Chapter 1 语言学-Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
to be and describing how things are
Prescriptive: the early study of language aims to lay down
rules for correct and standard behavior in using languages, such as grammars, to set models for language users to follow. Descriptive: the study of language aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it correct or not; modern linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective, they believe that whatever occurs in language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the formation of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter1Introduction剖析
Descriptive vs. prescriptive
Synchronic vs. diachronic Langue vs. parole Competence vs. performance
Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
Don't say X. People don't say X. The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.
Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
Prescriptive: to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language. (modern linguistics) Descriptive: to describe and analyze the language people actually use. (traditional grammar)
Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.
Synchronic vs. Diachronic
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
chapter_1_introduction
第二语言习得Second Language Acquisition: getting the whole picture第二语言习得研究的主要问题L2学习者在习得第二语言时究竟获得了什么L2学习者是怎样习得第二语言的L2语言习得有哪些个体差异语言教学对第二语言习得有何影响1. 学习者在L2习得过程中获得了什么为了弄清楚这个问题，学者们收集了大量的学习者的语言材料，并对这些材料进行系统的描写，试图发现学习者习得第二语言的规律。
早期的第二语言习得研究主要集中在学习者的语言系统的描写上。
2. 学习者是怎样获得第二语言的第二语言习得研究的目的是要对学习者的习得过程做出解释。
Ellis认为，可以从两个方面对学习者的习得过程做出解释：一是从社会语言学的角度，即从语言习得的社会环境这些外部因素的影响来阐释学习者的习得过程；二是从认知心理学的角度，即从语言习得内在的心理因素来阐述第二语言的习得过程。
3. 学习者的个体差异问题这方面的研究主要集中在学习者第二语言习得的个体差异问题上。
比如学习者在语言习得过程中表现出的学习速率的差异、学习方式的差异、学习风格的差异以及学习成果的差异等。
这方面研究是关于第二语言学习者自身的研究。
4. 语言教学对第二语言习得的影响•大多数早期的第二语言习得研究主要是考察学习者的自然习得。
这个时期的研究强调自然习得，忽视了语言教学的作用。
•现在人们开始转向课堂教学环境的第二语言习得，并试图说明教学对第二语言习得的影响。
目的是为了提高语言教学的效率。
1. 语法－翻译法Grammar-Translantion Method 2.听说法Audio-lingual Method3. 视听法Audio-Visual Method4. 全身反应法Total Physical Response5. 直接法Direct Method6. 交际法（交际语言教学法）Communicative Approach7. 认知法Cognitive Approach8. 阅读法Reading Method9. 自然法The Natural Approach10. 自觉实践法Self-motive MethodMethod11. 社团语言学习法Community Language Learning 12. 暗示法Suggestopedia第二语教学法流派Grammar Translation(语法翻译法)语言学基础：历史比较语言学认为一切语言起源于同一种语言，语言与思维统一，因而各语言间规则相同，词汇表达意义相同，只是发音、拼写不同，因而强调翻译，早期认为语法最重要，重视语言规范，因而强调语法。
语言学基础introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。
笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
新编语言学教程 Chapter 1 Introduction(课堂PPT)
1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar 1.3 The differences between linguistics and
• The course is intended to introduce undergraduates the major components of modern linguistics, the main concerns, explorations, and discoveries of this subject, the principles and methods of its different branches, the views and contributions of influential researchers, and important models and disputes between traditions and schools.
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The scope or major branches of linguistics
• Theoretical linguistics 1. Phonetics 2. Phonology 3. Morphology 4. Syntax 5. Semantics • Use of linguistics 1. Applied linguistics 2. Sociolinguistics 3. Psycholinguistics
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1.1.2 Linguistics as a science
语言学教程Chapter 1_introduction(1)
• Without the awareness of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
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Discuss with your neighbors ---• What is language? • What do you know when you claim to know a language?
