Human Language and Animal Communication System

合集下载

New Microsoft Word 文档

Test Paper of Linguistics1. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication.2. Mention a labiodenta l唇齿音sound in English. Tell what speech organs are involved in producing labiodental sounds.3. Study the following pairs of words. What is the basic lexical relation between these pairs of words?1) shallow deep2) mature ripe3) suite sweet4) table furniture5) single married6) move run4. Point out the meaning relation between each of the following pairs:1) A: John is an orphan孤儿，无双亲的.B: John has no father.2) A: Why did you do it again?B: You had done it before.5. Point out and comment on the ambiguity of the following sentences:1) Visiting relatives can be tiresome.2) She cannot bear children.6. Draw the labelled tree diagram of the following sentence by using symbols such as NP, VP, Aux, etc.1)As a politician, you should know what the country needs.2)The man in the room helps me every day.7. Draw the syllable tree diagrams of the following English words.1) classroom2) about8. Decide which maxims of the CP Mike and Student have flouted and what implicature they might draw in the following conversations1) Annie: I really liked that dinner.Mike: I’m a vegetarian.2) (It is towards the end of a lecture.)Teacher: What time is it?Student: It’s 10:44 and 35.6 seconds.9. How is behaviourist different from conceptualism in the study of meaning?10. As an English student, which do you think is the most difficult part: pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or something else? Why do you think so? Are there any factors responsible for it (eg. the teacher, the textbook, the physical setting, time, other students or anything else)?。

新编简明语言学作业以及答案

1 Which of the following modes of study emphasizes the correct and standard usage of language选择一项：a. synchronicb. prescriptivec. diachronicd. descriptive正确答案是：prescriptive2 Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,选择一项：a. cultural transmissionb. flexibilityc. displacementd. duality题目3An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the "best authors" for language usage.选择一项：对错题目4General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.选择一项：对错正确的答案是“对”。

\题目5Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.选择一项：a. senseb. objectsc. ideasd. sounds题目6正确获得分中的分标记题目题干The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s____.答案：反馈g正确答案是：syntax题目7正确获得分中的分标记题目题干According to Chomsky, ________ is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language.选择一项：a. competenceb. parolec. performanced. langue反馈你的回答正确正确答案是：competence题目8正确获得分中的分标记题目题干Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.选择一项：对错反馈Tg正确的答案是“对”。

语言学问答题

阳性单词：man，uncle，bridegroom，monk，son，king阴性单词：woman，aunt，bride，nun，daughter，queen人与动物语言区别：the difference between human language and animal communication is not quantitative but qualitative. one of the major differences between humans and animals is that human use of language is not just a response to external, or even internal, stimuli, as are the sounds and gestures of animals.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements“photo” and“copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.名词解释：1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.1 arbitrary：Describes the property of language, including sign language, whereby there is no natural or intrinsic relationship between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its meaning.2 Descriptive Grammar： A linguist’s description or model of the mental gr ammar, including the units, structures, and rules. An explicit statement of what speakers know about their language. Cf. prescriptive grammar, teaching grammar.3 Grammar：The mental representation of a speaker’s linguistic competence; what a speaker knows about a language, including its phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,and lexicon. A linguistic description of a speaker’s mental grammar.4lexicon：The component of the grammar containing speakers’ knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary.5 morphology：The study of the structure of words; the component of the grammar that includes the rules of word formation.6 Phonology：The sound system of a language; the component of a grammar that includes the inventory of sounds (phonetic and phonemic units) and rules for their combination and pronunciation; the study of the sound systems of all languages.7Semantics：The study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences.8 sign languages：The languages used by deaf people in which linguistic units such as morphemes and words as well as grammatical relations are formed by manual and other body movements.9syntax ：The rules of sentence formation; the component of the mental grammar that represents speake rs’ knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences.10 Universal Grammar(UG) ：The innate principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.11 aspirated：Describes a voiceless stop produced with a puff of air that results when the vocal cords remain open for a brief period after the release of the stop, e.g., the [ph] in pit. Cf. unaspirated.12 diacritics：Additional markings on written symbols to specify various phonetic properties such as length, tone, stress, nasalization; extra marks on a written character that change its usual value, e.g., the tilde [~] drawn over the letter n in Spanish represents a palatalized nasal rather than an alveolar nasal.13 glottis：The opening between the vocal cords.14 International Phonetic Association (IPA)：The organization founded in 1888 to further phonetic research and develop the International Phonetic Alphabet.15 manner of articulation：The way the airstream is obstructed as it travels through the vocal tract. Stop, nasal, affricate, and fricative are some manners of articulation. Cf. place of articulation.16 phonetics:The study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced (articulatory phonetics), how they are perceived (auditory or perceptual phonetics), and their physical aspects (acoustic phonetics).17 stressed syllable : A syllable with relatively greater length, loudness, and/or higher pitch than other syllables in a word, and therefore perceived as prominent. Also called accent.18 tone: Contrastive pitch of syllables in tone languages in which two words may be identical except for such differences in pitch, e.g., in Thai [naa] with falling pitch means ―face,‖ but with a rising pitch means ―thick.‖ Cf. register tones, contour tones.19complementary distribution: The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment, e.g., [p] and [ph] in English. Cf. allophones.20 free variation：Alternative pronunciations of a word in which one sound is substituted for another without changing the word’s meaning, e.g., pronunciation of bottle as [batEl] or [ba/El].21 intonation：Pitch contour of a phrase or sentence.22 length：A prosodic feature referring to the duration of a segment. Two sounds may contrast in length, e.g., in Japanese the first vowel is [+ long} in /biiru/ ―beer‖ but [– long], therefore short, in /biru/ ―building.‖23 minimal pair (or set)：Two (or more) words that are identical except for one phoneme that occurs in the same position in each word, e.g., pain /pen/, bane /ben/, main /men/.24 phonetic features：Phonetic properties of segments (e.g., voice, nasal, alveolar) that distinguish one segment from another.25 acronym：Word composed of the initials of several words, e.g., PET scan from positron-emission tomography scan.26 compound ：A word composed of two or more words, e.g., washcloth, childproof cap.27 form：Phonological or gestural representation of a morpheme or word.28：meaning：The conceptual or semantic aspect of a sign or utterance that permits us to comprehend the message being conveyed. Expressions in language generally have both form — pronunciation or gesture — and meaning. Cf. extension, intension, sense, reference.29 morpheme：Smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function, e.g., sheepdogs contains three mor30 morphological rules：Rules for combining morphemes to form stems and words.31 open class：The class of lexical content words; a category of words that commonly adds new words, e.g., nouns, verbs.32 orthography：The written form of a language; spelling.33 complemen t；The constituent(s) in a phrase other than the head that complete(s) the meaning of the phrase. In the verb phrase found a puppy, the noun phrase a puppy is a complement of the head verb found.34 deep structure；Any phrase structure tree generated by the phrase structure rules of a transformational grammar. The basic syntactic structures of the grammar.35 direct object；The grammatical relation of a noun phrase when it appears immediately below the verb phrase (VP) and next to the verb in deep structure; the noun phrase complement of a transitive verb, e.g., the puppy in the boy found the puppy.36 functional category；One of the categories of function words, including determiner, aux, complementizer, and preposition. These categories are not lexical or phrasal categories. Cf. lexical categories, phrasal categories.37 phrase structure tree；A tree diagram with syntactic categories at each node that reveals both the linear and hierarchical structure of phrases and sentences.38 rules of syntax；Principles of grammar that account for the grammaticality of sentences, their hierarchical structure, their word order, whether there is structural ambiguity, etc. Cf. phrase structure rules, transformational rules.39 structure dependent；(1) A principle of Universal Grammar that states that the application of transformational rules is determined by phrase structure properties, as opposed to structureless sequences of words or specific sentences; (2) the way children construct rules using their knowledge of syntactic structure irrespective of the specific words in the structure or their meaning.40 surface structure：The structure that results from applying transformational rules to a deep structure. It is syntactically closest to actual utterances. Cf. transformational rule.41 transformational rule, transformation：A syntactic rule that applies to an underlyingphrase structure tree of a sentence (either deep structure or an intermediate structure already affected by a transformation) and derives a new structure by moving or inserting elements, e.g., the transformational rules of wh movement and do insertion relate the deep structure sentence John saw who to the surface structure Who did John see.42 coreferential：Describes noun phrases (including pronouns) that refer to the same entity.43 heteronyms：Different words spelled the same (i.e., homographs) but pronounced differ ently, e.g. bass, meaning either ―low tone‖ [bes] or ―a kind of fish‖ [bœs].44 homographs：Words spelled identically, and possibly pronounced the same, e.g., bear meaning ―to tolerate,‖ and bear the animal; or lead the metal and lead, what leaders do.45 hyponyms：Words whose meanings are specific instances of a more general word, e.g., red, white, and blue are hyponyms of the word color; triangle is a hyponym of polygon.46 lexical semantics：The subfield of semantics concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning relationships among words.47 pragmatics：The study of how context and situation affect meaning.48 semantic features：A notational device for expressing the presence or absence of semantic properties by pluses and minuses, e.g., baby is [+ young], [+ human], [– abstract], etc.49 semantic properties：The components of meaning of a word,e.g., ―young‖ is a semantic property of baby, colt, puppy.。

