW and129NOMW(405ICMW and223NOMW)firm-year observations for the CEO(CFO).Finally,we excludefirm-year observations from utility andfinancialfirms because these companies operate in unique regulatory environments that are likely to influence executive compensation.Thefinal sample for this study consists of 391(366)firm-year observations with ICMW and3648(3138)firm-year observations with NOMW for the CEO(CFO).We summarize our sample selection process in panel A of Table1.Panel B of Table1summarizes the ICMW subsample by the type of weakness.Following the recommendations of the PCAOB's Standard No.2and Moody's(Doss&Jonas,2004;Doyle et al.,2007a,b),two types of material weaknesses can be classified based on different ob-jectives.Our study identifiesfirms as having either an Account-Specific(AS)or Company-Level(CL)material weakness.6Of the391 (366)firm-year observations of ICMW reported subsample,162 (140)were Company-Level and229(226)were Account-Specific weaknesses for the CEO(CFO)subsample.Panel C of Table1summarizes the industry distribution of the CEO sample of391firm-years with ICMW and the3648firm-years without some kind of material weakness based on their two-digit SIC codes.The391ICMWfirm-years cover six industry groups.Among them,the Ser-vices industry has the highest number offirms,followed by the Machin-ery,Construction and manufacturing,and the Wholesale and retail industries.The industry distribution for3648NOMWfirm-years has the highest number of observations in the Services industry followed closely by the Machinery and Construction and manufacturing industries.6.2.Research designTo test H1,that predicts a lower strength in the earnings–compensation relation when thefirm reports an ICMW under Section 404of SOX,we use the following model(1):ΔCashComp i;t¼β0þβ1ICMW i;t−1þβ2ΔROA i;tþβ3RET i;tþβ4ICMW i;t−1⁎ΔROA i;tþβ5ICMW i;t−1⁎RET i;tþβ6LOSS i;tþβ7LOSS i;t⁎ΔROA i;tþβ8LOSS i;t⁎RET i;tþβ9SIZE i;tþβ10MTB i;tþβ11CEOCHAIR i;tþβ12IndAC i;tþβ13IndBD i;tþβ14BoardMeetings i;tþβ15AcctExp i;tþYEARþINDþεtð1ÞConsistent with prior studies,we focus on cash compensation be-cause almost allfirms explicitly use accounting measures as a deter-minant of cash bonus(Murphy,2000;Core,Guay,&Larcker,2003; Huson,et al.2012).No such evidence exists for the association be-tween equity-based pay and earnings because stock option grants are offered not only to reward executives but also to introduce con-vexity in executive compensation contracts,for retention purposes and because of tax andfinancial reporting costs(Core et al.,2003).7 Similar to Hoitash et al.(2009),our dependent variable is the change in salary plus bonus pay from year t−1to year t deflated by the beginning of the year salary in year t(ΔCashComp).Our indepen-dent variables are(1)an internal controls deficiency indicator vari-able(ICMW or CL/AS)at time t−1,(2)the percentage change in return on assets(ΔROA),(3)stock returns(RET)and(4)interaction terms between the internal controls deficiency indicator and the per-centage change in both ROA and stock returns.We include annual stock returns for the year t in the model specification because a mean-ingful association between compensation andfirm performance must include returns(Murphy,1998;Sloan,1993).The parameter estimateβ4on ICMW∗ΔROA examines H1.Under the null hypothesis that the sensitivity of executive compensation to earnings is unaffected by internal control deficiency,the parameter,β4would be insignificant.However,we predict that the weight assigned to earnings will decrease with ICMW disclosures.As such, we expect the estimateβ4for the interaction ICMW∗ΔROA to be neg-ative and significant.It is possible that,with poor internal controls,5After controlling for97duplicates or non-acceleratedfilers from2004to2006,we validate1336adverse reports(relating to452firms in2004;487firms in2005;and 397firms in2006)and9865clean reports(2478firms in2004;3478firms in2005; and3909firms in2006)for a total of11,201observations.6We want to thank one of the authors(Doyle et al.,2007a,b)for the conceptual foundations of these two types of ICMW and the coding validations.Our classification of a Company-Level vs.an Account-Specific material weakness is mutually exclusive. For example,if afirm has both Company-Level weaknesses and Account-Specific ma-terial weaknesses,then we code thefirm as having a Company-Level weakness(Doyle et al.,2007a).In addition,three or more Account-Specific material weaknesses are cod-ed Company-level Weaknesses(Doyle et al.,2007b,p.1149).Table1Sample selection and descriptive statistics(January2004–December2007).Panel A:Sample selection and sample compositionCEO subsample CFO subsampleICMW NOMW10-Kfilings from Audit Analytics andsubsequent manual review2004–20061399989913999899 Less:Duplicate observations(63)(34)(63)(34) SOX404disclosure data2004–20061336986513369865 Missing compensation data2004–2007(513)(5999)(532)(6415) Missing Compustat&CRSP data2004–2007(399)(129)(405)(223) Less:Utilities&financialfirms2004–2007(33)(89)(33)(89) Testing H1&H239136483663138 Panel B:Samplefirms by types of ICMWCompany-Level(CL)Account-Specific(AS)CEO CFO CEO CFO 20046860108107 200560528886 200634283333 Panel C:Sample composition by industry(CEO sample)2-digitSICIndustry description ICMW NOMW#Obs.%#Obs.%10–13Mining11 2.8171 4.7 23–34Construction and manufacturing6516.677521.2 35–39Machinery9724.879721.8 42–49Transportation and utilities4411.349413.5 50–59Wholesale and retail4912.539210.7 72–87Services12532.0101927.97For these reasons any inferences that we draw about internal control weaknesses and the use of earnings from tests using equity based compensation would be incon-clusive.Additionally,the importance of earnings in determining executive cash based pay has increased in the post-Sox era,which is the period that we examine(Carter et al.,2009).78K.E.Brown,J.-H.Lim/Advances in Accounting,incorporating Advances in International Accounting28(2012)75–87。
《英语测试学》考点
《英语测试学》考点：1、Write out the full form of the following acronyms. (1x10=10)SD = standard deviation (标准差)CV = coefficient of variability (差异系数)FV = facility value (易度值)MC format = multiple-choice format (多项选择题)TOEFL = Test of English as a Foreign Language (托福考试)IRT = item-response theory (项目反应理论)NR test = norm-referenced test (常模参照测验)CR test = criterion-referenced test (标准参照测验)CLA = communicative language ability (语言交际能力)CTS = classical true score theory (经典真分数理论)G-study = generalizability study (概化研究)D-study = decision study (决策研究)SEM = standard error measurement (标准误差测量)ICC = item characteristic curve (项目特征曲线)ACTFL = American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language(全美外语教学学会)TIF = test information function(测试信息功能)ANOV A = analysis of variance(方差分析)IELTS = International English Language Testing System (雅思考试) MTMM design = multitrait-multimethod designRL approach = real life approachIA approach = interactional/ability approach2、Give the Chinese or English version of the following terms. (1x10=10)结构主义/心理测量法the structuralist-psychometric approach定量评估方式quantitative modes of assessment考试后效作用washback effect语言磨蚀language attrition进行性评估formative evaluation终结性评估summative evaluation分离式考试discrete point test考试信度test reliability平行卷测试法parallel-form method共时效度concurrent validity构念效度construct validity因子分析factor analysis考试规范test specification考试命题细目表test development chart学期档案袋式评估portfolio整体评分法holistic scoring信息沟information gap转换分数weighted score标准分数standard score频数分布frequency distribution正态分布normal distribution易度指数或值item facility index or value题目区分度item discrimination区分度指数discrimination index干扰项/选择项分析distractor analysis3、Define the following terms. (4x5=20)(1)G-theory (概化理论)Generalizability theory (G-theory) provides a conceptual framework and a set of procedures for examining several different sources of measurement error simultaneously. Using G-theory, test developers can determine the relative effects, for example, of using different test forms, of giving a test more than once, or of using different scoring procedures, and can thus estimate the reliability, or generalizability, of tests more accurately. ‘G-theory’ has recently been used to analyze different sources of measurement error in subjective ratings of oral interviews and writing samples.(2) Item response theory (项目反应理论)Item response theory (IRT) is a powerful measurement theory that provides a superior means for estimating both the ability levels of test takers and the characteristics of test items (difficulty, discrimination). If certain specific conditions are satisfied, IRT estimates are not dependent upon specific samples, and are thus stable across different groups ofindividuals and across different test administrations. This makes it possible to tailor tests to individual test-takers’ levels of ability, and thus to design tests that are very efficient in the way they measure these abilities. These characteristics are particularly useful for developing computer-adaptive tests, and item response theory is being used increasingly in the development and analysis of language tests.(3)Pragmatic competence (语用能力)According to Van Dijk, pragmatics is concerned with the relationships between utterances and the acts or functions that speakers (or writers) intend to perform through these utterances, which can be called the illocutionary force of utterances, and the characteristics of the context of language use that determine the appropriateness of utterances. The notion of pragmatic competence presented here thus includes illocutionary competence, or the knowledge of pragmatic conventions for performing acceptable language functions, and sociolinguistic competence, or knowledge of the sociolinguistic conventions for performing language functions appropriately in a given context.(4)Sociolinguistic competence (社会语言能力)Sociolinguistic competence is the sensitivity to, or control of the conventions of language use that are determined by the features of the specific language use context; it enables us to perform language functions in ways that are appropriate to that context. This includes sensitivity to differences in dialect or variety, to differences in register and to naturalness, and the ability to interpret cultural references and figures of speech.