“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.” --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
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Some fundamental views about L
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
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Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
戴伟栋 新编简明英语语言学教程笔记【精选文档】
戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。
Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。
No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。
I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。
Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。
语言学 Chapter 1 introduction
01 helen Chapter 1_introChapter OneInvitations – A Survey of LinguisticsWhat is linguistics?The scientific study of human language.1. So what is Language?*linguistics is a Scientific study of language•Languages in general: e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic,Latin, and etc..2. Definitions of LanguageLanguage ―is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty‖.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)―A language is a system of arbitrary vocal sy mbols by means of which a social group co-operates.‖--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)―A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in t erms of their total culture.‖--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)―Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.‖--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)• Human speech;• The ability to communicate by this means;• A system of vocal sounds and combinations ofsuch sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings• The written representation of such a system. • Any means of expressing or communicating, asgestures, signs, or animal sounds• A special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rulesetc. used for the transmission of information .– Webster ’s New World Dictionary―Language is a means of verbal communication.‖–It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.–It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006) Questions:•compare the previous definitions of ―language‖ andfind out the similarities and differences and explain the significance.•what‘s your definition of language?3. Design Features of Language•- the distinctive features of human language thatessentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animalsHuman language is ‘unique ’ Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement3.1 Arbitrarines•Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning : A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. --“Romeo and Juliet‖•Question: how about onomatopoeic words?• how about Chinese characters? E.g.山, 川, 门, 等•Arbitraryrelationship between the sound of amorpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:–The dog barks wow wow in English but ―汪汪汪‖ in Chinese.•Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is notarbitrary at the syntactic level. –He came in and sat down. –He sat down and came in. –He sat down after he came in.•The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is amatter of convention. E.g. ―this is an idiom.‖•Arbitrariness - > creative; •convention -> laborious• Can we find motivatedness against arbitrariness in language?•中国的象形字违反索绪尔的语言任意性特征么?3.2 Duality•The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:–Primary units ‗words‘ (meaningful) consist of secondary units ‗sounds‘ (meaningless)/or ‗morphemes‘.–E.g. pri.mary, se.con.dary•Hierarchy of language: stratification as ‗the infinite use of finite means‘.–Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discourses •Question: do animal languages or sign languages, e.g. traffic lights, have duality?3.3 Creativity /productivity•Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.•Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.•Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages.•Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.•The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences.•E.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ...3.4 Displacement•Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.–Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us. •Animal communication is normally under ―immediate stimulus control‖. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.•Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. •The honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it.•A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.•Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist. •Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote ―non-things‖, such as truth and beauty.Is there any other design feature of human language?4. Origin of language•The ‗Divine‘ origin:–―In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.‖(Gospel, John 1: 1)太初有道,道与神同在,道就是神.–―And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.‖ (Genesis, 11: 6)4.1 The “b ow-wow” theory摹声说•In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.–Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. •This theory lacks supportive evidence.4.2 The “pooh-pooh” theory感叹说•In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.–What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages.–Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyos bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.4.3 The “yo-he-ho” theory哼呦声说•As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.–We do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation. •The by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future.•One thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Revision of last lecture:•Definition of language•Other design features of language•Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by a social group for communication.•cultural transmission. <-> genetically transmitted•Interchangeability: it permits a speaker to become a listener and vice versa withoutimpairing the function of language, i.e.communication. This property has been namedInterchangeability by C.F. Hockett ( A Course inModern Linguistics). It can also be calledreciprocity,互反性i.e. any speaker/sender of alinguistic signal can also be a listener/receiver. 5. Functions of language•Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.•They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.•Roman Jakobson(1896-1982)是位著名的俄羅斯語言學家，興趣著作廣泛，後移居到斯洛伐克共和國與美國，他是｢莫斯科語言學圈｣的主導者，也是布拉格學派的創建人，以他對語言學、文學理論、結構語言人類學、符號學的貢獻來說，堪稱二十世紀最具影響力的知識份子之一。
语言学重点概念
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for languageto have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details ofany language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals areborn with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学 第一章
Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学） is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication， e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学）studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位） /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study（共时 的）---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study（历时 的）---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics（心理语言学） is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.
英语语言学Linguistics 第一章Chapter1 导论Introduction
Displacement移位性/不受时空限制
Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immedite situation. (P. 9) 用语言谈论超越说话人所处语境的任何人或物或事，语言 使用不受时空限制。
基础 认知 感觉器官↓ ↑认知水平提高 反映 脑神经↓ ↑ 心理现实 编码 离散化分类概括 ↓ ↑表达对象 指称 义（概念范畴） 语言符号 ↓（社会）约定 一般性 音（语音形式） ↑
{
客观现实
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音响（物质材料 ）特殊性
In the beginning was the word. —John 1:1
Any elements of language not arbitrary?