Comparison between human language and animal langu 人类语言与动物语言区别

Comparison between human language and animal languageLanguage is a means of communication, including the human language and the animal language.These two kinds of languages have something in common. First, both of them are used for exchanging information and expressing. Second, they all have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. Third, they have a intimate relation to the societies and individuals who use them. However, what is more important, they have a big difference in many aspects.First of all, the human language must be mastered in the future life from learning, on the contrary, the animal language can be possessed from the time when they come into the world. Second, the limation is a large part of causes that can not be neglected, the time and the district may have a found-mental influence on the human language. People in different sections also can understand each other easily, but the animal can only be understood among their own group. Third, as to the function, the human language acts as a tool for access to different fields of knowledge, such as the academic study and so on.The animal language does not work in this respect. Fourth, arbitrariness and creativity are the famous features of human language, it has myths and regular pause, owns the infinite use of finite means. The animal language is just a sign among animals. Also, there are still many differences need to be studied betweenthese two kinds of languages.Summing up from all the above, they are specialization, broadcast transmission and directional reception, interchangeability, sem-anticity, arbitrariness and discreteness. The distinctions are vocal-auditory channel, total feedback and traditional transmission. Rapid fading is not sufficient for both human language and animal language. They will be passed down from one generation to another generation.。

语言学复习资料

Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。

Differences between human language and animal communication system

Language can be considered the major characteristic which separates man from other living creatures. The presence of a language in a non-human species would clearly be inconceivable a philosopher such as Descartes. Whilst it cannot be argued that the human languages are very complex systems with many rules and infinite possibilities of utterances, there are some methods of communication of animals that are comparable to human language, which thus casts some degree of doubt on this supposed human-specificity of language. Semanticity is a suggested test for the language ability of any species. It is the use of symbols to 'mean' or refer to objects and actions. Some writers have claimed that semanticity is exclusively human. Whilst it is possible that animals may only be able to communicate about a total situation, it is difficult to be certain; as is shown by the calls of the velvet monkey. I am therefore going to consider several examples of non-human animal communications, both vocalizations and other methods, and test them for semanticity.Gibbons are several species of our closest surviving non-human kin. Like humans, they communicate in various ways, including posturing and gesturing, but the most language-like of their communication is their system of calls. Investigations of the gibbons of northern Thailand have shown that these gibbons have a stock of at least nine different calls. One of these is emitted typically when the group is surprised by a possible enemy and takes the form of a high pitched shout; it is often repeated by those who hear it and all act accordingly in order to avoid the danger of the enemy. An entirely different sort of call occurs in connection with friendly approaches among young gibbons, and reinforces the notion of play.A third call seems to serve to keep the members of a group close enough together as they move through the woods in search of food. The most important property of this system of communication is its lack of flexibility. Whatever the exact number of calls Mbt Shoes Sale is, it is finite and small. Whilst any one of the calls can be varied in loudness or in the number of repetitions, no matter what situation a gibbon may encounter, its vocal reaction is constrained to be one of this small finite number: a gibbon does not react to a new situation by producing a new call or putting together two or more of the calls already available.It has been suggested that language grew out of a primate call system, like the ones used by apes today and the one I have described that is used by gibbons. It is assumed that humans started out with a simple set of cries in which each one meant something different, such as, "Danger!" or "Follow me!". These cries gradually became more elaborate and eventually evolved into language. A possible intermediate stage is seen in the cries of the vervet monkey. This monkey has several alarm calls which distinguish between different types of danger. According to some, it is a very short step froman alarm call warning of a poisonous snake to using the chutter as a 'word' signifying a poisonous snake. However, another interpretation of these signals is possible; a distinguishing between the intensity of different types of danger. However an experiment in which a concealed loudspeaker plated recordingsof the alarm calls showed that when each sound was heard, a specific response was seen.For example, when they heard the chutter, the vervets stood on their hind legs and looked around for a snake. This implies that the monkeys clearly have a special signal for each type of enemy; each signal has semantic properties.It is perhaps unfair to concentrate on primates. Compared with these, bees and dolphins have extremely sophisticated communication systems. Whilst the majority of bee communication is achieved through dance rather a system of sound signals, I feel that there is some evidence in this example Mbt Shoes that casts some degree of doubt on the supposed human-specificity of language. When a worker bee finds a source of nectar, it returns to the hive and performs a dance. It has been shown that certain features of the dance transmit information about the location of the source of nectar: one feature specifies the direction of the source from the hive in relation to the position of the sun, another specifies its distance.It has been decided that these dances are performed and understood on the basis of instinct: the semantic conventions of the system are innate, and do not have to be learned or taught. Using this system, a worker can report on a source of nectar at a location to which none of the colony has ever previously been. To a certain extent, therefore, the system is flexible. Whilst it appears that bees cannot communicate about anything except nectar - or, if they do, it is via other equally specialised small systems, the claim that bee dancing possesses creativity does not appear to be exaggerated since, at least in theory, an infinite amount of unpredictable and appropriate information relating to the parameters of direction and distance can be transmitted. However, the idea of verticality, for instance, expressed by the English word 'up' cannot be expressed, nor can complex thoughts and feelings present in human philosophy, literature and science. The difference in the creativity of the'language' of the bee and human language is an important one, yet despite his claim for the exclusiveness of language creativity to humans, Chomsky explicitly recognizes the possibility that certain ideas, concepts and feeling may well be inexpressible in human language. This situation mirrors the fact that there are many things which cannot be expressed in the 'language' of the bee.Like bees, dolphins do not have a 'creative' communication system in the human sense - even though they make underwater 'clicks' which are surprisingly sophisticated. These clicks are intermittent bursts of sound, each of which lasts less than a thousandth of a second, in frequencies beyond the range of human hearing. By listening for their echoes, a dolphin can find a tiny eel in a bed of mud or a tiny fish seventy meters away. The dolphin first sends out a very general click, and then progressively modifies it as it gets echoes back, so allowing it to get more and more accurate information. As far as we know, a dolphin's communication is restricted to the size and location of shapes, though a possibility is that a progressively modifiedclick might end up being the 'name' for the object finally pinpointed; semantic properties for dolphin communication may evolve.Human language is a signaling system which uses sounds and this is a characteristic shared by a large number of animal systems. Animals that use vocal signals have a stock of basic sounds which vary according to their species. A cow has fewer than ten, a chicken has around twenty, dolphins and apes have between twenty and thirty and the impressive vervet monkey has thirty-six. In animal communication, there is frequently a connection, arguably semantic, between the signal and the message sent. Whilst most animals can use each basic sound only once or in very few simple combinations, human language works differently. Each language has a stock of phonemes which are similar in number to the basic sounds possessed by animals; usually between thirty and forty. The difference is that normally these phonemes are meaningless in isolation and only gain meaning when they are combined with other phonemes.So, whilst Chomsky's concept of creativity, the ability to produce novel utterances, seems not to be present in any natural communication system possessed by animals, all systems of communication, human or otherwise, appear to be innately guided. That is, a frog will inevitably croak, cows will inevitably moo and humans will inevitably talk. The important thing to realize is that, whilst there are many species for which vocalizations seem to have no solid semantic properties - a cat will purr to express happiness, there are some animal systems of communication, such as that of vervet monkeys, which arguably share with human the arbitrary nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier, developed by Saussure, and thus can be argued to have semantic properties.Mary Anne Winslow is a member of Essay Writing Service counselling department team and a dissertation writing consultant. Contact her to get free counselling o n custom essay writing.。