(5)Spearman-Brown prophecy formulaSpearman-Brown prophecy formula yields a split-half reliability coefficient:r xx' = 2r hh'1 + r hh'where r hh' is the obtained correlation between the two halves of the test. Two assumptions must be met in order to use this method. First, they have equal means and variances. Second, the two halves are experimentally independent of each other.(6)Coefficient alphaCronbach (1951) developed a general formula for estimating internal consistency which he called‘coefficient alpha’, and which is often referred to as‘Cronbach’s alpha’:α =where k is the number of items on the test, Ʃs2i is the sum of the variances of the different parts of the test, and s2x is the variance of the test scores.(7)Construct validationConstruct validity concerns the extent to which performance on tests is consistent with predictions that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities, or constructs. A construct is defined as‘a postulated attribute of people, assumed to be reflected in test performance’. Thus, constructs can be viewed as definitions of abilities that permit us to state specific hypotheses about how these abilities are or are not related to other abilities, and about the relationship between these abilities and observed behavior.(8)Plato’s problemsThe Plato’s problem is also called the logical problem. This means the fact that children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples available. So when exposed to confusing information or when guidance or correction is not available, children, born with UG, can discover for themselves the underlying rules of the language system.4、Answer the following questions. (4x10=40)(1)What is strategic competence? Try to exemplify the influence of strategic competence on language test performance.Answer: One characteristic of recent frameworks of communicative competence is the recognition of language use as a dynamic process, involving the assessment of relevant information in the context, and a negotiation of meaning on the part of the language user. There have been two approaches to defining communication strategies: the‘interactional’definition and the‘psycholinguistic’definition. According to Canale, strategic competence refers to mastery of verbal and nonverbal strategies both (a) to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to insufficient competence or to performance limitations and (b) to enhance the rhetorical effect of utterances. So strategic competence is seen as the capacity that relates language competence, or knowledge of language, to the language user’s knowledge structures and the features of the context in which communication takes place. Strategic competence performs assessment, planning, and execution functions in determining the most effective means of achieving a communicative goal.②At this point we may well wonder about the extent to which strategic competence affects scores on language tests. Suppose that two nonnative speakers of a language were to take three tests: a test of usage, a test of contextualized receptive performance in which the scores are influenced in part by practical outcomes, and a test of productive oral performance. Suppose we find that the two subjects’scores are the same on the first two tests but different on the third. When we analyze tapes of the third test, we find that the more effective test taker made use of more of the various different ways of performing illocutionary acts than did the second, and that her propositions made more references to relevant objects in the environment. The less effective test taker just replied that she just didn’t think of them at the time, or she didn’t notice the objects in the environment, or It didn’t seem worth the effort. The more effective language user is more willing and adept at making use of what she knew was available in order to perform a function using language, but we would be reluctant to say that the two speakers’language competence differed.(2) How do tests differ from evaluations and measurements?Give some specific examples of the following:a. measures that are not testsb. measures that are not evaluativec. evaluation that does not involve measurement.Answer: The terms‘measurement’,‘test’, and‘evaluation’are often used synonymously. ①Measurement in the social sciences is the processof quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules.②According to Carroll, a psychological or educational test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual. ③According to Weiss, evaluation can be defined as the systematic gathering of information for the purpose of making decisions.④The relationships among measurement, tests, and evaluation are illustrated in the Figure. An example of evaluation that does not involve either tests or measures (area‘1’) is the use of qualitative descriptions of student performance for diagnosing learning problems. An example of a non-test measure for evaluation (area‘2’) is a teacher ranking used for assigning grades, while an example of a test used‘for purposes of evaluation (area‘3’) is the use of an achievement test to determine student progress. The most common non-evaluative uses of tests and measures are for research purposes. An example of tests that are not used for evaluation (area‘4’) is the use of a proficiency test as a criterion in second language acquisition research. Finally, assigning code numbers to subjects in second language research according to native language is an example of a non-test measure that is not used for evaluation (area‘5’). In summary, then, not all measures are tests, not all tests are evaluative, and not all evaluation involves either measurement or tests.(3)Comment the following statement.①There is an intrinsic reciprocal relationship between research in language acquisition and developments in language teaching on the one hand, and language testing on the other.②Language testing both serves and is served by research in language acquisition and language teaching.Answer:①Language tests are frequently used as criterion measures of language abilities in second language acquisition research. Similarly, language tests can be valuable sources of information about the effectiveness of learning and teaching. Language teachers regularly use tests to help diagnose student strengths and weaknesses, to assess student progress, and to assist in evaluating student achievement. Language tests are also frequently used as sources of information in evaluating the effectiveness of different approaches to language teaching. As sources of feedback on learning and teaching, language tests can thus provide useful input into the process of language teaching.②Conversely, insights gained from language acquisition research and language teaching practice can provide valuable information for designing and developing more useful tests. For example, insights about the effects of cognitive and personality characteristics on second language acquisition have led language testers to investigate the extent to which these factors also affect performance on various types of language tests. And more recently, language testers have begun discussing the idea that levels of second language ability may be related to developmental sequences that characterize second language acquisition. Bachman reviews areas of interface between language testing and second language acquisition research, concluding that research in areas of common concern employing a wide range of research designs and methods is likely to advance knowledge in both fields. New views of language teaching practice can also inform language test development. Much of the development in ‘communicative’language testing in the past decade is derived directly from the‘communicative’view of language teaching espoused by applied linguists.③Thus, advances in language testing do not take place in a vacuum; they are stimulated by advances in our understanding of the processes of language acquisition and language teaching. And developments in language testing can provide both practical tools and theoretical insights for further research and development in language acquisition and language teaching.(3)Explain the following two formulas.(1) X = X t + X e(2) S2x = S2t + S2e①Classical true score (CTS) measurement theory consists of a set of assumptions about the relationships between actual, or observed test scores and the factors that affect these scores. The first assumption of this model states that an observed score on a test comprises two factors or components: a true score that is due to an individual’s level of ability and an error score, that is due to factors other than the ability being tested.This assumption can be represented in the formulaX = X t + X ewhere X is the observed score, X t is the true score, and X e the error score.②Similarly, we can characterize the variance of a set of test scores as consisting of two components:S2x = S2t + S2ewhere S2x is the observed score variance, S2t is the true score variance component, and S2e is the error score variance component.A second set of assumptions has to do with the relationship between true and error scores. Error scores are unsystematic, or random, and are uncorrelated with true scores.The true score variance is due to differences in the ability of the individuals tested.(4)Study the following items and their response cards. Calculate their respective FV-value D-index, and try to analyze the data according to what you’ve obtained.5、Translate the following into Chinese.