Arbitrariness任意性
Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated理据 ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
语言学chapter1Introduction
语言学chapter1Introductionchapter 1Chapter 1 IntroductionAims:To inform the students of the definition, functions and design features of language;To make the students have a general idea of the concept of linguisticsand its main branches;To make the students have a good understanding of some importantdistinctions in linguistics.1. What is language?1.1 Definition of language1.1.1 Charles F. Hockett’s view1.1.2 Edward Sapir’s definition1.1.3 David Crystal’s view1.1.4 R. H. Robins’ definition1.1.5 Hu Zhuanglin’s definition (P3)“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.”Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according tocertain rules; they can not be combined at will. Language is arbitrary in thesense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the object.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains thesymbolic nature of language: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention, they are just labels or symbols of objects. We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing system. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific; that is, it is very differentfrom the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as birdsongs and bee dances.1.2 Design features of languageDesign Features refer to the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication. The following are the frequently discussed ones.1.2.1. ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is thefact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitraryby nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. There are some onomatopoeic words inevery language that imitate natural sounds. Besides, some compound words arealso not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophis-tication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source ofexpressions.1.2.2. DualityLanguage is a system. This system has two sets of structures, one ofsounds (lower or basic level) and the other of meaning (higher level). A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into infinite number of sentences.1.2.3. CreativityUsers can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Everyday we sent messages that have never before been sent and understand novel messages. Much of what we say and hear we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. Creativity seems peculiar / unique to human language.1.2.4. DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far away place. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speakers. This property of language provides speakers with anopportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place. No animal calls are mainly uttered inresponse to immediate changes of situation.1.2.5 Cultural transmissionAnimal call systems are genetically transmitted. That is, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. Withhuman beings, things are different: a Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching andlearning, rather than by instinct. This does not deny that human capacity forlanguage has a genetic basis; in fact only human beings can learn a humanlanguage at birth and he has to be exposed to a language inorder to acquire it.1.3 Functions of language1.3.1 Phatic communion (应酬语、寒暄语)Language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, andcomments on the weather serve this function.1.3.2 Emotive functionIt is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitu-des of the speakers. It can also change the emotional status of an audience. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communi-cation to others.1.3.3 Performative （行事话语）It refers to, in speech act theory, an utterance which performs an act,such as watch out (=a warning), I promise not to be late (=a promise), There is a vicious dog behind you (=an implied warning). Language itself is alsoused to “do things”, to perform actions.eg. I name this ship “Elizabeth”.I bet you five yuan it will rain tomorrow.I do.1.3.4 Interpersonal functionPeople establish and maintain their status / relationships in a society bythis function. This function is concerned with the interaction between theaddresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.1.3.5 InformativeThis function, the major role of language, is to give information aboutfacts, or to reason things out. This function is characterized by the use ofdeclarative sentences and is most often used in all branches of learning.1.3.6 Recreational functionRecreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting or the widespread use of verbaldueling.1.3.7 Metalingual functionThe language can be used to analyze or describe or talk about itself. For example, in English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop, is themetalingual function of language. It explains that b-sound in English is made with vibration of the vocal cords and with the two lips stopping the air stream from the lungs.2 What is linguistics?2.1 Definition of linguisticsLinguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. We cansimply say that a scientific study is one which is focused on the systematicinvestigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory oflanguage structure.In linguistics, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and datawithout being explained by some theory remain a muddle mass of things.2.2 Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics / general linguistics)2.2.1 PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, howspeech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds ofspeech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connect-ed speech, etc.The three branches of phonetics are: articulatory phonetics, acoustic (trans-mitted) phonetics and auditory (received) phonetics. Of the three branches ofphonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics. We focus onarticulatory phonetics.2.2.2 PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequence ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables. That is, how sounds are puttogether and used to convey meaning in communication.Pay attention to the difference between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creatingwhereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitutelanguage and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses onorder.2.2.3 LexicologyIt is the study of the vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language, including their meanings and relations, and changes in their form and meaning through time. It deals with the external relationship among words.2.2.4 MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the mini-mal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation process. Althoughmany people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of a language, many words can be broken down into still smaller units, calledmorphemes.Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammaticalinformation about the already existing meaning of a word.2.2.5 SyntaxIt is about the principles of forming and understanding correct Englishsentences. It studies the rules which govern the combination of words orphrases into permissible and grammatical sentences. These rules specify wordorder, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.2.2.6 SemanticsThe ultimate objective of language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences, but to convey meaning. So the study of meaning is gradual-ly developed and becomes known as semantics. It examines how meaning isencoded in a language.2.2.7 PragmaticsLanguage communication does not occur in a vacuum. It always occurs in a context, i.e., it always occurs at a certain time, at a certain place, between participants with particular intention. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in con-text. It is concerned with the way language is used to communicate ratherthan with the way language is structured.2.3 Macrolinguistics (Applied Linguistics)2.3.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology, investigatesthe interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utter-ances and in language acquisition. It aims to answer suchquestions as howthe human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize, and how we process the information wereceive in the course of communication.2.3.2 SociolinguisticsLanguage and society are closely connected. The language a person usesoften reveals his social background, and there exist social norms thatdeter-mine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; andlanguage changes are often caused by social changes. The study of all thesesocial aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of thebranch called sociolinguistics.Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers asthese three constantly interact and change within a speech community. In gene-ral, it studies the relationship between language and society, studies languagevariation caused by social factors, such as age, education, gender and so on.2.3.