Properties and homogeneity of 550-MPa grade TMCP steel for ship hull
堆肥腐殖酸形成及其电化学活性
补充活性腐殖酸ꎬ防止腐殖酸因修复氧化还原过程导致降解后只能作为碳源.
关键词: 垃圾堆肥ꎻ 腐殖酸ꎻ 氨基酸ꎻ 电化学
中图分类号: Ｘ７０５ 文章编号: １００１￣６９２９(２０２１)１２￣２９８０￣０９
ｐｒｅｖｅｎｔ ｈｕｍｉｃ ａｃｉｄｓ ｆｒｏｍ ｂｅｉｎｇ ｕｓｅｄ ｊｕｓｔ ａｓ ａ ｃａｒｂｏｎ ｓｏｕｒｃｅ ａｆｔｅｒ ｔｈｅ ｄｅｇｒａｄａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｒｅｄｏｘ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ. Ｔｈｅ ｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｓ ａｂｏｖｅ ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅ ａ
ｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌ ｂａｓｉｓ ｆｏｒ ｉｍｐｒｏｖｉｎｇ ｔｈｅ ｆｅｒｔｉｌｉｚｅｒ ｅｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｃｙ ａｎｄ ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｌ ｒｅｍｅｄｉａｔｉｏｎ ｐｅｒｆｏｒｍａｎｃｅ ｏｆ ｃｏｍｐｏｓｔｉｎｇ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ.
ｌｉｇｎｏｃｅｌｌｕｌｏｓｅꎬ ｂｕｔ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ａｍｉｎｏ ａｃｉｄｓ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐｏｓｔｉｎｇ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｒｅａｃｔｉｏｎ ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｈｕｍｉｃ ａｃｉｄｓ ｗｉｔｈ
ｌｉｇｎｏｃｅｌｌｕｌｏｓｅ ａｒｅ ｓｔｉｌｌ ｎｏｔ ｃｌｅａｒ. Ｈｅｎｃｅꎬ ｔｈｅ ｅｆｆｅｃｔ ｏｆ ｒｅｄｏｘ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｃｏｍｐｏｓｔｉｎｇ ｈｕｍｉｃ ａｃｉｄｓ ｃａｎｎｏｔ ｂｅ ｅｖａｌｕａｔｅｄ. Ｉｎ
增加以及垃圾分类的有效推进ꎬ城市生活垃圾中易腐
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制备液相法 英文
制备液相法英文Liquid-Phase SynthesisLiquid-phase synthesis, also known as liquid-phase method, is a versatile technique used in the preparation of a wide range of materials with specific properties. This method involves the formation of materials in a liquid medium, allowing for precise control over the reaction conditions and the resulting product. Liquid-phase synthesis is commonly used in the synthesis of nanoparticles, thin films, and nanocomposites.One of the key advantages of liquid-phase synthesis is the ability to achieve high purity and homogeneity in the final product. By carefully controlling the reaction parameters such as temperature, pressure, and reaction time, researchers can produce materials with the desired size, shape, and composition. This level of control is essential for applications in fields such as catalysis, sensor technology, and nanomedicine.In liquid-phase synthesis, the starting materials are typically dissolved or suspended in a solvent, which acts as a reaction medium. The solvent not only provides a medium for the reaction to take place, but it also helps to control the rate of the reaction and the distribution of the reactants. Common solvents used in liquid-phase synthesis include water, ethanol, and organic solvents such as toluene and hexane.The choice of solvent is crucial in liquid-phase synthesis, as it can significantly impact the properties of the resulting material. For example, water is often used as a solvent for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles, as it can stabilize the particles and prevent agglomeration. Organic solvents, on the other hand, are commonly used in the synthesis of polymers and organic compounds, as they can dissolve a wide range of organic materials.In addition to the solvent, the choice of reagents and reaction conditions also play a critical role in the success of a liquid-phase synthesis. The concentration of the reactants, the temperature, the pH, and the presence of catalysts or surfactants can all influence theoutcome of the reaction. By carefully optimizing these parameters, researchers can tailor the properties of the final material to meet specific requirements.Liquid-phase synthesis is a versatile and powerful technique that has been widely used in the preparation of a diverse range of materials. From metal nanoparticles to organic polymers, this method offers a high degree of control over the properties of the final product, making it an essential tool for researchers in fields such as materials science, chemistry, and nanotechnology. By understanding the principles of liquid-phase synthesis and optimizing the reaction conditions, scientists can create materials with tailored properties and functionalities for a variety of applications.。
材料试验大纲 英文