(1) ①In addition to addressing the problems just mentioned, language testers, as applied linguists, must respond to the practical need for more appropriate measures of language abilities for use in language acquisitionand language attrition research, language program evaluation, and for making decisions about individuals’attained levels of competency with respect to various educational and employment requirements. I believe that most language tests currently available are inappropriate for these purposes because they are based on a model of language ability that does not include the full range of abilities required for communicative language use, and they incorporate norm-referenced principles of test development and interpretation.The main thrust of my discussion of this theme is as follows. Some of the factors that affect scores on language tests are potentially within our control and some are not. Random factors, such as temporary fluctuations in test takers’physical condition or mental alertness, and breakdowns in equipment, are by their very nature unpredictable, and hence uncontrollable. The influence on language test performance of personal attributes, such as sex, age, native language and cultural background, background knowledge, and field independence are beginning to be better understood, but there are few contexts in which these can be practically controlled in the design and use of language tests. That leaves us with the characteristics, or‘facets’, of the test method and communicative language ability, which, I argue, are two factors that we can and must attempt to control in the design and use of language tests.(2) Apologia et prolegomenonThere seems to be perennial discontent, both among language teachers and among developers of language tests themselves, with the enterprise of language testing.This dissatisfaction has been voiced since, and is clearly evident in much of the discussion of communicative or authentic tests that has taken place since Morrow’s (1979) seminal and controversial paper entitled,‘Communicative language testing: revolution or evolution?’In a recent review article, Canale (1988) discusses a number of problems that continue to perplex the field, not the least of which are related to how we define language ability and how to gather information that is relevant to its assessment. But as Canale also points out, there have been solid achievements in these areas as well. To the credit of language testers,the debate about the fundamental considerations of language testing over the years has been motivated and informed, by and large, by both a sincere interest in better understanding the nature of language abilities and their measurement, and a genuine desire to develop language tests that better reflect our knowledge of what language and language use are, that exhibit the essential psychometric qualities of reliability and validity, and which are also usable. That we are not well understood by our clients and fellow applied linguists is to be expected, since it is merely a reflection of our own uncertainties. That we are sometimes viewed as either callous and indifferent to the larger issues of language teaching, applied linguistics, and educational policy, or as pie-in-the-sky ivory-tower number crunchers is simply misinformed and unfair.。
《人的动机理论》（Thetheoryofhumanmotivation）
《人的动机理论》（The theory of human motivation）Error and amendment of Maslow's theory of human motivationMaslow "s theory of motivation" error correction and its author: a remarkable feature of hatred within distinguish man from the lower animal, is relative to the objective needs of animal has more forms and more levels of. However, what caused the difference between humans and animals? How should the level of human needs be objectively divided? What is the logical relationship between the hierarchy of needs? Obviously, the solution of these problems is of great significance for revealing the mystery of human beings, exploring the phenomenon of human value and the law of change of motion. Many scholars (especially Maslow) have made a lot of research, and many different conclusions, but almost all of the conclusions are based on subjective experience and intuitive feeling it, without sufficient theoretical basis, its reasoning logic does not follow the strict procedure, thus unable to determine and verify its correctness. Some scholars even believe that these problems themselves are a purely subjective problem, and there is no objective and unified answer. First, the debate about the hierarchy of human needs is very different about the division of human needs. It is divided into six levels: the food and clothing needs, safety and health needs, and enjoy the aesthetic needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-expression needs; is divided into five levels: Food and clothing needs, safety and health needs, and enjoy the aesthetic need, need, love and respect yourself some people realized; divided into four levels: physiological needs, safety and health needs, belongingness and love needs,self-expression needs; and so on, these classification methodsare lack of necessary theoretical basis. At present, people generally accepted the theory of human motivation put forward by American psychologist Maslow in 50s". He divides human needs into five levels: physiological needs, safety needs, love needs, respect needs, and self actualization needs. However, Maslow did not discuss why his division, this division method is not based on logical reasoning, more is based on their perceptual experience, lack of necessary theoretical basis, people cannot use the theory to affirm it or deny it, but according to practical experience and intuitive sense of it. It is not difficult to find, this division is the main method of different external characteristic parameters according to different needs in the process of human survival and development has (such as importance, persistence, extensive and profound) to carry out, and these differences in external characteristic parameters which can not accurately reflect the intrinsic logic relation between the various needs. Obviously, the division level must be in accordance with the need of internal factors that need to objective causes, can correctly reflect the intrinsic logic relation between the various needs, the resulting "needs theory" or "motivation theory" is objective and scientific. The author believes that human needs should be divided and divided into four levels, namely, food and clothing, health and safety, self-esteem and respect, self development and self actualization needs. This conclusion is consistent with Maslow's theory of motivation comparison, the main difference is: love need not classified as a level, to a level, with respect to need, respect need can be divided into works in the opposite direction of the two aspects of the need for self-esteem and respect need. I also think, can not be "aesthetic and enjoy" alone into a hierarchy, and because theaesthetic enjoyment is in need to be generated to meet after the emotional experience, it is not an objective need, but a subjective reflection of all forms and all levels of needs are met in all it will make people produce emotional experience and aesthetic enjoyment. Two, the theoretical basis of the division of human needs hierarchy, to know how to divide the hierarchy of needs, we must first understand the objective nature of needs. According to the theory of unified value, the objective essence of human needs is the value demanded by the human subject for the improvement of its essential force, and for the individual,In order to improve their ability to work, the value of the use of living materials requirements. Generally speaking, people's consumption of various subsistence motive is to meet various subjective desires or their subjective and objective need, is to maintain and develop their own ability to work, the objective is to direct motive potential labor itself accumulate necessary machine. Practice shows that different types of living materials satisfy people's different levels of subjective needs, and form different levels of labor potential, and serve the different levels of labor ability. Therefore, the hierarchical structure of labor ability determines the structure of labor potential, the hierarchical structure of labor potential determines the structure of life information, life information hierarchy determines the hierarchy of human needs. The ability to work can be divided into four basic levels: 1, the bio chemical reaction ability ", is based on energy metabolism rate of the main scale, reflects the ability for the use of food energy and its substitute. 2, the "individual labor ability", which is the physical, mental and physical strength, complexity and proficiency as the main scale, reflects theability of people to the nature of various physical, chemical and biological nature and strength. 3, the "social work", which is the social influence (such as power, prestige, reputation and personality etc.) as the main scale, reflects the people for social law and social power ability. 4, the "ideal labor ability", which is the force of faith (such as religious belief, outlook on life and world view) as the main scale, reflects the people for social progress and the law of human development and power control ability. According to the four different levels of labor ability, labor potential can be divided into four basic types, means of subsistence is correspondingly divided into four basic types, the subjective need is accordingly divided into four basic levels. Three, the four basic types of labor potential (I) physiological labor potential. The part of labor potential that is used to maintain and develop people's "biochemical reaction ability" is called "physiological labor potential". All human activities are based on the basic biochemical reactions, and only with the basic biochemical reaction ability, people can have more advanced behavior and thinking ability. Biochemical reactions in organisms can exhibit organisms for external energy exchange, is the biological chemical reaction can use total quantity to describe energy metabolism, biochemical reaction ability can be used to describe the energy metabolism rate. The physiological potential of labor is the accumulation of people's consumption of physiological living materials (such as food, air, water, salt, clothes, etc.). The physiological data is based on the life of food energy as the core, all other non food energy in the form of physical life can be replaced by the food energy to a certain extent and compensation, physical labor potential generated can be converted into certain food energy. (two)individual labor potential. The labor potential that is used to maintain and develop the individual labor ability is called the individual labor potential. In the physiological condition of the natural environment and people in general, not all physical labor potential can eventually