Differences_between_human_language_and_animal_communication_system

(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目录
第1章导言 1.1 复习笔记 1.2 课后习题详解 1.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第2章语音 2.1 复习笔记 2.2 课后习题详解 2.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学 3.1 复习笔记 3.2 课后习题详解 3.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法 4.1 复习笔记 4.2 课后习题详解
III. Scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范畴) 1. Microlinguistics(微观语言学) Phonetics语音学 Phonology音系学 Morphology形态学 Syntax句法学
Semantics语义学 Pragmatics语用学 2. Macrolinguistics (宏观语言学) Sociolinguistics社会语言学 Psycholinguistics心理语言学 Neurolinguistics神经语言学 Stylistics文体学 Discourse analysis语篇分析 Computational linguistics计算语言学 Cognitive linguistics认知语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学
3. Language is vocal—the primary medium for all languages is sound. 4. Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication. 1. 语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的。 2. 语言是任意的——词与其所指物之间没有内在的联系。 3. 语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。 4. 语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。

05英本语言学试卷A及答案

Part I Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets. (2%×20=40%)1. ______refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members ofa speech community.A. LangueB. ParoleC. CompetenceD. Performance2. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be ________.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic3. The famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” well illustrates ___________.A. the arbitrary nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication4. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ____.A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of air streamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips5. Which one isn’t suprasegmental features? _________ .A. StressB. ToneC. DeletionD. Intonation6. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called _________.A. polysemyB.hyponymyC. antonymyD. homonymy7. The word “ smog” is formed through.A. backformationB. blendingC. clippingD. derivation8. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed the ___________.A. phrase structureB. surface structureC. syntactic structureD. deep structure9．A(n)____act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention, it is the act performed in saying something.A. locutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech10. Which word can be analyzed as +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, -ADULT, -MALE ____A. boyB. girlC. manD. woman11. The pair of words "male" and "female" are_______ antonymy.A. gradableB. converseC. relationalD. complementary 12. __________ is the minimal units of meaning.A. MorphemeB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. Allophone13. The relationship between "fruit" and "apple" is .A. polysemyB.hyponymyC. homonymyD. synonymy14. is defined as the study of the internal structure of words, and therules by which words are formed.A. PhoneticsB. MorphologyC. SyntaxD. Semantics15 .“Autumn” and “Fall” are used respectively in Britain in and America, butrefer to the same thing. The words are ___synonyms.A. collocationalB. stylisticC. completeD. dialectal16. The word holiday originally meant holy day; but now the word signifies anyday on which we don’t have to work. This is an example of _________A. meaning shiftB. widening of meaningC. narrowing of meaningD. loss of meaning17. is the discussion about the relationship between language and culture.A. Sapir-Whorf hypothesisB. Critical Period HypothesisC. BilingualismD. Behaviorism18. “I bought some roses” _________ “ I bought some flowers”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with19. _____ is the study of the relationship between brain and language. ( )A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. neurolinguisticsD. Semantics20. The____ view holds that language develops as a result of the complexinterplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.A. behavioristB. innatistC. interactionistD. cognitive Part II. Define the following terms(3%×5=15%points)1. linguistics2. pragmatics3. culture4. language acquisition5. syntaxPart III. linguist and linguistic theory. (1%×8=8%)1.________ Ogden and Richard a. classification of speech acts2.________ J.K. Firth b. an innatist view of language acquisition3.________ Bloomfield c. critical period hypothesis4.________ G. Leech d. cooperative principle5.________ Searle e. semantic triangle6.________ Paul Grice f. predication analysis7.________ Noam Chomsky g. contextualism8.________ Eric Lenneberg h. BehavirismPart IV Answer the following questions. (5%×4=20%)1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?2. What is phonetics? How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?3. What is a register? Please use Halliday’s register theory to analyze:A lecture on biology in a technical college. 4. What are the Four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?Part IV. Theory and practice. (17%)1. Choose one of topics to answer (10%)(1) What are the major branches of linguistics?What does each of them study? Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?(2) What is language? What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? What are the main features of human language that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Choose( ):2. Draw the surface structure trees for the sentence. (2%+5%)(1)The car will arrive.(2)What did you eat for lunch?ANSWER SHEETPart I . Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets. (2%×20=40%) 1 ○A ○B ○C ○D 2 ○A ○B ○C ○D 3 ○A ○B ○C ○D 4○A ○B ○C ○D 5○A ○B ○C ○D 6○A ○B ○C ○D 7 ○A ○B ○C ○D 8 ○A ○B ○C ○D 9○A ○B○C ○D 10○A ○B ○C ○D 11 ○A ○B ○C ○D 12 ○A ○B ○C ○D 13 ○A ○B ○C ○D 14○A ○B ○C ○D 15○A ○B ○C ○D 16 ○A ○B ○C ○D 17 ○A ○B ○C ○D 18 ○A ○B ○C ○D 19○A ○B ○C ○D 20○A ○B ○C ○D Part II Define the following terms (3%×5=15%)1. linguistics2. pragmatics3.culture4. language acquisition5. syntaxPart III Linguist and linguistic theory . (1%×8=8%) Part IV . Answer the following questions. (5%×4=20% ) 1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?2.What is phonetics? How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?3. What is a register? Please use Halliday ’s register theory to analyze:A lecture on biology in a technical college.4. What are the Four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?Part IV. Theory and practice. (17%)1. Choose one of topics to answer (10%)(1) What are the major branches of linguistics?What does each of them study? Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?(2) What is language? What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? What are the main features of human language that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Choose ( ): 2. Draw the surface structure for the sentences . (2%+5%)(1)The car will arrive.(2)What did you eat for lunch?05英语(本)语言学概论参考答案Part I Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets. (2%×20=40%)1-5 ABABC 6-10 DBDBB 11-15 DABBD 16-20 BAACCPart II Define the following terms (3%×5=15%)1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Pragmatics is the study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.3.Culture means the total way of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs,objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.nguage acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how thechild comes to understand and speak the language of his community.5.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentencesand the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part III Linguist and linguistic theory . (1%×8=8%)1e 2 g 3h 4f 5a 6 d 7 b 8cPart IV Answer the following questions. (5%×4=20% )1. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways:Firstly: linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize the importance of the written word.Finally, modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. While to traditional grammar, Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.2. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics and phonology differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.3.The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.Field: scientific(biological) Tenor: teacher-students(formal, polite)Mode: oral(academic lecturing)4.The four maxims are: 1).Quantity--Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange.--Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2）Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3). Relation –Be relevant.4). Manner –Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.Part IV. Theory and practice. (17%) 1. Choose one of topics to answer (10%)(1) Answer: The major branches of linguistics include: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmaticsPhonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: it studies the way in which symbols representing sounds used in linguistic communication are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax: it studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantic: it studies meaning conveyedPragmatics: it studies meaning in the context of language use.（2）Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. Human ----language is human-specific.Arbitrariness The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.Creativity Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.Duality Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds. Displacement There is no limit in time or space for language. Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.Cultural transmission Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned. Language is a way of transmitting culture.2. (2%+5%)。

Chapter 02 Animals and human language

Later additions
In a report published in 1968 with anthropologist and scientist Stuart A. Altmann, Hockett derived three more Design Features: Prevarication: a speaker can say falsehoods, lies, and meaningless statements. Reflexiveness: Language can be used communicate about the very system it is; i.e. language can discuss language Learnability: a speaker of a language can learn another language
Specialization: The sound waves of speech have no function other than to signal meaning (unlike the audible panting of dogs, which has a biological purpose). Semanticity: The elements of the signal convey meaning through their stable association with real-world situations (unlike dog panting, which does not “mean” a dog is hot; it is “part of” being hot). Arbitrariness: There is no dependence of the element of the signal on the nature of the reality to which it refers (unlike the speed of bee “dancing”, which directly reflects the distance of the nectar from the hive).