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly un-written languages, studies the emergence of language and the divergence oflanguages over thousands of years.2.3.4 Computational linguistics (CAI)Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers aroundthe use of computers to process or produce human language.2.3.5 Applied linguisticsFindings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology and infor-mation theory in order to develop its own theoretical models of language andlanguage use. The study of such application is generally known as appliedlinguistics.In a narrow sense, applied linguistics studies the application of linguistictheories into language teaching. Some important distinctions in linguistics.2.4 Some important distinctions in linguistics2.4.1 Descriptive and prescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed or the language people actually use; it is prescriptiv e if it tries to lay down rules for “correct behavior”.Linguistic studies before this century are largely prescriptive in the sensethat many early grammars were based on “high” written language. It tells thelearner what he should say, or what is supposed to be correct usage. Onthe other hand, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Linguistic study is sup-posed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed todescribe the langue people actually use, be it “correct” or not.2.4.2 Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of alanguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of alanguage as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronicstudy of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. In modern linguistics, synchronic studyseems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Why?2.4.3 Language and paroleThis distinction was made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure early thiscentury.Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or reali-zation of langue in actual use. What are the differences between langue andparole?LangueParoleIt is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use.Parole is specific and concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of languagefor serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply amass of linguistics, toovaried and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists shoulddo is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study oflinguistics.2.4.4 Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky definescompetence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language (A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence), and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. (performance refers to the actual use of languagein concrete situations.).In his point of view, which should be studied? Why?卢梭，让－雅克，《论语言的起源》，上海人民出版社，20031、“言语（speech）区分了人与动物；语言（language）区分了不同的民族；人只要一开口，就会显示出他来自何处。
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。
语言学chapter1
语⾔学chapter1Chapter 1 Introduction1.how do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is thescientific study of language?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. The “ language” in the definition is not any particular language, but the language in general. It is specific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of languagestructure. In order to discover the nature and the rules of the underlying language system, the linguistic first has to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them ; then he formulates hypotheses about the language structure, which formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?The major branches of linguistics are the core branches and the interdisciplinary branches.The core branches are divided into six aspects, they are:(1)Phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistics communication.(2)Phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to conveymeaning in communication.(3)Morphology: it studies the way in which linguistics symbols representingsounds are arranged and combined to form words.(4)Syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages.(5)Semantics: it studies the meanings.(6)Pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context language.The interdisciplinary branches contain three aspects, they are:(1)Sociolinguistics: it studies all the social aspects of language and itsrelation with society.(2)Psycholinguistics: it studies the language to psychology.(3)Applied linguistics: findings in linguistic studies can often be applied tothe solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why?In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed thatunless the various states of alanguage in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would bedifficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing interms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis aremostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure’s distinction between language and parole similar toChomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?Saussure thinks that langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. Langue is abstract, it is not the language people actually use ,parole is concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study, and what linguistic should do is to abstract langue from parole. Similar to Saussure Chomsky definescompetence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, andperformance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker ca still makemistakes in actual use. And he thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance. Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language ishuman-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8.what are the main features of human language that have been specified byC.hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityLanguage is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.(a limited number of meaningless sounds) But the sounds oflanguage can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.(an infinite number ofmeaningful sounds)4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.9. what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The major functions are the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual.The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, it also include the expression of the speakers attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions the interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。
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“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” --Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)
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2. What is Language?
Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”. --Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)
The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪 汪” in Chinese.
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Language is not so arbitrary at the syntactic level.
He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in.
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
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1. Why Study Language?
Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. The following list of myths and fundamental views about language will tell us how much we know about language.
Chapter One
Invitations to Linguistics
Teaching Focus
1. Why Study Language? 2. What is Language? 3. Design Features of Language 4. Origin of language 5. Functions of language 6. What is Linguistics? 7. Main branches of linguistics 8. Macrolinguistics 9. Important distinctions in linguistics
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Human language is „unique‟
Arbitrariness
Duality
Creativity
Displacement
Cultural Transmission
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3.1 Arbitrariness
Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words:
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1.2 Some fundamental views about L
Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. Language operates by rules. Everyone speaks a dialect. Language slowly changes. Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them. Writing is derivative of speech.
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Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.” --Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)
-- Our textbook (2006)
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3. Design Features of Language
Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. The features that define our human languages is called design features.
(1999)
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“Language is a means of verbal communication.”
It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural roles.
Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)
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“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” --Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)
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“... in a sense all definitions [of language] are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose ... some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.” --R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989)
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“The question „What is language?‟ is comparable with -- and, some would say, hardly less profound than -- „What is life?‟, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological sciences... it is not so much the question itself as the particular interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologist's day-today speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to the question „What is language?‟” --John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Linguistics (1981)
“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” (recommend to remember) --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)