材料试验大纲英文Material Testing Outline.Introduction.The material testing outline serves as a comprehensive guide for conducting rigorous and reproducible material testing. It outlines the various stages involved in the testing process, from planning and preparation to execution and analysis. This outline aims to ensure consistency, accuracy, and safety throughout the testing procedure, ensuring reliable results that can be used for various applications, such as product development, quality control, and research.1. Testing Objectives.Before commencing the testing process, it is crucial to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound(SMART). They guide the testing team and ensure that the efforts are focused on achieving the desired outcomes. For example, the objective may be to determine the mechanical properties of a material under specific conditions or to assess the material's durability and reliability over time.2. Testing Plan.The testing plan outlines the specific steps and procedures that will be followed during the testing process. It includes information on the testing equipment and instrumentation, the test setup, the test environment, and the testing schedule. The plan also details the safety measures to be taken, ensuring the safety of the testing personnel and equipment.3. Sample Preparation.Sample preparation is a crucial step in material testing. It involves selecting the appropriate material samples, ensuring their homogeneity and consistency, and preparing them for testing. The samples should berepresentative of the material being tested and should be handled, stored, and transported according to specific guidelines to prevent any alterations in their properties.4. Test Execution.During the test execution phase, the testing plan is implemented, and the material samples are subjected to various tests. These tests may include tensile testing, compression testing, flexural testing, impact testing, fatigue testing, and more, depending on the objectives and requirements of the testing. The testing personnel should be well-trained and follow strict procedures to ensure accurate and reproducible results.5. Data Collection and Analysis.Data collection and analysis are essential for obtaining meaningful results from material testing. The testing equipment typically records various parameters, such as load, displacement, strain, stress, and time, during the testing process. These data are then analyzedusing statistical and engineering principles to derive meaningful insights about the material's properties and behavior. The analysis should be conducted by qualified personnel and should be validated to ensure its accuracy and reliability.6. Test Report and Documentation.After the completion of testing and data analysis, a detailed test report is prepared. This report summarizes the testing objectives, methods, procedures, results, and conclusions. It also includes any safety considerations, equipment calibration details, and any other relevant information. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner, enabling others to understand the testing process and results easily.7. Quality Assurance and Improvement.Quality assurance and improvement are ongoing processes in material testing. They involve monitoring the testing process, identifying any issues or discrepancies, andimplementing corrective actions to improve the accuracy and reliability of the results. Regular audits and reviews of the testing procedures and equipment are conducted to ensure their continued compliance with industry standards and best practices.In conclusion, the material testing outline provides a structured and systematic approach to material testing. It ensures that the testing process is conducted in a consistent, accurate, and safe manner, leading to reliable results that support various applications in product development, quality control, and research. By following this outline, organizations can improve their material testing capabilities, enhance product quality, and reduce risks associated with material failure.。
金砖御窑烧制所涉及的化学知识
金砖御窑烧制所涉及的化学知识1.金砖御窑烧制需要了解陶瓷材料的化学成分和性质。
The firing of the royal kiln of the golden brick requires an understanding of the chemical composition and properties of ceramic materials.2.瓷器的釉料配方需要考虑各种化学原料的配比和反应条件。
The formulation of glazes for porcelain requires consideration of the proportions of various chemical raw materials and reaction conditions.3.了解氧化物在瓷器烧制过程中的化学变化对控制烧制温度和气氛有重要意义。
Understanding the chemical changes of oxides in thefiring process of porcelain is important for controlling the firing temperature and atmosphere.4.瓷器釉料的烧成过程涉及到各种化学反应和相变。
The firing process of glazes for porcelain involves various chemical reactions and phase transformations.5.熟悉瓷釉中的色谱化学知识可以帮助调配出不同颜色和特性的釉料。
Familiarity with the chromatography of glazes can help in formulating glazes of different colors and characteristics.6.了解金属氧化物的颜色和熔点的化学特性对于设计优质的釉料很重要。
丙烯酸-丙烯基羟丙基磺酸醚共聚物