人们和动物交流英文作文

人们和动物交流英文作文Title: Bridging the Gap: Communication between Humans and Animals。

Communication has always been a pivotal aspect of human existence. It enables us to express emotions, convey ideas, and build connections with others. However, while humans have developed sophisticated languages and methods of communication, there remains a significant barrier when it comes to communicating with animals. Despite this barrier, various studies and anecdotal evidence suggest that communication between humans and animals is not only possible but can also be enriching for both parties involved.One of the primary methods through which humans communicate with animals is through body language and vocal cues. Animals, especially domesticated ones like dogs and cats, are adept at understanding human body language and tone of voice. For example, a dog may wag its tail inresponse to a friendly tone, while a cat may purr when stroked gently. This form of non-verbal communication forms the basis of our interactions with animals and allows us to convey emotions and intentions without words.In addition to non-verbal cues, humans have also developed specific training methods to communicate with animals effectively. Techniques such as clicker training and positive reinforcement are commonly used to teach animals various behaviors and commands. Through consistent training and repetition, animals can learn to associate specific actions with rewards or consequences, allowing for clear communication between human trainers and their animal counterparts.Moreover, recent advancements in technology have opened up new possibilities for communication between humans and animals. Devices such as animal translators and wearable sensors can analyze animal vocalizations and movements, providing insights into their thoughts and emotions. While still in the early stages of development, these technologies hold promise for bridging the gap betweenhumans and animals even further.Beyond conventional methods of communication, some individuals claim to have a deeper, more intuitive connection with animals. These individuals, often referred to as animal whisperers or intuitives, believe that they can understand and communicate with animals on a profound level, transcending language barriers. While the scientific community remains skeptical of such claims, anecdotal evidence suggests that these individuals may possess a unique ability to empathize with and understand animals in ways that defy traditional explanation.The benefits of effective communication between humans and animals are manifold. For humans, it can lead to improved relationships with pets, enhanced training outcomes for working animals, and a greater appreciationfor the natural world. For animals, it can result in improved welfare, increased enrichment, and a deeper bond with their human counterparts. By fostering communication between humans and animals, we can create a more harmonious coexistence and promote empathy and understanding acrossspecies boundaries.In conclusion, while the language barrier between humans and animals may seem insurmountable at first glance, various methods and techniques exist to facilitate communication between the two. From non-verbal cues and training methods to technological advancements andintuitive connections, humans have found ways to bridge the gap and communicate with animals effectively. By recognizing the importance of communication in our relationships with animals, we can foster greater understanding, empathy, and respect for all living beings on our planet.。

人类与动物交流作文英语

人类与动物交流作文英语Title: Bridging the Communication Gap Between Humans and Animals。

Communication between humans and animals has always fascinated mankind. While humans have developed intricate languages and forms of communication, animals possess their own unique ways of expressing themselves. Despite the differences, there are instances where meaningful communication between humans and animals occurs, leading to mutual understanding and connection.One of the most common forms of communication between humans and animals is through body language and gestures. Animals, especially domestic ones like dogs and cats, are adept at interpreting human body language. A simple smile, a gentle touch, or a certain posture can convey a wealth of information to our animal companions. Likewise, animals often communicate their feelings and intentions through subtle body movements, such as wagging tails, purring, orflapping wings.Moreover, vocalizations play a crucial role in interspecies communication. While humans primarily use spoken language, animals utilize a wide range of vocalizations to convey messages. For instance, the bark of a dog can indicate excitement, fear, or aggression, while the purring of a cat signifies contentment. Understanding these vocal cues enables humans to better comprehend the emotions and needs of animals, fostering deeper bonds between the two.In recent years, advancements in technology have also facilitated communication between humans and animals. Scientists have developed devices that translate animal vocalizations into human language, allowing us to understand the thoughts and feelings of our animal companions more accurately. These devices have proven particularly useful in veterinary medicine, where they aid in diagnosing illnesses and alleviating animal suffering.Furthermore, the field of animal cognition has shedlight on the remarkable intelligence of non-human species. Studies have revealed that many animals possess cognitive abilities once thought to be exclusive to humans, such as problem-solving, tool use, and even self-awareness. By recognizing and respecting the cognitive abilities of animals, humans can establish more meaningful and respectful relationships with them.Additionally, empathy plays a crucial role in bridging the communication gap between humans and animals. Empathizing with animals involves putting oneself in their shoes and understanding the world from their perspective. This empathy allows humans to anticipate the needs of animals, provide appropriate care, and establish trust-based relationships built on mutual respect and understanding.Ultimately, effective communication between humans and animals is not just about deciphering their vocalizations or body language; it's about cultivating empathy, respect, and compassion for all living beings. By recognizing the intelligence, emotions, and individuality of animals,humans can forge deeper connections with them and create a more harmonious coexistence on this planet we share.。

探究人类和非人类类的语言和交流

探究人类和非人类类的语言和交流人是地球上唯一一种具备语言能力的生命体。

我们经常认为，只有人才有语言能力，而动物之间的交流只是基于本能的声音和信号，这种观点在科学界被称为“人类中心论”（Anthropocentrism）。

然而，随着人类对动物行为和语言能力的研究不断深入，越来越多证据表明，很多动物也具备语言的能力，甚至有些动物的语言逐渐被人类理解并运用于人类社会中。

一、人类的语言和交流语言是人类智慧的结晶，是人类最具特色的智力和文化的象征。

通常我们通过口语、书写、手势、表情等方式来进行交流。

单一的词汇可以组成句子，使得我们能够表达更加复杂的思想和概念。

另外，语言之间的差异也很大，不同的语言之间有独特的语法、词汇和语音，反映了各种文化背景和历史发展。

人类语言不仅涉及了演化史和社会文化，而且包括了各种意义形式。

意义和形式的相互作用使得人类语言成为一个非常复杂的系统，拥有几乎无限的潜在性。

在交流时，人类的语言除了语义本身，还有传达的口气、语调、节奏、口音等方面的细微变化，这些信息可以传递非常细腻的信息，使得人类交流非常之复杂，充满了趣味和挑战。

二、动物的语言和交流人类在漫长的进化过程中，通过生存需求，逐步形成了复杂的语言和交流系统。

相比之下，动物在历史上的生存需求不同，但仍然表现出一定的语言和交流能力。

从动物行为学的角度而言，动物的交流可以包括一系列不同的信号，例如声音、视觉信号、化学/香味信号等等。

例如，一些啁啾类鸟类如百灵鸟、夜莺能够演奏复杂的旋律，因此被认为是地球上最好的歌唱家之一。

此外，一些动物也能发出有规律的噪声，以合适地配合肢体动作。

其中，他们表现出的奇妙花式，难以被压制或模仿，在表达能力上比较高级。

动物之间通过斑点、芳香、触觉等多种方式进行交流。

例如，很多种蚂蚁和蝉都会不断振动颤声，作为信息传递的一种手段。

当然，他们发出这种声音，需要一定的场合和条件才能产生特定的信号。

在化学信号方面，相信不少人都听说过雌性兔的雄性荷尔蒙可以导致雌兔排泄特殊的香味分子，诱惑雄兔开展交配行为。

动物和人类对话英语作文

动物和人类对话英语作文Title: A Conversation Between Animals and Humans。

Introduction:In a world where animals and humans coexist, communication between the two species can often lead to intriguing insights and mutual understanding. This essay delves into a hypothetical dialogue between animals and humans, exploring various perspectives and shedding light on the interconnectedness of all living beings.---。

Human: Greetings, fellow inhabitants of this planet. It is truly an honor to engage in conversation with you.Animal: Greetings to you as well, humans. We, the animals, have long observed your species and have much to discuss.Human: Indeed, our interactions have been limited by our differing modes of communication. But today, through this dialogue, we can bridge that gap. Tell us, what thoughts do you harbor regarding our coexistence?Animal: We animals have existed on this Earth long before the emergence of humans. We have witnessed your evolution, your triumphs, and your follies. While we acknowledge your intelligence and capability, we also feel the weight of your dominance over our habitats.Human: Your perspective is understandable. We humans have indeed encroached upon your territories, sometimes without regard for the delicate balance of nature. But many among us strive to rectify these wrongs, advocating for conservation and preservation of biodiversity.Animal: We appreciate those efforts, truly we do. However, actions often speak louder than words. The destruction of forests, pollution of rivers, and exploitation of our kind continue unabated in many parts ofthe world.Human: You raise a valid point. Our species mustconfront these challenges head-on if we are to secure a harmonious coexistence with all forms of life. Whatspecific changes would you suggest?Animal: Firstly, respect for all life forms is paramount. Recognize that we, too, have a right to inhabit this planet and play our roles in the ecosystem. Secondly, prioritize conservation efforts and enact stringent laws to protect our habitats. Lastly, foster empathy and understanding among humans towards the plight of animals.Human: Your wisdom humbles us. We shall endeavor toheed your advice and work towards a more sustainable future. Is there anything else you wish to convey?Animal: Simply remember that we are not mere resources for your consumption or amusement. We are sentient beings with emotions, families, and a desire for survival, justlike you. Let compassion guide your actions, and together,we can create a world where all life thrives.Human: Your words resonate deeply within us. We pledge to be stewards of this planet, ensuring its abundance for generations to come. Thank you for this enlightening conversation.Animal: The pleasure was ours. May our exchange serve as a catalyst for positive change. Farewell, humans.---。