transformed into individual actual labor potential, this is because human life is limited, any person at any time are possible because of security reasons for health reasons inside and outside and the loss of their labor ability, failure rate is the accumulation of personal physical labor potential there will always be a certain size. The failure rate is called the failure rate of life "(failure rate or physiology), it consists of two parts: the failure rate of internal life, it is made up of individual health state to decide; the failure rate of the external life, it is the safety performance by the individual to determine the natural environment. Therefore, the objective of individual labor ability is to improve the utilization rate of biochemical reaction ability, and the objective of individual labor potential is to improve the utilization rate of physiological labor potential.The living materials used to reduce the rate of human life failure are called health related living materials; the data used to reduce the failure rate of human external life are called safe living materials. For example, nutrients, security facilities, labor protection products, comfortable clothing, aesthetic works, elegant environment can maintain and improve people's health and environmental safety performance to a certain extent. (three) socialized labor potential. The part of labor potential that is used to maintain and develop "socialized labor capacity" is called socialized laborpotential. In the general social environment, not all of the individual labor potential can eventually transformed into the social recognition of the ability to work, this is because any individual will because of some internal and external, the labor positions can not completely match with the ability to work, or can not find the release ability of labor labor post, resulting in individual labor potential part of the failure and the failure rate of the waste, the accumulation of personal individual labor potential always do not match labor jobs have a certain size. The failure rate is referred to as the "social failure rate", it consists of two parts: the internal social failure rate, it is made up of individual preference for society to decide, depends on the size of the love and respect of others or the society; the external social failure rate, it is by choice Society for the individual to decide, depends on the size of the society for love and respect for the individual level. If a person has a higher degree of love and respect for society or others, he will be on every possible occasion actively for the society or others to contribute their strength, consciously put all their individual needs and social labor potential or others combine to achieve his best choice of labor jobs. In order to make the individual labor potential as much as possible into the society or others useful labor; if society has a higher degree of love and respect for the people, will provide jobs for him in all possible conditions, provide favorable conditions for his playing ability and cleverness, combine to make all of his individual labor potential as much as possible needs or the needs of others and the society, the individual labor potential as much as possible into social recognition Work ability. Therefore, the objective purpose of socialized labor ability is to improve the utilization rate of individuallabor capacity, and the objective objective of social labor potential is to improve the utilization rate of individual labor potential. The living materials used to reduce the internal social failure rate of people are called self esteem living materials; the living materials used to reduce the external social failure rate of human beings are called the life data of human dignity. For example, certificates, bonuses, honors, job titles, titles, etc., can reflect and change the respect for the individual to a certain extent, and can meet the needs of people for respect and respect. (four) ideal labor potential. The part of labor potential that is used to maintain and develop "idealized labor capacity" is called idealized labor potential. In the general social and historical conditions, not all of the social labor potential can eventually transformed into useful for the survival and development of human labor ability, really for human progress and social development, this is because any society will exist various social ills in any historical period, such as corruption, rigid thinking, unfair distribution, these social ills will guide social labor potential investment unreasonable production and consumption caused by the loss and waste, the reasons for internal and external social association, part of the social labor potential does not comply with the development of human beings and society really need or want. There is a certain size and the failure rate, the failure rate is called the "ideal failure rate", it is by the society for the ideal goal of human choice tendency The size of the decision depends on the extent to which the actual operation of the society conforms to the ideal goal of human beings. If a person can establish a correct outlook on life, the correct belief in life,The development of human and society as their mission in life; the development direction according to the correct belief in life to establish their own pursuit of occupation and the ability to work; according to the objective need of social development to release all of their labor ability; "self" melt in the long history of human development, so he caused the society the potential loss and waste will be greatly reduced, thus forming the largest ideal labor ability. If a society can correctly understand its historical mission, to make their own social behavior in line with the objective needs of human progress and social development, is committed to the peaceful coexistence of foreign, security and stability, is committed to the development of economic construction, population control and scientific and cultural undertakings, so it caused the social labor potential loss and waste will be reduced to a minimum; on the contrary, if a wrong understanding of its historical mission, put a lot of manpower, material and financial resources to engage in foreign aggression, to engage in persecution, neglecting the development of economic construction, population control and scientific and cultural undertakings, so it caused social labor the potential loss and waste will be greatly enhanced. Therefore, the objective purpose of the ideal labor ability is to improve the utilization rate of socialized labor capacity, and the objective objective of the ideal labor potential is to improve the utilization rate of social labor potential. For the ideal labor potential means of life is called "ideal type" or "self realization" of life, it can be an external religious culture, knowledge of the humanities, can also be through the personal understanding of thinking inside the brain and the formation of the highest belief and pursuit of life. To sum up, the power of human natureis from low level to high level gradually developed to high level, the objective essential strength is in wider range, more durable, more reliable maintenance and more efficient use of low levels of essential strength. Correspondingly, the labor potential is from low level to high level gradually developed, an objective of high level labor potential is in wider range, more durable, more reliable maintenance and more efficient use of low level labor potential. Four, different hierarchy of needs logic to sum up, there are progressive logic relationship between the four hierarchy of needs: (1) whether it is from the time evolution of the whole human point of view, or from the time order of the individual growth, or from the need to meet the priority order, need is always from low level to high the level gradually developed. (2) the lower needs basis of advanced needs, the need for advanced development and sublimation lower need, is to lower the need for greater range of time and space that can make the senior need lower needs can be more reliable and more lasting satisfaction. Health and safety needs to ensure that people need to eat more reliably and more lasting satisfaction; self-esteem and respect for people to meet the needs of the class can ensure that people need of food, health and safety are more reliable, more lasting satisfaction; self realization class can ensure people to meet the needs of the the food and clothing, health and safety, self esteem and respect people need to need more reliable, more satisfied. (3) to meet the needs of the senior with lower gradually, and with the blocked lower need gradually decline, but the senior need is relatively independent to a certain extent, the specific performance: when the lower needs are fully met when suddenly, senior need not immediately formed and stabilized; when the lower needs the meeting is blocked, seniorneed not immediately disappear; sometimes the need for advanced lower needs is a reaction to a certain extent or negative effects, people tend to be able to meet the needs of the senior one, at the expense of lower need completely. For example, people sometimes sacrifice their own health and safety, even sacrifice their lives for some kind of social honor and some ethical concepts. (4) the growth of low level labor ability is strictly restricted by the physiological limit, and the higher the level of labor ability is, the weaker the physiological limit is,As a result, there is a growing trend of growth, and the growth of people's labor ability is mainly through the growth of high-level labor capacity. Therefore, the development of the minimum level of human needs is very limited, only the highest level of development and change is unlimited, the higher the level of demand, the more free space for its development and change. (5) differences in the physiological structure and function of the people is weak, and the differences in the social role and function is usually huge, so that people in the gap between low level of labor capacity is small, while in the high level of labor ability gap is huge, so it is small in the low level to the gap, and at a high level to the gap is often huge. (6) due to high level of labor capacity growth mainly depend on social forces or other forces, which requires better coordination between people and interests, and consciously with the interests of others together, so the labor ability is stronger, more consciously to become representative of the interests of others and society the interests of the "utilitarian view" will be more extensive, more consciously get rid of the temptation of self-interest, more considerate ofothers to make their own individual needs consciously consistent with social needs or the needs of others. (Chinese value theory research network: ) (next page)CThis information comes from the internet. Personal collection。