英文回答：Acrylic acid—propyl sulfonate co—polymer is a highly molecular material that is widely used in medicine and has good water solubility and biologicalpatibility. This material can be used for the preparation of biologicallypatible materials and plays an important role in areas such as drug transfer, tissue engineering and medical adhesives. The co—polymers also have excellent antioxidation properties that can be used to prepare antioxidation packaging materials. Optically superior acrylic acrylic acid—propyl sulfonate co—polymer, which can also be applied to the preparation of optical appliances. On the policy front, we will continue to support and encourage scientific research and technological innovation and to promote the application and development of high—molecular materials in the medical and other fields in order to promote the technological and industrial development of our country in those areas.丙烯酸-丙烯基羟丙基磺酸醚共聚物，是一种在医学领域得到广泛应用的高分子材料，具有良好的水溶性和生物相容性。
应力修正系数英文
应力修正系数英文Title: Stress Correction CoefficientIn the realm of engineering mechanics and structural analysis, the stress correction coefficient emerges as a pivotal factor in ensuring the integrity and safety of engineered structures. This mathematical index plays a crucial role in adjusting the calculated stress values to account for various practical factors that may affect the actual stress experienced by a material or component under load.To begin with, it is imperative to understand what the stress correction coefficient entails. In theoretical calculations, stress is often determined based on idealized assumptions such as homogeneity, isotropy, and uniform distribution of loads. However, in real-world applications, these conditions are seldom perfectly met. The stress correction coefficient is thus introduced to bridge the gap between theoretical predictions and empirical observations, enhancing the accuracy of stress assessments.The necessity of this correction stems from several sources of uncertainty and variability in material properties, geometric imperfections, boundary conditions, and external environmental factors. For instance, materials may containinternal flaws or inhomogeneities that concentrate stresses beyond those predicted by conventional models. Similarly, manufacturing processes can introduce dimensional tolerances that deviate from design specifications, further necessitating adjustments in stress calculations. Environmental influences such as temperature fluctuations, residual stresses from manufacturing processes, or aggressive chemical environments can also significantly impact the actual stress state of a component.The process of determining the stress correction coefficient involves complex analyses, including finite element simulations, experimental tests, and empirical studies. Engineers must meticulously evaluate the specific conditions of each structure and its operational environment to derive an appropriate correction factor. This typically requires comprehensive material characterization, detailed inspection of fabrication techniques, and careful consideration of service conditions.Once established, the stress correction coefficient is applied to the nominal stress values obtained through initial calculations. This adjusted stress value provides a more realistic estimation of the stress experienced by the structure,enabling designers to make informed decisions about the adequacy of their designs and the potential need for reinforcements or alterations. It also helps in identifying potential failure points and weak areas that might require closer attention or additional support.Moreover, the use of stress correction coefficients extends beyond mere numerical adjustments; it embodies a proactive approach to enhance structural safety and performance. By incorporating these coefficients into design protocols, engineers acknowledge the uncertainties inherent in any construction project and take deliberate steps to mitigate associated risks. This practice not only contributes to the longevity and reliability of infrastructure but also ensures compliance with regulatory standards and industry best practices.In conclusion, the stress correction coefficient represents a fundamental concept in engineering mechanics, reflecting the intricate interplay between theory and practice. Its careful determination and application are instrumental in bridging the gap between idealized models and real-world scenarios, thereby fostering safer, more resilient, and sustainable engineering solutions. As such, it underscores the continuousstrive for precision in predicting and managing the behavior of materials and structures under varying loads and conditions.。
光伏行业英文词汇