动物之间对话,有教育意义的英语作文

动物之间对话,有教育意义的英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: Educational Dialogue Among AnimalsIntroduction:Communication is a vital aspect of both human and animal behavior. Through dialogue, individuals can convey their thoughts, feelings, and needs to one another. In the animal kingdom, dialogue takes place through various forms of vocalizations, body language, and even chemical signals. This dialogue is not only crucial for social interactions but also for learning, teaching, and sharing knowledge. In this essay, we will explore the educational dialogue among animals and the valuable lessons we can learn from it.Main Body:1. Communication in the Animal Kingdom:- Animals use a variety of communication methods to interact with one another, such as vocalizations, body postures, and scent markings.- Communication plays a crucial role in establishing social hierarchies, attracting mates, warning of danger, and coordinating group activities.2. Teaching and Learning Among Animals:- Some animal species engage in teaching behaviors, where experienced individuals guide and instruct younger ones in essential skills.- For example, meerkats teach their young how to forage for food, birds demonstrate nest-building techniques to their offspring, and dolphins show their calves how to hunt for fish.3. Sharing Knowledge and Skills:- Animals also share knowledge and skills with each other through observation, imitation, and social learning.- A prime example is the tool use among chimpanzees, where individuals learn how to use sticks to extract termites from their nests by watching and imitating other members of their group.4. Moral Lessons from Animal Interactions:- Through observing the interactions and dialogue among animals, we can learn valuable moral lessons, such as theimportance of cooperation, empathy, and communication in building strong social bonds and resolving conflicts.- Animal behavior can inspire humans to cultivate a greater sense of community, respect for others, and stewardship of the environment.Conclusion:In conclusion, the educational dialogue among animals offers insights into the importance of communication, teaching, and learning in the natural world. By studying these interactions, we can gain a deeper understanding of our own social behaviors and relationships. It is essential to appreciate the rich tapestry of communication among animals and the valuable lessons they can teach us about cooperation, empathy, and shared knowledge. Let us continue to observe, learn, and reflect on the wisdom of our animal counterparts, as we strive to live harmoniously in our interconnected world.篇2Animals Talking: A Conversation with Educational ValueAnimals are fascinating creatures that have been observed communicating with each other in various ways. From the chirping of birds to the growling of lions, animals use soundsand body language to convey messages to one another. But what if animals could talk to each other in words, just like humans do? What would they say? And what lessons could we learn from their conversations?Imagine a world where animals have the ability to speak and hold meaningful conversations with each other. Let's eavesdrop on a dialogue between a wise old elephant named Eliza and a curious young monkey named Max.Eliza: Good afternoon, Max. How are you today?Max: I'm doing great, Eliza. Just swinging from tree to tree and enjoying the sunny weather.Eliza: That's wonderful to hear. Have you been practicing your acrobatic skills?Max: Yes, I have. I've been trying to master the art of swinging from branch to branch without losing my grip.Eliza: That's very impressive. Practice makes perfect, my dear Max.Max: Thank you, Eliza. I always try to improve myself and learn new things every day. What about you? Have you been teaching the younger elephants about the importance of family and sticking together?Eliza: Indeed, I have. I believe that unity and cooperation are key to the survival of our species. We must look out for each other and work together as a team.Max: That's very wise advice, Eliza. I will make sure to pass it on to my monkey friends.In this imaginary conversation between Eliza and Max, we can see the value of teaching important lessons about family, teamwork, and self-improvement. Just like in the animal kingdom, humans can also benefit from these teachings. By working together, supporting each other, and constantly striving to be better, we can create a harmonious and successful society.In conclusion, while animals may not be able to speak in words like humans do, their interactions with each other can still provide valuable lessons for us. By observing and learning from the way animals communicate and cooperate, we can gain a deeper understanding of the importance of unity, teamwork, and personal growth. So let's take a page out of Eliza and Max's book and strive to be the best versions of ourselves, just like they do in their own animal kingdom.篇3Animal Conversation: A Dialogue with Educational SignificanceIn the vast and diverse animal kingdom, communication plays a crucial role in the survival and social interactions of different species. Just like humans, animals use various forms of communication to convey information, emotions, and intentions to their fellow beings. Through observing and understanding the dialogues among animals, we can learn valuable lessons about cooperation, empathy, and the importance of effective communication.One prominent example of animal communication can be found in the social interactions of elephants. These magnificent creatures are known for their highly complex and emotional communication system, which includes a wide range of vocalizations, body language, and tactile signals. Elephants have the ability to express joy, sorrow, anger, and fear through their vocalizations and gestures, allowing them to form strong bonds within their herds and cooperate in various activities such as foraging and protecting their young.In a typical elephant conversation, a mother elephant may use low-frequency rumbles to reassure her calf and communicate that it is safe to follow her. The calf, in turn, maytrumpet loudly to signal distress or excitement, prompting other members of the herd to come to its aid. Through these interactions, elephants demonstrate the importance of empathy, cooperation, and emotional intelligence in maintaining social harmony and unity within their community.Similarly, dolphins are known for their sophisticated communication skills and playful interactions with one another. These highly intelligent marine mammals use a combination of clicks, whistles, and body language to convey information, coordinate hunting strategies, and establish social hierarchies within their pods. Dolphins have been observed engaging in intricate vocal exchanges, synchronized swimming patterns, and acrobatic displays to strengthen bonds and maintain social cohesion within their groups.In a typical dolphin conversation, a dominant male may emit a series of high-pitched whistles to assert his authority and attract potential mates, while younger dolphins engage in playful behaviors such as tail slapping and bubble blowing to establish social bonds and practice social skills. Through these interactions, dolphins demonstrate the importance of communication, cooperation, and adaptability in navigating the complexities of social relationships and environmental challenges.Birds, too, exhibit a wide range of vocalizations and behaviors to communicate with one another and coordinate group activities. From the melodic songs of songbirds to the raucous calls of crows and ravens, avian species use their voices, body language, and displays to defend territory, attract mates, and warn of predators. Birds engage in intricate courtship dances, synchronized flights, and cooperative foraging to establish social bonds and ensure the survival of their species.In a typical bird conversation, a male songbird may serenade a potential mate with a complex melody of chirps and trills to demonstrate his fitness and attract her attention. The female, in turn, may respond with her own song to signal her interest and acceptance of his advances. Through these interactions, birds showcase the power of communication, creativity, and perseverance in forming meaningful relationships and ensuring reproductive success.Overall, the dialogues among animals offer valuable insights into the importance of effective communication, empathy, and cooperation in building successful relationships and thriving communities. By studying and appreciating the rich and diverse forms of communication in the animal kingdom, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of social interactionsand learn valuable lessons about the power of language, emotions, and gestures in connecting with others and fostering mutual understanding and respect. Let us continue to explore and celebrate the wonders of animal communication and the lessons it can teach us about the beauty and diversity of the natural world.。