OH_压疮评估表在社区卧床老年人中的应用效果评价
·全科医疗和社区护理·OH压疮评估表在社区卧床老年人中的应用效果评价周叶陈涛（上海市徐汇区长桥街道社区卫生服务中心社区护理部，上海200233）摘 要 目的：研究OH压疮评估表在社区卧床老年患者中的压疮危险程度预测效果。
方法：选择2021年1月—2021年8月卧床老年人80例，采用OH压疮评估表和改良Braden评分表进行压疮危险评估。
结果：OH压疮评估表的复测信度为0.975；改良的Braden复测信度为0.945。
OH评分量表调查结果与压疮发生的符合率、敏感度高于改良Braden评分表；护士使用OH压疮评估表的一致性较改良Braden评分表好。
结论：OH压疮评估表预测社区卧床老年患者压疮危险程度的能力优于改良Braden评分表。
关键词压疮；OH压疮评估表；改良Braden评分表；社区卧床老年人中图分类号：R473.74文献标志码：A文章编号：1006-1533（2022）16-0035-03引用本文周叶, 陈涛. OH压疮评估表在社区卧床老年人中的应用效果评价[J]. 上海医药, 2022, 43(16): 35-37, 45. Application effect evaluation of OH pressure ulcer evaluation form in the communitybedridden elderly peopleZHOU Ye, CHEN Tao(Community Nursing Department of Changqiao Community Health Service Center of Xuhui District, Shanghai 200233, China) ABSTRACT Objective: To study the prediction effect of OH pressure ulcer evaluation form on the pressure ulcer risk in the community bedridden elderly patients. Methods: Eighty elderly bedridden cases from January 2021 to August 2021 were selected, and the OH pressure ulcer evaluation form and the improved Braden scale were used to assess the pressure ulcer risk.Results: The retest reliability of the OH pressure ulcer evaluation form was 0.975; the retest reliability of the improved Braden was 0.945. The coincidence rate and sensitivity of the survey results of the OH score scale with the occurrence of pressure ulcers were higher than those of the modified Braden score scale; the consistency of nurses’ OH pressure ulcer evaluation form was better than that of modified Braden scale. Conclusion: OH pressure ulcer evaluation form is superior to the modified Braden scale in predicting the pressure ulcer risk of community bedridden elderly patients.KEY WORDS pressure ulcer; OH pressure ulcer evaluation form; improved Braden scale; community bedridden elderly people随着老龄化社会的到来，2019年中国65岁及以上人口为17 603万人，占比12.6%，80岁及以上高龄老人超过3 200万人，占比2.3%[1]。
全面的学界保健教育培训评估英文版
全面的学界保健教育培训评估英文版Comprehensive Evaluation of Academic Health Education TrainingIn today's fast-paced world, the importance of health education and training in academic settings cannot be overstated. As educators strive to equip students with the knowledge and skills necessary to lead healthy lives, it is crucial to assess the effectiveness of these programs through comprehensive evaluations.A comprehensive evaluation of academic health education training involves examining various components, such as curriculum design, teaching methods, student engagement, and learning outcomes. By assessing these aspects, educators can identify strengths and weaknesses in the program and make necessary improvements to enhance the overall learning experience.One key aspect of evaluating academic health education training is collecting feedback from students, instructors, and other stakeholdersinvolved in the program. This feedback can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of the curriculum, teaching methods, and overall program structure. By soliciting feedback from multiple sources, educators can gain a more holistic understanding of the program's impact on student learning and development.In addition to collecting feedback, evaluations should also include assessments of student performance and knowledge retention. By measuring student outcomes, educators can determine whether the program is effectively meeting its intended goals and objectives. These assessments can take the form of exams, quizzes, projects, or other assignments that measure students' understanding of key health concepts and principles.Furthermore, evaluations should also consider the overall learning environment and resources available to students. Factors such as classroom facilities, technology access, and support services can all impact the effectiveness of academic health education training. By assessing these external factors, educators can identify areas forimprovement and make necessary adjustments to enhance the learning environment for students.In conclusion, a comprehensive evaluation of academic health education training is essential for ensuring the effectiveness and success of these programs. By examining various components, collecting feedback, assessing student outcomes, and considering the learning environment, educators can make informed decisions to improve the overall quality of health education in academic settings.。
激光对鳞片石墨改性酚醛树脂涂层的损伤机理
ＭＡＣｈｅｎ，ＭＡＺｈｕａｎｇ ，ＧＡＯＬｉｈｏｎｇ，ＷＡＮＧＦｕｃｈｉ （ＳｃｈｏｏｌｏｆＭａｔｅｒｉａｌｓＳｃｉｅｎｃｅａｎｄＥｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎｇ，ＢｅｉｊｉｎｇＩｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｏｆＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００８１，Ｃｈｉｎａ）
收稿日期：２０１６１０２４；修订日期：２０１６１２０２ 基金项目：国家自然科学基金资助项目（Ｎｏ．５１３０２０１３）
ＳｕｐｐｏｒｔｅｄｂｙＮａｔｉｏｎａｌＮａｔｕｒａｌＳｃｉｅｎｃｅＦｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｏｆＣｈｉｎａ（Ｎｏ．５１３０２０１３）
２５０
中国光学
第 １０卷
图 ２ 损伤区域表面形貌 Ｆｉｇ．２ Ｓｕｒｆａｃｅｍｏｒｐｈｏｌｏｇｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｄａｍａｇｅａｒｅａ
为了具体观 察 （ｂ）中 烧 蚀 凹 坑 的 尺 寸 形 貌， 本文使用超景深三维显微镜对其辐照中心区域进 行了三维成像，如图 ３所示，根据三维显微图像可 以看出该区域直径为 ３６５ｍｍ，对比束斑直径为 １２ｍｍ，可知烧蚀凹坑范围较小，仅发生在热量不
（北京理工大学 材料科学与工程学院，北京 １０００８１）
摘要：为了分析高能激光对鳞片石墨改性酚醛树脂涂层的损伤机理，本文采用激光辐照方法研究激光对该涂层的损伤过 程。首先，制备出纯酚醛树脂涂层和鳞片石墨改性酚醛树脂涂层，使用不同的激光参数进行激光辐照实验，根据损伤区 域形貌和损伤面积分析鳞片石墨的对涂层的改性作用，分析损伤区域微观形貌和内部残炭的石墨化程度，通过对损伤中 心进行三维成像来分析烧蚀凹坑的尺寸与烧蚀深度。最后，根据不同颜基比涂层在激光辐照过程中损伤区域的面积和 显微形貌，分析了颜基比对激光损伤涂层过程的影响。分析结果表明：酚醛树脂经激光辐照后会裂解生成石墨化程度不 同的残炭，经鳞片石墨添加改性后，损伤区域的面积相比于纯酚醛树脂涂层最大可增加 ３５ｍｍ２。由此可知鳞片石墨的 添加改性增强了涂层的横向散热能力，但过高的颜基比会使具有粘附作用的残炭生成量减少，进而导致鳞片石墨脱落明 显，涂层损伤严重。 关 键 词：高能激光；损伤机理；鳞片石墨；颜基比 中图分类号：ＴＰ３９４．１；ＴＨ６９１．９ 文献标识码：Ａ ｄｏｉ：１０．３７８８／ＣＯ．２０１７１００２．０２４９
效果评估的意义相关短语
效果评估的意义相关短语意义1.使用：应用方法，理论应用于具体实践。
2.具有实用价值的：应用文，基础理论和应用技术同样重要。
相关短语1.Efficacy Evaluation Of Applying Organic Sulfide Fumigants To Plant Pathogens-Polluted Soil In Vegetable Greenhouse有机硫熏蒸剂在设施蔬菜土壤生物污染治理中应用效果评估2.Applying Multinomial Logit Model To Evaluate The Effects Of Sales Promotion;应用Multinomial Logit模型定量评估销售促销效果3.The Demonstration Study Of The Model For Advertisement Communicating Effect Evaluating;广告传播效果评估模型及其应用研究4.Application Of Eye-Graph Analysis Method In Jamming Effect Evaluation眼图分析法在干扰效果评估中的应5.Performance Evaluation In ATR Through Application Of Comprehensive Weight Variation Fuzzy Evaluation应用变权模糊综合评判的目标识别效果评估6.Application Of Validity Index In Evaluating The Effect Of LASIK有效性指数在评估LASIK手术效果中的应用价值7.The Application Of IDC Evaluation In The Evaluation On Training Effectiveness Of Human Resource In Public Sector;同异反评估法在公共部门人力资源培训效果评估中的应用8.Real Ear Measurement Use For Hearing Aid Evaluation And Selection真耳分析在助听器效果评估及选配中的应用9.The Application Of The Method Of Entropy Two-Base-Point In The Assessing Of The Effects Of Internet Advertising;熵权双基点法在网络广告效果评估中的应用10.The Effect Assessment Of Teeth Whitening And Clinical Application Research Of Colourometric Principles牙齿美白的效果评估及色度学原理的临床应用。
论语言测试的反拨效应
校园英语 /论语言测试的反拨效应新疆石河子职业技术学院/马虹【摘要】测试对教学和学习所产生的影响，被称为反拨效应。
积极反拨作用可以促进教学的发展，而消极反拨作用则可能影响甚至误导教学。
本文从三个方面说明语言测试的理论及其测试对语言教学的反拨效应。
文章最后提出如何提高积极的反拨效应，促进语言教学。
【关键词】语言测试 反拨效应 语言教学一、引言考试所产生的最直接的结果之一就是它会影响教师和学生对待教与学的态度，从而促使教师改进教学方法，学生更加努力学习。
如果把考试当做是一个促进教学革新的手段，那么它的影响范围除了教师和学生外，还包括学校的管理者、教学大纲的制定者、教材的编写和出版者甚至是教学的研究者。
影响教育过程的现象在应用语言学领域被称为考试的反拨效应(washback effect)。
对反拨效应最早的研究可以追溯到 1877年。
Latham(1877)认为考试不仅仅影响了教师、学生、家长和教材的编写者，还影响了公众对教育的看法。
本文主要从理论方面对反拨效应进行了探讨，为后续的反拨效应实证研究提供一定的理论基础，同时也为外语教学提供目标与方向，改进我们的教学和测试。
二、反拨效应的理论研究1.反拨效应假设。
语言测试的反拨作用(w a s h b a c k effect)，一般被定义为考试对教学的积极和消极的反馈作用。
20 世纪 90 年代，西方语言专家就相继提出了关于语言测试的反拨效应的不同理论模式，其中最为著名的是Alderson &Wall的反拨假设。
他们提出以下 15 个反拨效应假设( Washback Hypothesis)，勾勒出了对这一领域进行研究的大致轮廓：1)测试会影响教学；2)测试会影响学习；3)测试会影响教师的教学内容；4)测试会影响教师的教学方法；5)测试会影响学生的学习内容；6)测试会影响学生的学习方法；7)测试会影响教学的速度和顺序；8)测试会影响学习的速度和顺序；9)测试会影响教学的程度和深度；10)测试会影响学习的程度和深度；11)测试会影响教学和学习的态度；12)重要的测试才会有反拨效应；13)不重要的测试不会有反拨效应；14)测试会对所有学生和教师产生反拨效应；15)测试只对学生和教师产生反拨效应，不会对其他人产生反拨效应。
大学英语四级考试对于大学英语教学的反拨效应研究(英文)
1. Introduction
T he phenomenon of how external tests influence teach in g an d learning is common ly described as “w ashback” in language ins truction . A lthough a great body of s tudies related to th e effects of extern al tests h as been carried out in recen t d ecades ( e . g. Alderson 1986 ;Smith 1991 ; Sh ohamy 1993 ) , no definitive agreement has b een reach ed . Some researchers h ave poin ted out that external tes ts exert b eneficial w ashback effects such as setting meaningful st and ards , promoting account abilit y of s chools and teachers for studentslearning and stimulating major educational reform ( H erman &Golan 1991) . H owever , some researchers pinpointed negative impacts such as teach ersneglecting s ome t eaching materials , n arrowing of curricula and th e auth orit at ive con trol on education . T herefore , th is study w as design ed and exp ected t o add to t he existing literature on tes tin g wash back in an “En glish as a foreign L anguage” context an d provide different levels of educational part ies involved in college En glish education with information regardin g how curriculum standards an d examination objectives migh t be int erpreted . More importantly , the fin din gs sh ould contribute to bridging the gaps betw een th e educational parties and ultimately lead to an imp rovemen t of CET 4 and college E nglish education . T he phenomenon of testing wash back is more complex t han common ly assert ed . It is common to s ay th at tests have both negative an d pos it ive influences on education .Th e n otion of positive or negative washback is often associated with t he quality of tests ; that is , a poor test is asserted to con ceive negative
英语测试与评价 chapter3语言测试基本要素
▪ Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure [… and] is a type of validity evidence.’
Rose et al. (2019: 71-2)
▪ Reliability essentially denotes ‘consistency, stability, dependability, and accuracy of assessment results’ (McMillan, 2001a, p.65 in Brown, G. et al, 2008). Since there is tremendous variability from either teacher or tester to teacher/tester that affects student performance, thus reliability in planning, implementing, and scoring student performances gives rise to valid assessment.
▪ Note down what you think reliability and validity might mean in the context of test design. ▪ Discuss your ideas with the people in your group.
▪ ‘If a test measures consistently (if, for example, a person’s score on the test is likely to be very similar, regardless of whether they happen to take it on, say, Monday morning rather than on Tuesday afternoon, assuming that there has been no significant change in their ability) it is said to be reliable. Reliability,…, is an absolutely essential quality of tests – what use is a test if it will give widely differing estimates of an individual’s (unchanged) ability?’
高考英语阅卷作文双评阈值
高考英语阅卷作文双评阈值The issue of the threshold for the double marking of English essay papers in the college entrance examination (gaokao) has been a topic of debate and concern among educators and students alike. The threshold, which refers to the minimum score difference required between the first and second markers of an essay for it to undergo a third review, plays a crucial role in ensuring fairness and accuracy in the assessment of students' writing abilities.高考英语作文阅卷双评阈值的问题一直是教育工作者和学生关注的焦点。
阈值是指作文第一评与第二评之间的最低分差，当作文两次评分之差超过阈值时，该篇作文字会进行第三次评分，这对保证学生写作能力的公平和准确评估具有至关重要的作用。
On one hand, a high threshold is seen as a way to ensure the reliability and consistency of the marking process, as it indicates that the two markers have reached a similar assessment of the essay. This helps in maintaining the overall standard of evaluation and prevents any unjustified fluctuations in the scores. However, a high thresholdmay also lead to a lower rate of essays being re-marked, potentially overlooking errors or discrepancies in the initial assessments.一方面，高阈值被视为确保阅卷过程的可靠性和一致性的一种途径，因为它表明两位评分者对作文达成了类似的评估。
高考英语测试对高中英语教学的反拨效应研究
高考英语测试对高中英语教学的反拨效应研究IntroductionEducation is a fundamental aspect of society that shapes the future of individuals, communities, and nations. In recent years, one of the primary measures of the success of a student's education has been standardized tests, such as the high school graduation exams or the college entrance exams. Standardized testing has become the norm within the education system globally. While these tests have been created with the intention of determining student preparedness, they have created negative consequences, especially when it comes to high school English education. This essay aims to examine the adverse effects of standardized testing on high school English education, and how it affects student cognition, classroom experiences, and the overall education system.Adverse effects of standardized testing on high school English Education1. Narrow FocusOne of the primary negative effects of standardized testing is that it results in a narrow focus on specific subjects that students are required to be tested on. This focus mostly eliminates the inclusion of other creative activities such as storytelling, poetry, and public speaking. High school English classes become more mechanical rather than insightful, and students may not develop important critical thinking skills, which are important in the practical world.2. Reduced Classroom TimeThe high school English curriculum is usually broad due to the numerous literacy concepts and skills covered. However standardized testing limits the amount of time that students can spend on each topic. This situation forces teachers to focus only on testable content, which on occasions includes only short readings, multiple-choice questions, vocabulary, and basic grammar skills. The time lost in preparation for these tests greatly affects the quality of high school English education.3. Rote MemorizationAnother disadvantage of standardized testing is that it heavily emphasizes retention of information through rote memorization. This method does not support the development of authentic learning experiences, one of which is the ability to use knowledge applicably. This outcome can lead to a lack of engagement and motivation in students concerning learning of important concepts in English class.4. Undermining of classroom learningStandardized testing mostly assesses the student's cognitive capacity in a restricted way, hence giving little attention to their ability to apply learned concepts outside the classroom. This situation makes it harder for teachers to develop curriculum that cater to students' unique interests and abilities. In turn, this leads to students who become overly reliant on test-based assessments at the expense of genuine learning experiences.5. Reduced instructional qualityPedagogical approach alteration in classrooms preparing students for standardized tests is most evident in reduced instructional quality. Teachers focus on revising testable content, practicing test-taking skills, and competing with other teachers and high schools on test score grades. Therefore, limited attention is given to construct student-led learning that content is relevant to their daily lives. This attitude is detrimental to high school students' intellectual and creative development.6. Narrow Usage of the curriculumStandardized testing reduces the high school English curriculum to a selective few subjects that are in line with what is to be tested. This situation gives no room for exploration, and learning that is not in line with what is tested is rarely explored. For instance, while standardized testing has a bias for grammar instruction, it downplays critical reading, creative writing, and oral presentation skills, all of which are critical components of English instruction.ConclusionThe effect of standardized testing on high school English education is negative. Education stakeholders must start to consider meaningful instructional strategies while valuing the diversity of student populations. Standardized testing must no longer be the only criteria for assessing high school students' preparedness for higher education or employment. As such, the development of engaged and critical thinkers should be the primary goal of Englishinstruction, and not test scores.Effects of Standardized Testing on Student CognitionStandardized testing has been shown to narrow the focus of high school English education to such an extent that critical thinking processes are often minimized, if not eliminated altogether. In effect, students are taught to think within the parameters of the standardized test, which can prevent them from reflecting on the material and choosing different approaches to get to their conclusions. By overemphasizing memory retention, standardized tests fail to encourage students to analyze and synthesize knowledge, which impairs their long-term learning capacity.Moreover, students who are not adept at taking standardized tests tend to perform poorly on them, reducing their motivation for learning altogether. While such students may still have sound knowledge of the subject material, these achievements often go unrecognized. Consequently, such students may go on to struggle with other academic subjects as a result of reduced confidence and self-esteem levels.Classroom ExperiencesThe negative effects of standardized testing are also seen in high school English classrooms. Teacher-centered instruction that focuses solely on what needs to be measured in the test takes precedence over interactive, student-centered learning. The result is a restricted learning environment with limited opportunities for students to engage and construct their own understanding of the material. In this environment, students become disengaged and lessinvested in the educational process.Standardized testing can also encourage a culture of 'cramming' where students learn last-minute and are fixated on the grade rather than the understanding of the subject material. Rather than learning actual skills, students become skilled at identifying the right answer from multiple choices, which does not always correlate with real-world problems or scenarios.The education system overallStandardized testing, while not inherently bad or flawed, has been implemented with limited flexibility and applied in an arbitrary manner. Standardized exams have become the embodiment of a high-stakes culture that is tied to funding, teacher performance ratings, and even school closures. Thus, the implicit message that seeps through classrooms is that test scores are more important than learning itself.Educational policymakers must recognize that students are more than merely test scores and value them as such. They should also recognize that test scores alone do not provide a complete picture of student learning. Instead, educators must foster a culture where assessment and evaluation are based on a balanced approach, which takes into account other factors such as student portfolios, projects, and teacher evaluations.ConclusionIn summary, standardized testing has been shown to have negativeeffects on high school English education. The consequences of this approach are many, including reducing the curriculum to a few standardized subjects, lowering instructional quality, and impacting student cognition. The narrow focus of standardized tests can undermine the larger goal of education, which is to promote learning, critical thinking, and creativity. Efforts must be made to reduce the impact of standardized tests on education and value the diversity and talents of all students. Teachers should also be given the freedom to design engaging and appropriately challenging English instruction, that caters to the needs of all students.As an AI language model, I am not capable of having preferences as humans do. However, based on research and data, standardized testing has been shown to have negative effects on student cognition and educational quality. It is important to recognize these issues and work towards implementing more balanced and diverse approaches to assessment and evaluation.。