人类与动物的对话作文英语

人类与动物的对话作文英语Human: Hello, Mr. Lion. How are you today?Lion: Hello. I am doing well, thank you. How about you?Human: I'm doing great, thank you. I wanted to ask you about your life in the wild. What is it like to be a lion?Lion: Well, life in the wild can be tough at times. We have to hunt for our food and protect our territory from other animals. But overall, I enjoy the freedom and the thrill of the chase.Human: That sounds exciting. What do you think about humans encroaching on your territory and hunting your kind?Lion: It's a big problem. Our natural habitat is shrinking, and many of us are being killed for sport or for our body parts. It's important for humans to understand the impact of their actions on our population.Human: I completely agree. We need to do more toprotect and preserve wildlife. Is there anything we can do to help?Lion: Yes, there are many things humans can do to help. Supporting conservation efforts, reducing our carbon footprint, and spreading awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation are all important steps.Human: I will definitely do my part to help. Thank you for sharing your thoughts with me, Mr. Lion.Lion: You're welcome. It was a pleasure talking to you. Take care.Human: You too, Mr. Lion. Goodbye.Lion: Goodbye.In the vast wilderness, human beings and animals live together. The coexistence of humans and animals is a topicthat has been discussed for a long time. Today, I had the opportunity to have a conversation with a lion, which made me realize the importance of understanding and respecting each other.Human: Hello, Mr. Lion. How are you today?Lion: Hello. I am doing well, thank you. How about you?Human: I'm doing great, thank you. I wanted to ask you about your life in the wild. What is it like to be a lion?Lion: Well, life in the wild can be tough at times. We have to hunt for our food and protect our territory from other animals. But overall, I enjoy the freedom and the thrill of the chase.Human: That sounds exciting. What do you think about humans encroaching on your territory and hunting your kind?Lion: It's a big problem. Our natural habitat is shrinking, and many of us are being killed for sport or forour body parts. It's important for humans to understand the impact of their actions on our population.Human: I completely agree. We need to do more to protect and preserve wildlife. Is there anything we can do to help?Lion: Yes, there are many things humans can do to help. Supporting conservation efforts, reducing our carbon footprint, and spreading awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation are all important steps.Human: I will definitely do my part to help. Thank you for sharing your thoughts with me, Mr. Lion.Lion: You're welcome. It was a pleasure talking to you. Take care.Human: You too, Mr. Lion. Goodbye.Lion: Goodbye.Through this conversation, I realized that animals have their own thoughts and feelings. They are not just creatures for us to admire from a distance, but living beings that deserve our respect and protection. It is our responsibility as humans to coexist peacefully with animals and to ensure their well-being. Only through understanding and cooperation can we create a harmonious world where both humans and animals can thrive.。

Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication 人类动物语言比较

Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication Similarity: Both are composed of SIGNS (forms with meaning)Six Key Differences:1. Animal: The signs of animal systems are inborn.Human: The capacity to be creative with signs is inborn,but the signs (words) themselves are acquired culturally.---------------------------------------------------------------------2. Animal: Communication is set responses to stimuli (indexes).Human: Not limited to use as an index.---------------------------------------------------------------------3. Animal: Each sign has one and only one function; each meaning can be expressed only in one wayHuman: Signs often have multiple functions; one meaning can be expresses in many ways---------------------------------------------------------------------4. Animal: Not naturally used in novel wayHuman: Creative, can be adapted to new situations---------------------------------------------------------------------5. Animal: Closed inventory of signs; only a set number of different messages can be sentHuman: Open ended. Grammar (rules of syntax) allows a virtually unlimited number of messages to be constructed---------------------------------------------------------------------6. Animal: Change extremely slowly, with the speed of genetic evolution.Human: Change rapidly as a cultural phenomenon.Swahili (adapted from An Introduction to Language, Fromkin and Rodman)One of the characteristic features of Swahili (and Bantu languages in general) is the existence of noun classes. There are specific singular and plural prefixes that occur with the nouns of each class. These prefixes are also used for purposes of agreement between the subject-noun and the verb. In the sentences given, two of these classes are included (there are many more in the language).A. Identify all the morphemes you can detect. Be sure to look for the other nounand verb affixes, including tense markers.Class 1 singular noun prefix m- Class 1 singular subject agreement a- Class 1 plural noun prefix wa- Class 1 plural subject agreement wa-Class 2 singular noun prefix ki- Class 2 singular subject agreement ki- Class 2 plural noun prefix vi- Class 2 plural subject agreement vi-present prefect prefix me-present progressive na-NounsClass 1 Class 2-toto child -su knife-tu man -kapu basketVerbs-fika ‘arrive’ -lala ‘sleep’ -anguka fallB. How is the verb constructed? That is, what kinds of morphemes are strung together and in what order? Agreement Prefix + Tense/Aspect Prefix + V6.) Examine the following words from Michoacan Aztecnokali “my house” mopelo “your dog”nokalimes “my houses” mopelomes “your dogs”mokali “your house” ipelo “his dog”ikali “his house” nokwahmili “my cornfield”kalimes “houses” mokwahmili “your cornfield”ikwahmili “his cornfield”a. The morphene meaning “house” is(1) Kal (2) Kali (3) Kalim (4) ikal (5) Kab. The morphene meaning “cornfield” is:(1) Kwahmilimes (2) nokwahmilimes (3) nokwahmili (4) kwahmili(5) ikwahmilimesc. The word meaning “his dog” is:(1) pelos (2) ipelomes (3) ipelos (4) mopelo (5) pelomesd. If the word meaning “friend” in this language is mahkwa, then the word meaning “my friend” is:(1) momahkwa (2) imahkwas (3) momahkwames(4) momahkwaes (5) nomahkwamese. The word meaning dog in this language is:(1) pelo (2) Perro (3) peli (4) pel (5) mopelpage101 - #88.) Below are some sentences in Swahili:mtoto amefika “The child has arrived.”mtoto anafika “The child is arriving.”mtoto atafika “The child will arrive.”watoto wamefika “The children have arrived.”watoto wanafika “The children are arriving.”watoto watafika “The children will arrive.”mtu amelala “The man has slept.”mtu analala “The man is sleeping.”mtu atalala “The man will sleep.”watu wamelala “The man have slept.”watu wanalala “The men are sleeping.”watu watalala “The men will sleep.”kisu kimeanguku “The knife has fallen.”kisu kinaanguka “The Knife is falling.”kisu kitaanguka “The knife will fall.”visu vimeanguka “The knives have fallen.”visu vinaang uka “The knives are falling.”visu vitaanguka “The knives will fall.”kikpu kimeanguka “The basket has fallen.”kikapu kinaanguka “The basket is falling.”kikapu kitaanguka “The basket will fall.”vikapu vimeanguka “The baskets have fallen.”vikapu vinaan guka “The baskets are falling.”vikapu vitaanguka “The baskets will fall.”One of the characteristic features of Swahili (and Bantu languages in general) is the existence of noun classes. There are specific singular and plural prefixes that occur with the nouns in each class. These prefixes are also used for purposes of agreement between the subject-noun and the verb. In the sentence given, two of these classes are included (there are many more in the language).a. Identify all the morphemes you can detect and give their meanings. Example: -toto “child”m- noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class Ia- prefix attached to verbs when the subject is a singular noun of Class I.Be sure to look for other noun and verb markers, including tense markers. toto = childm = noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class Ia = prefix attached to verbs when the subject is a singular noun of class I. wa = Plural prefix attached to nounstu = manki = noun prefix attached to singular nouns of class IIvi = plural prefix attached to nounssu = knifekapu = basketanguka = verb arrivena = isb. how is the verb constructed? That is, what kind of morphemes are strung together in what order?The helping noun is before the root and the verb is constructed through infixes.c. How would you say in Swahili:(1) The child is falling. = (1) mtota ananguka(2) The basket has arrived. = (2) vikapu vimefika(3) The man will fall. = (3) mtu kitaangukapage 102 - #99.) One morphological process not discussed in this chapter is called reduplication-the formation of new words through the repetition of part or all of a word-which occurs in a number of languages. The following examples from Samoan exemplify this kind of morphological rule.manao “he wishes” mananao “they wish”matua “he is old” matutua “they are old”malosi “he is stron” malolosi “they are strong”punou “he bends” punonou “the bend”atamaki “he is wise” atamamaki “they are wise”savali “he travels”savavali“they travel”pese“he sings” pepese “they sing”l aga “he weaves”lagaga“they weave”a. What is Samoan for:(1) they weave = lagaga(2) they travel = savavali(3) he sings = peseb. Formulate a general statrement (a morphological rule) that states how to form the plural verb form from the singular ver form.Take the second consonant and the vowel that follows and and put it in as an infix to create a plural (infixing/placing it immediately after the second consonant and the vowel that follows)Page 307 (3,4,5,13)page 307 - #33.) Consider the distribution of [r] and [l] in Korean in the following words: [uu] is a high back unrounded vowel. it does not affect your analysis in this problem.rupi “ruby” mul “water”kiri “road” pal “big”saram “person” seul “Seoul”iruumi “name” ilkop “seven”r atio “radio” ipalsa “barber”Are [r] and [l] allophones of one or two phonemes?a. Do they occur in minimal pairs?Yes, they do not occur in minimal pairsb. Are they in complimentary distribution?If you can make a rule of law - they accour, yes they are in complimentary distribution.c. In what environments does each occur?r always occurs before the vowel.l always occurs after a vowel.If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule that can derive the phonetic allophonic forms.4.) Korean|s| and |s| are in complimentary distribution and |s| is an allophone of |s| - |s| can occur anywhere full unit and |s| must always proceed.5.) Bantua.) |s| - |s| - |s| occurs before a middle or back vowel |s| occurs between two vowels |Z| always proceeds ani |Z| can occur anywhere in a word.b.) Basic Phonemes [t] [s] [z]c.) The phonemes [t,s,z] become alveo palatal allophones [c,s,z}13.) African Maninkaa.) li, nib.) ni is added for ing when there is an action verb, li is added for ing as wellc.) da, dali famu, famunime, menni sunogo, sunogoli。