从交际能力角度研究大学英语四级考试的反拨效应
28.Richards J.T Rodgers Approaches and Method in Language Teaching 1986
29.Shu Baimei.Chen Youlin Teaching Methodology 1999
35.Watanabe Y Does grammar translation come from the entrance examination? Preliminary findings from classroom-based research 1996(03)
36.Watanabe Y Investigating washback in Japanese EFL classrooms:problems of methodology[ED 208-239] 1996
32.Spolsky B The examination- classroom backwash cycle:Some historical cases 1994
33.Xu Dongfeng Communicative Language Testing 2002(02)
34.Wall D Impact and Washback in Language Testing 1997
26.Prodromou L The washback effect:From testing to Teaching 1995(01)
27.Qi Luxia The Intended Washback Effect of the National Matriculation English Test in
17.Gates S Exploring washback from standardized tests 1995
WashbackEffectofCET-4TestonEnglisListeningLearning
- 21 -校园英语 / 高等教育研究Washback Effect of CET -4 Test on Englis Listening Learning山东英才学院/张莹【Abstract 】Washback generally refers to the impact of a test on learning as well as teaching. With the test types increasing, there is a growing number researches focus on the washback effect at home and abroad. And CET-4 listening test is very important in the whole test. The author will research whether there is the washback effect of CET-4 on learners ’ learning and the general nature of the washback effect.【Key words 】CET-4 English test; washback effect; listening learning1. IntroductionAfter 1990s, a growing number of researchers set out to study washback effect of language test. However, most researchers pay more attention to study washabck effect of language test in teaching field, but few researchers study focus on learners.This paper aim at making an study on the washback of CET-4 listening test and intends to investigate the washback effect on learners. The first target is to make certain whether CET-4 listening test has washback effect or not. And then to probe whether positive effect or negative effect holding dominant position.2. Methodology2.1 Research QuestionAccording to Alderson Wall ’s 15 hypotheses, hughes ’s model and other research result, two major question as follows:Does CET -4 have washback effect on listening learning ？What ’s the general nature of the washback effect ？2.2 Research ParticipantsThe participants of the paper consisted of 120 non-English major students who prepare to participate in CET-4 test. They were chosen from 3 class of different majors.Questionnaire is the main research tool. It can acquire significant and convictive information. And the goal of this questionnaire is to investigate CET– 4 listening test ’s influence in students listening ability.3. Results and Analysis3.1 The Washback that Influence English Listening Learning 120 copies of student questionnaire had been distributed to the students who want to take CET -4 listening test. 120 copies of questionnaire were received, and one copy of the questionnaire is blank. Thus, the response rate is 99.17%.Survey as the main instrument for information collection, the results will be presented as follow:There are 14% of students deem there is no difference on their listening learning before and after the test preparation.78% of students admit that the preparation course has bring them a little progress. From the data we can see that nearly 3% of students hold the view that the preparation course has certain help a lot for improving their English level. A tiny minority 5% thinknegative opinions that preparation for CET-4 listening test making their listening learning has enter a worse situation.As is show, CET-4 listening test surely made a washback effect in many aspects of learning. And it is a multiple choice question, so the total percentage was over 100%. 15% of students admit the test influence their learning purpose, 13% of them deem the test affect their learning content, and 13% feel the test make some different in learning method, 15% Believe the test change their learning attitude; 9% think the test improve their learning interest, and 7% of them state the test alter their learning order. What is more, 14% of them hold the view that the test impact their learning extent and depth; 6% agree with the opinion that the test caused some effect in the choice of learning materials; 8% of participates indicate that the test transform their learning speed.In conclusion, CET-4 listening test does exert washback in lots of aspects of English listening learning.3.2 The Overall Nature of WashbackFrom the investigation of the students, it is clearly showed that there is not only positive effect but also negative effect, but by and large, the positive effect overweight negative effect.As the question mainly about the students ’ view on the influence of the CET-4 on listening learning, 42% of the students thought the test has more positive test than negative effect, 10% of students deem that there just exist positive effect, 31% of the students hold the point that negative effect is great than negative positive effect, 7% of students stated almost negative effect run through the whole learning process to take a CET-4.Generally speaking, from the data we can conclude that positive effect is greater than negative effect in the whole listening learning process.4. ConclusionOn the basis of the results of the questionnaire, the author sums up a finding that CET -4 listening test surely make massive effect on college English listening learning, and such effect is both positive and negative. From the data of questionnaire, we can get the conclusion that positive effect is overweight negative effect.According to the data of questionnaire, students should realize that they should not only practice their English listening for the test, but also for the practical usage. They should regard passing the CET -4 tests as their short- term goal, and their long-term pursuit is to improve English listening ability and communication skill.References ：[1]Gu X.D.Positive or Negative An Empirical study of CET washback[M].Chongqing University press,2007.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.。
Washback Studies Used in Practice Teaching
- 19 -校园英语 / 高等教育研究Washback Studies Used in Practice Teaching广州大学/白育岭【Abstract 】This paper describes the definition of washback and brief development of washback studies. Based on theoretical frameworks and methodologies of washback study, some suggestions are provided for language testing washback research and language teachers ’ teaching.【Key words 】washback; language teachingThe term “washback ” particular refers to the effect or reaction of testing on teaching and learning in the field of education. Linguists hold that washback is the influence that an exam has on the way in which students are taught both positive and negative. It is an important concept in applied linguistics and means the direction of teachers ’ teaching and students ’ learning to some extent.1. Suggestions in methodologies of washbackAmong theoretical studies on washback, it ’s easy to find that there are two major research directions, high-stake examination. In addition, there are three common instruments used in the research: interview, classroom observation and questionnaire. There are three most widely used theoretical models of washback, which are Alderson and Wall ’s washback hypotheses, Hughes ’ PPP washback model and Gu ’s PPPP model. Based on these theoretical frameworks and methodologies of washback study, following are three suggestions of washback research.First of all, classroom observation is mainly investigates the actual situation of classroom activities. In the process of observation, attention is focused on some variables of classroom activities, such as teachers ’ behavior, students ’ behavior, teachers ’ language and classroom interaction. There are two kinds of classroom observation, pre-observation and post-observation. The pre-observation is based on the research purpose to finds out new questions in order to design interview and questionnaire and ensure the validity. The post-observation mainly focus on whether the subjects ’ behavior could match what they described, and then guarantee the validity of research.Secondly, inquiry concludes questionnaire and interview in the research. Interview is a kind of qualitative research and has good validity. So based on the interview, the validity of questionnaire could be improved and the results could be generalized. Therefore, questionnaire and interview naturally complement each other and promote research quality improvement. Hence, in the further research of washback, it ’simportant to consider validity and reliability of research according to the facts of the situation.Finally, the subjects of washback research are selected rather than from sampling. Usually, the subjects conclude teaching researchers, test-designers, teachers, students, parents and school authorities. According to the requirement of