Whylanguageishumanspecific为什么语言是人类特有的

Whylanguageishumanspecific为什么语⾔是⼈类特有的Why language is human specific?Abstract:As for the view that language is specific for human beings, we can conclude it on the basis of the formation and the particular characters of human language. Therefore we can conclude that the formation of human language is the mutual effect of the internal changes and the external environment. Human language has a lot of unique characters such as creativity and productivity. Finally we can get the conclusion that language is specific for human beings.Introduction:The claim that language is human specific implies that humans can talk, but other animals can not. There must be something particular. To have a better understanding of this, we have had a father exploration from human development process and language features.Language is a unique human trait which has been a prerequisite for the development of human culture. In our viewpoint, why language is human specific is due to four reasons as follows.1. Special genes provide the possibility for the vocal ability.The research conducted by the scientists of British Academy found that human beings have the gene FOXP2. And its peculiar location on chromosome 7 has a great impact on the capacity of speaking. This gene is disrupted by translocation in an unrelated individual who has a similardisorder. Thus, two functional copies of FOXP2 seem to be required for acquisition of normal spoken language.2. Physiological basis is the fundamental factor for speaking.①Sophisticate brain structure.Our brain has a particular part for speaking, reading, and listening, which named speech center. Speech center is responsible for language expression and other senior activities. A famous research shown that if any part of your speech center is destroyed; unfortunately, you will get Aphasia or others diseases related to language.②Special speech organs .From the fore-language stage to mature language stage, human beings’ pronunciation organs has evolved well, people can be able to speak out complex syllables, words and sentences.The other reason for the claim that language is human specific is that there are certain characteristics of human language. They are not found in the communication systems of any other species.Linguists generally believe that language consists of a series of symbols and the combination rules of these symbols (syntax) composition, at least contains four important features:/doc/7d274be85ef7ba0d4a733bbe.html plex structure of human languageHuman language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system. Human language doesnot simply use sound to transfer the message, and they use sentence which concludes unit, table righteousness unit, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax system and so on. However, the communication tool used by animals is the voice of indecomposable. It can not decompose a syllable, sound, and other units, even more vocabulary and grammar. So their sound is invariable, no social. For this reason, we say that language is human-specific.2. The creativity of human language.The creativity of human language is seen as the essence mark of communication between human and other species. Human beings have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances. Some linguists call this property of language creativity. Human language is intelligent voice. It is produced as a result of human creativity. But animals can only express some things or situations which are simple and easy to convey. Not like human beings who can be in different conditions use different expressions. Also human can use different ways to express the same kind of content. However the animals’ communication does not have the ability of creativity.So the creativity of human language indicatesthat language is human-specific. 2.Acquired learning of human languageHuman language can't acquire through biological inheritance but learning. Human beings are higher animals which have complex socialsystem, so they need this complex communication ways---language to communicate mutually and spread knowledge. If human beings do not learn language, they can’t communicate with each other. The example of wolf child can prove this. However, animals obtain language through biological inheritance, and they can not get it by learning. For example, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring.Gua was a chimpanzee raised as though it were a human child by prof. and Mrs. Kellogg alongside their son Donald. In tests Gua often tested ahead of Donald in reading and understanding. The parting difference came with language. Donald was about 16 months and Gua was a little over a year old when they had language testing. Gua could not speak, but Donald could form words.As for this, we can know that language is human-specific.4. Independent assortment of human language.Independent assortment of language is limitless .Or we can call it openness or productivity. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some ways, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings. The information that animal sounds and actions can transfer is very limited, and it cannot be compared with language. Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended. People can talk about anything theycan observe or imagine. What they can say on given topics is almost unlimited. For example, the use of more limited vocabulary, phrases and combination rules can form an infinite number of sentences. Only human beings can change meaningless speech according to various combination rules to become meaningful morpheme. The characteristics of human language that information transfer regardless of the local environmental restrictions.Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisti cated than any animal communication system. People’s ability of making an excellent speech use not only tongue and mouth, but also the smart and complicated human mind.With the four characteristics of human language, the complexity structure of language, creativity, acquired learning and independent assortment, language is human-specific.Reference:1.Nature418, 869-872 (22 August 2002) | doi: 10.1038/nature01025; Received 11 November 2001; Accepted 29 July 2002; Published online 14 August 20023./doc/7d274be85ef7ba0d4a733bbe.html /view/3ae077c10c22590102029de6.html4./doc/7d274be85ef7ba0d4a733bbe.html /view/94c8b42bcfc789eb172dc8cc5./doc/7d274be85ef7ba0d4a733bbe.html /view/9b70437ea26925c52cc5bfd6.html。

人类语言与动物语言的区别（中英文对照版）

（1）人的语言和动物的语言有什么本质区别？1、人类语言的单位具有明晰性特点，动物语言是囫囵一团，不能分析的；（Units of human language with clarity the characteristics of the language of the animals isa group of wholeness, not analysis;）2、人类语言的音义结合具有任意性特点；（The sound and meaning of human language with any character;）3、人类语言具有结构的二层性，可以以有限的单位组成无限的句子，动物的语言没有这种二层性；（Human language has a two-story structure, limited units to form infinite sentences, thistwo-story in the language of animals;）4、人类语言具有开放性，它是一种开放系统，虽然音位数量有限，可是经组合与替换，可以构成无限的句子，开放性还体现在语言是随着社会的发展而发展的，不断产生新词，吸收外民族的词语，一些社会现象的消失，语言中相应的词也隐匿或消失，动物的语言没有这种变化；（Human language is open, it is an open system, although the phoneme a limited number of, but by the combination of replacement, it can be infinite sentences, openness is also reflected in the language with the development of social development, continue togenerate newwords, absorbing the words of foreign national, the disappearance ofsocial phenomena, language of the word occult or disappear, no such changes in the language of animals;）5、人类语言具有传授性，它是可以传授的，掌握什么样的语言是后天学会的，动物的语言则是天生的，不需要学习；（T each human language, it can be taught to grasp what kind of language is learned theday after tomorrow, the language of animals are born, do not need to learn;）6、人类语言不受时、地的限制，它可以表达过去的事情，也可以阐述未来的事情。

英语视听考试

英语视听1[单选题]It is the _______ on Case assignment that states that a Case assignorand a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other( )ACase ConditionBparameterCAdjacent ConditionDAdjacent Parameter我的答案:C解析：2[单选题]A word with several meanings is called __wordAa polysemousBa synonymousCan abnormalDa multiple我的答案:A解析：3[单选题]Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circlesoverlapping in some parts When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "subvocal speech," and speech as "_______"( )Avocal thoughtBsubvocal thoughtCcovert thoughtDovert thought我的答案:D解析：4[单选题]The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a _______ formula"S→NP VP"( )AhierarchicalBlinearCtree diagramDvertical我的答案:B解析：5[单选题]___produce fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation but the content of their speechranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense, often as unintelligibleABroca's aphasicBThe linguistic deprivationCThe damage on the angular gyrusDWernicke's aphasic我的答案:D解析：6[单选题]Of the following sound combinations, only _______ is permissibleaccording to the sequential rules in English( )AkiblBbkilCilkbDilbk我的答案:A解析：7[单选题]The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it? ”is __AinformativeBphaticCdirectiveDperformative我的答案:B解析：8[单选题]The semantic components of the word “gentleman ”can be expressed as __A+animate, +male, +human,-adultB+animate, +male, +human, +adultC+animate, -male, +human,-adultD+animate,-male,+ human, +adult我的答案:B解析：9[单选题]A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as ___AunusualBsomething to be fearedCabnormalDnatural我的答案:D解析：10[单选题]The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __ and vocabularyAusageBgrammarCpronunciationDstructure我的答案:C解析：11[单选题]According to Searle,those illocutionary acts whose point is to committhe speaker to some future course of action are called _______( )AcommisivesBdirectivesCexpressivesDdeclaratives我的答案:A解析：12[单选题]Predication analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaningAphonemeBwordCphraseDsentence我的答案:D解析：13[单选题]The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play “Romeo and Juliet ”‘Arose by any other name would smell as sweet ’well illustrates_______( )Athe conventional nature of languageBthe creative nature of languageCthe universality of languageDthe big difference between human language and animal communication我的答案:A解析：14[单选题]Whcih of the following best states the behaviorist view of child languageacquisition?_______( )ALanguage acquisition is a process of habit formationBLanguage acquisition is the species-specific property of human beingsCChildren are born with an innate ability to acquire languageDHumans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use我的答案:A解析：15[单选题]The pair of words “lend ”and “borrow ”are ___Agradable oppositesBrelational oppositesCco-hyponymsDsynonyms我的答案:B解析：16[单选题]Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night ”as “light ”This shows:___ AThey cannot pronounce/n/BInterlangue interference because there is not the sound /n/in their mother tongueCThe teachers do not have a good teaching methodDThey do not like to pronounce nasal sounds我的答案:B解析：17[单选题]__deals with the way in which a language varies through geographical spaceALinguistic geographyBLexicologyCLexicographyDSociolinguistics我的答案:A解析：18[单选题]The term _______ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring tothe approach which studies language change over various periods of timeand at various historical stagesAsynchronicBdiachronicCcomparativeDhistorical comparative我的答案:B解析：19[单选题]The way in which people address each other depends on their age, sex,social group, and personal relationship The English system of addressforms frequently used includes first name, last name, title+last name,_______,and kin termAtitle+first nameBtitle+titleCtitle aloneDfirst name+last name+title我的答案:C解析：20[单选题]The discovery of Indo-European language family began with the work of the British scholar____ AJacob GrimmBRasmus RaskCFranz BoppDSir William Jones我的答案:D解析：21[判断题]All words may be said to contain a root morpheme( )A对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：22[判断题]The phoneme /t/ and /d/ can occur in the same position and they distinguish meaning, thereforethey are said to be in complementary distributionA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：23[判断题]The word “photographically ”is made up of morphemes( )A对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：24[判断题]Linguistics is the course of language( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：25[判断题]Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds of all human languages form patterns and howthese sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communicationA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：26[判断题]( )In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before thespoken formA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：27[判断题]Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of a particular languageA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：28[判断题]( )In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a long vowelsuch as/i:/,the larynx is in a state of tensionA对参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：29[判断题]( )Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differentsituations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same senseA对B错参考答案:B解析：30[判断题]In English, pill and bill form a minimal pair, and so do life and knife, pin and pingA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：31[判断题]( )An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition,unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the originalpresupposition is still trueA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：32[判断题]A morpheme must convey a lexical meaningA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：33[判断题]( )A compound is the combination of only two wordsA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：34[判断题]The distinctive features in English can apply to the other languages, too For instance, voicingdistinguishes meaning in both English and ChineseB错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：35[判断题]( )The division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English isnonconventional and not arbitraryA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：36[判断题]( )Language reflects sexism in society Language itself is not sexist, just as it is notobscene; but it can connote sexist attitudes as well as attitudes about social taboos or racismA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：37[判断题]The part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or a verb phrase is grammatically calledpredicate( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：38[判断题]All words can be said to contain a root morphemeA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：39[判断题]We can use the word “word ”to talk about a word, we can talk about “talk ”, we can think about“thinking ”, this shows that language has a metalingual functionA对B错参考答案:A解析：40[判断题]The morphological rules can be generalized in spite of some exceptionsA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：41[判断题]Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：42[判断题]Language is arbitrary by nature but it is not completely arbitraryA对B错参考答案:A我的答案:A解析：43[判断题]Tense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：44[判断题]( )When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the soundsthat are not part of the language, they can acquire any sounds in their native language once theirparents teach themA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：45[判断题]The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：46[判断题]Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attachedA对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：47[判断题]( ) “The student ”in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture ”,and “Thelinguistic lecture ”in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student ”belong to the samesyntactic categoryA对B错参考答案:A解析：48[判断题]Semantics is the main part of linguistics( )A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B解析：49[判断题]( )If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a languagesuccessfully later onA对B错参考答案:A解析：50[判断题]In a standardized English syllable all of the three parts of onset, nucleus and coda arecompulsory A对B错参考答案:B我的答案:B。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Human Language and Animal Communication System作者：杨蕴哲来源：《校园英语·中旬》2016年第07期【Abstract】Human language differs from animal communication in many ways. Hockett isolated 16 features that characterize human language and which distinguish it from other communication systems. The following passage will introduce some of these features， and by comparing language with animal communication systems， we can have a better understanding of the nature of language.【Key words】human language； animal communication； differenceIntroductionIf someone asks you what separates humans from other animals， one of the first things that would probably come to mind is language. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication （Wardhaugh 1972）. However， animal communication is the transmission of a signal from one animal to another such that the sender benefits， on average， from the response of the recipient （Slater 1983）. So how does human language differ from animal communication？American linguist Charles Hockett believed that there are sixteen features of human language that distinguished human communication from that of animals. Here I just want to discuss three of them，and each animal system differs entirely from all human languages in the three ways. They are arbitrariness， displacement， and productivity.ArbitrarinessHuman language is a symbolic system. The signs or words in language have no inherent connection to what they signify or mean， which means there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. Although the choice of certain sound symbols to present certain objects， events or ideas is arbitrary， once the relationship is established， it becomes a fixed convention. However， animal communication is not symbolic， which means ideas cannot be preserved for the future.DisplacementHuman language can talk about things that are not happening here or now. It means speakers can talk about the past and the future， as well as the present and speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant. What’s more， they can even refer to things and events that do not actually exist. No animal communication system possesses this feature. Animals， on the other hand， reactonly to stimuli in the present. They communicate in reaction to a stimulus in the immediate environment， such as food or danger. For example， Gibbons， calls is one of their communication systems. One of the calls is emitted typically when the group is surprised by a possible enemy and takes the form of a high pitched shout； it is often repeated by those who hear it and all act accordingly in order to avoid the danger of the enemy.ProductivityHuman language is an open system， which is creative and can be used in novel ways. Human beings use their linguistic resources to produce new expressions and sentences. They arrange phonemes， morphemes， words， and phrases in a way that can express an infinite number of ideas. However， animal communication is a closed system. It cannot produce new signals to communicate novel events or experiences. For example， also the animal gibbon， no matter what situation a gibbon may encounter， its vocal reaction is constrained to be one of this small finite number； a gibbon does not react to a new situation by producing a new call or putting together two or more of the calls already available. Besides， Honeybees， for instance， can communicate only about the location of a source of nectar. As far as we know， they do not communicate about the weather or the beauty of nature.ConclusionAlthough both human language and animal communication system contain signs， units of form with specific meaning， the differences between them， as we can see， are profound. It is the features we discuss above that make a distinction between human language and animal communication system. Human language is symbolic， creative， and displaced，which form a sharp contrast to animal communication system.References：[1]Chomsky，N.，（1957），Semantic structures，The Hague：Mouton.[2]George Yule，2000.The study of language.Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.[3]Fromkin，V，Rodman and Hyams，N.2003.An Introduction to Language.[4]Pearce，J.M.An Introduction to Animal Cognition，Lawrence Erlbaum Associates，1987.[5]Linguistic：A Concise Book.Chapter one：Language and Linguistics.作者简介：杨蕴哲（1994.10-），女，四川内江人，南充市顺庆区西华师范大学师范英语专业，本科生。