research, these subjects could be reselected and changed into a more suitable one.Washback studies generally focus on unintended and indirect consequences of testing. They are usually the function of multiple factors related to the test, context and participants. It is true that investigations on washback are never straightforward because of the involvement of multiple factors.2. Suggestions for language teachersA large number of empirical studies reveal that teachers play a vital role in bringing about washback effects, be they positive or negative. Therefore, classroom teachers should be a fundamental component of any collaborative empirical investigations on washback. They play an important role in terms of pedagogical implementations of bringing about positive washback intended by test developers and policy-makers, and expected by students and parents. Following are some suggestions for language teachers.Language teachers could learn from washback studies and increase awareness of the existence of washback, understand the factors that possibly influence washback, and build up their knowledge of educational theories related to washback. Firstly, teachers need to realize that assessment shapes the curriculum and pedagogy in certain ways, such as teaching-towards-test demands and practicing test-like items in class. Secondly, teachers ought to be aware of those active agents that can influence their teaching and students ’ learning. Thirdly, teachers need to build up and enrich their knowledge of educational theories related to an array of factors of washback.In the end, washback used in language testing and language teaching can provide better guidance for learners. We could use it scientifically to improve language learning ability.References:[1]Bailey,K.M.1996.Working for washback:a review of the washback concept in language testing[J].Language Testing,13(3): 257-279.[2]亓鲁霞.NMET 的反拨作用[J].外语教学与研究,2004(5):357-373.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.。
COSHHAssessmentform
3) Specific Considerations
Hazards
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Note: For LEV / PPE - Priority should be given to process control rather than Personal Protective Equip ment LEV = Local Exhaust Ventilation (Fume Cupboard) PPE = Personal Protective Equipment
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1
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Physical Characteristics
On Theoretical Expositions of washback in Tests
科技视界Science&Technology VisionScience&Technology Vision科技视界●1Alderson and Wall's ModelThe Washback Hypothesis has been proposed by Alderson and Walland bears singular importance in literature review of washback study.They depart from the simplest version to more refined ones;they use adichotomy approach in which they concern the process of teaching andlearning,and subjects of teachers and students.In their well-knownarticles,a number of Washback Hypothesis were presented,which weremeant to illustrate some of the effects that tests might have on teachingand learning.The hypotheses are as follows:1)A test will influence teaching;2)A test will influence learning;3)A test will influence what teachers teach;4)A test will influence how teachers teach;5)A test will influence what learners learn;6)A test will influence how learners learn;7)A test will influence the rate and sequence of teaching;8)A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning;9)A test will influence the degree and the depth of teaching;10)A test will influence the degree and the depth of learning;11)A test will influence attitudes to the content,method,etc.ofteaching and learning;12)Tests that have important consequences will have washback;13)Tests that do not have important consequences will have nowashback;14)Tests will have washback on all learners and teachers;I5)Tests will have washback effects for some learners and someteachers,but not for others.Of these hypotheses,five concern the influence of test on teaching(1,3,4,7,9);whereas five are about the influence of test on learning(2,5,6,8,10);one is about the attitudes of the participants(11);The restaddress the extent and scope of washback,which vary with the importanceof the test and the characteristics of the individuals.These hypotheses areprobably too simplified in relation to the more complex situation.But thequestions that studies of washback must address can more clearly beseen.So the Washback Hypothesis are used to design questions to inves⁃tigate the washback of tests.2The PPP Washback ModelHughes carries out a different method to further study themechanism by which washback effect works.It is Hughes’trichotomy of“participants,processes,and products”.He has introduced a trichotomytreatment in this theoretical discussion.He considered it very helpful andnecessary to make a distinction between washback on the participants,the process and the products in teaching and learning.According toHughes,participants are teachers,learners,educational administrators,materials’writers and publishers;Processes are material developments,syllabus designing,and changes in teaching methodology,the use oflearning and/or test-taking strategies,and so on;Products involve what islearned such as facts skills,and the quality of learning,such as fluency.He states that the participants may be influenced by the nature of a test,such as their attitude and the activities they are involved in.Meanwhile,the amount and the quality of learning could be affected by tests.Bailey also presents the inter-relationship among the participants,processes and products in the basic model.The model presents that a testhas direct influences on the participants engaged in a variety of processeswhich yield products specific to each category of participants.Inaccordance with Hughes,the final product of beneficial washback effectis the improved learning of the construct being measured.The dottedlines in the figure indicate the possible impacts from the participants onthe test.Bailey also devoted to make a further distinction between“washback to the learners”and“washback to the programme”.3Theoretical Framework of TestsBoth Alderson and wall’s dichotomy and Hughes’s trichotomy hasmade great contribution to the conceptualization of washback in terms ofhow washback works.Alderson and Wall’s Washback Hypothesis assumes that washbackinvolves two parties and two processes:teachers and students,teachingand learning.Hughes’trichotomy and Bailey’s model of washback addthe theoretical discussion by making a distinction among the participants,the processes and the products of an educational system with the focus onstudents and teachers as the“participants”,learning and teaching as the“products”.Besides teachers and students,materials writers,curriculumdesigners and researchers are also involved in his theoretical framework.Hughes’PPP model shares similarities with Alderson and Wall’sHypotheses in that they all distinguish between participants andprocesses.What differs is that“the former deals with the scope andpattern of the whole educational system that comes under the influence oftests whereas the latter focuses on the effect on teaching and learning”.On the basis of the guidance provided by the PPP washback model,part of Alderson&Wall’s hypotheses are also referred to in thetheoretical framework of test to explore in details how washback functionsin different aspects.These hypotheses include Hypothesis on teachingand learning.A very important factor excluded in these models is theassessment of the learners’needs as the main consideration in thedevelopment of the test tasks.The factor that both reflects andcontributes to the future decisions is made on the basis of the test scores.The considerations of the learners’needs as well as the future decisionsmade on the basis of the test scores could be added to the basic model ofwashback.Obviously,Alderson and Wall’s Hypothesis has laid the foundationfor washback research,and Hughes’sModal clarifies the process of howwashback works among those contributions.【References】[1]Alderson,J.C.&Wall,D.Does Washback Exist?[J].Applied Linguistics,1993:120.[2]Bailey,K.M.Working for Washback:A review of the washback concept inlanguage testing[R].1996:264.[3]Qi Luxia,On the Impact of Tests[J],Foreign Languages and Their Teaching,2006,8:29-31.[责任编辑:汤静] On Theoretical Expositions of washback in TestsMA Ping(School of Foreign Languages,Shandong University of TCM,Jinan Shandong,250355,China)【Abstract】This article is about the theoretical expositions of washback in test,which mainly describes the theoretical frameworks for washback studies.【Key words】Washback;Theoretical expositions;Tests作者简介:马平(1979—),女,汉族,山东滨州人,硕士,讲师,研究方向为英语翻译与教学。
不同气温下污泥浓度对污水处理效果的影响
--●中国资源综合利用China Resources Comprehensive UtilizationVol.28,No.72010年7月漯河市沙南污水处理厂是淮河流域水污染防治重点工程,主要负责漯河市区的生活及工业污水的处理,服务范围内城区面积31km 2,约29.8万人口,是漯河市极其重要的污水处理设施。
总设计处理水量为13万t/d,其中一期工程于2000年7月建成,设计处理规模为8万t/d,二期工程于2007年6月建成,设计处理规模为5万t/d。
进厂污水中生活污水占60%,工业污水占40%。
工艺设计采用改良式卡鲁塞尔氧化沟活性污泥处理法。
此法是利用沟内微生物组成的活性污泥与污水中有机物充分接触进而将其吸收并分解的方法处理污水的。
而氧化沟内悬浮固体浓度(MLSS)可以近似地表示沟内活性微生物的浓度,因此MLSS 是提高污水处理效果的重要参数,研究氧化沟内最佳的MLSS 对提高污水处理效果有重要意义。
通过对漯河市沙南污水处理厂几年来的运行实践,总结了一些规律,对以后的污水处理设施稳定、高效运行提供了保证。
1各项参数设计设计进、出水水质状况如表1所示。
表1设计进出水水质及悬浮固体浓度经过几年来的运行,COD Cr 的去除率可达91%以上,SS 的去除率可达92%以上,均大大超过设计要求,实现达标排放。
但运行中发展:随外界季节气温的不同,氧化沟内MLSS 对COD Cr 和SS 去除率的变化影响也不同。
通过对该厂正常运行的各项数据分析,研究MLSS 对COD Cr 和SS 去除率的影响,找出了不同季节条件下的最佳MLSS 的规律,很大程度地提高了COD Cr 和SS 的去除率,达到了较好的处理效果。
不同气温下污泥浓度对污水处理效果的影响黄广英1,赵若尘2,雷磊1,于二俊1(1.漯河市水务投资有限公司,河南漯河462000;2.南京仙林污水处理厂,南京210033)摘要:以漯河市沙南污水处理厂运行实践为例,根据一年中不同季节气温的变化,调整氧化沟内悬浮固体浓度(MLSS )。