太阳电池 solar cell通常是指将太阳光能直接转换成电能的一种器件。
硅太阳电池silicon solar cell硅太阳电池是以硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell单晶硅太阳电池是以单晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
非晶硅太阳电池（a—si太阳电池）amorphous silicon solar cell用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池称为非晶硅太阳电池，亦称无定形硅太阳电池，简称a—si太阳电池。
多晶硅太阳电池polycrystalline silicon solar cell多晶硅太阳电池是以多晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池。
聚光太阳电池组件photovoltaic concentrator module系指组成聚光太阳电池，方阵的中间组合体，由聚光器、太阳电池、散热器、互连引线和壳体等组成。
电池温度cell temperature系指太阳电池中P-n结的温度。
太阳电池组件表面温度solar cell module surface temperature系指太阳电池组件背表面的温度。
大气质量（AM）Air Mass (AM)直射阳光光束透过大气层所通过的路程，以直射太阳光束从天顶到达海平面所通过的路程的倍数来表示。
太阳高度角 solar 太阳高度角 solar elevation angle太阳光线与观测点处水平面的夹角，称为该观测点的太阳高度角。
辐照度 irradiance系指照射到单位表面积上的辐射功率（W/m2）。
总辐照（总的太阳辐照）total irradiation (total insolation)在一段规定的时间内，（根据具体情况而定为每小时，每天、每周、每月、每年）照射到某个倾斜表面的单位面积上的太阳辐照。
直射辐照度direct irradiance照射到单位面积上的，来自太阳圆盘及其周围对照射点所张的圆锥半顶角为8o的天空辐射功率。
不同MB值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构
第42卷第3期2023年3月硅㊀酸㊀盐㊀通㊀报BULLETIN OF THE CHINESE CERAMIC SOCIETYVol.42㊀No.3March,2023不同MB值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构葛成龙1,周海龙1,陈㊀岩1,吕志刚2(1.内蒙古农业大学水利与土木建筑工程学院,呼和浩特㊀010018;2.内蒙古综合交通科学研究院有限责任公司,呼和浩特㊀010010)摘要:通过控制泥粉的含量测出不同亚甲蓝(MB)值,研究不同MB值对机制砂混凝土力学性能的影响规律,并分析孔隙结构特征与力学性能的关系,引入灰色关联熵,建立机制砂混凝土孔隙结构和孔径类别对抗压强度的关系模型㊂结果表明,机制砂混凝土的工作性能随MB值增加逐渐变差㊂机制砂混凝土的抗压强度与劈裂抗拉强度随MB值增加均呈先增大后减小趋势,28d龄期MB值为1.10时强度最大,此时机制砂混凝土的T2谱面积㊁孔隙度㊁束缚流体饱和度与100nm以上有害孔占比均达最小值㊂自由流体饱和度与100nm以下有害孔占比呈先增大后减小趋势,在MB值为1.10时达最大值,随后占比随MB值增大而减小,MB值为2.00时达最小值㊂通过引入灰熵关联度得出束缚流体饱和度和无害孔对抗压强度的关联度最大,并在此基础上建立GM(1,3)模型,7和28d龄期的模型预测值和试验值的平均相对误差分别为0.47%和0.26%㊂关键词:MB值;机制砂混凝土;泥粉;力学性能;灰熵关联度;孔隙结构中图分类号:TU528㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀文章编号:1001-1625(2023)03-0888-10 Properties and Micro-Pore Structure of Manufactured Sand Concretewith Different MB ValuesGE Chenglong1,ZHOU Hailong1,CHEN Yan1,LYU Zhigang2(1.College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering,Inner Mongolia Agricultural University,Hohhot010018,China;2.Inner Mongolia Academy of Comprehensive Transportation Sciences Co.,Ltd.,Hohhot010010,China)Abstract:By controlling the content of mud powder,different methylene blue(MB)values were measured.The influence of different MB values on the mechanical properties of manufactured sand concrete was studied,and the relationship between pore structure characteristics and mechanical properties was analyzed.The grey relational entropy was introduced to establish the relationship model between pore structure and pore size category of manufactured sand concrete and compressive strength.The results show that the working performance of manufactured sand concrete gradually deteriorates with the increase of MB value.The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of manufactured sand concrete increase first and then decrease with the increase of MB value.The maximum value occurs at MB value of1.10at28d,At this time,the T2spectrum area,porosity,bound fluid saturation and the proportion of harmful pores above100nm of manufactured sand concrete reach the minimum.The free fluid saturation and the proportion of harmful pores below100nm increase first and then decrease,reaching the maximum when MB value is1.10,and then the proportion decreases with the increase of MB value,reaching the minimum when MB value is2.00.By introducing the grey entropy correlation degree, it is concluded that the saturation of the bound fluid and the harmless hole has the greatest correlation degree with the compressive strength,and on this basis,the GM(1,3)model is established.The average relative errors between the model prediction value and the experimental value at7and28d are0.47%and0.26%,respectively.Key words:MB value;manufactured sand concrete;mud powder;mechanical property;grey entropy correlation degree; pore structure收稿日期:2022-10-30;修订日期:2022-12-11基金项目:国家自然科学基金(51569021);内蒙古自然科学基金(2020MS05076);内蒙古自治区高等学校科学研究重点项目(NJZZ16057)作者简介:葛成龙(1997 ),男,硕士研究生㊂主要从事机制砂混凝土的研究㊂E-mail:893261710@通信作者:周海龙,博士,副教授㊂E-mail:harward@㊀第3期葛成龙等:不同MB值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构889 0㊀引㊀言随着天然砂资源日渐稀缺,机制砂的性能符合国标建设用砂,是替代天然砂的最优选择㊂目前,以石灰岩为母岩的机制砂运用较多,以玄武岩为母岩的机制砂研究与运用较少㊂机制砂在开采加工时会产生0.075mm以下的细微颗粒,这些颗粒主要是与母岩物理化学性能相同的石粉,同时开采过程中会不可避免地带有泥土,这些泥土与石粉共同组成0.075mm以下颗粒[1]㊂‘建设用砂“(GB/T14684 2022)中以亚甲蓝(methylene blue,MB)值来表示机制砂内的泥粉含量㊂泥粉通常以浆状的存在形式影响集料与水泥石的黏结,对机制砂混凝土力学性能产生不利影响[2]㊂并且高强混凝土密实程度高,对黏结力更为敏感,受泥粉影响较大[3-4]㊂目前,相关学者对不同MB值下机制砂混凝土的宏观性能进行了较为具体的研究[5-6]㊂王稷良[7]研究表明:对于低强机制砂混凝土,MB值1.1时机制砂混凝土有着较好的抗压强度与抗折强度,同时对抗渗性能也有一定的改善作用;对于高强机制砂混凝土,MB值增大对力学性能无显著影响,当MB值大于2.15时,混凝土弹性模量开始下降,同时,抗渗性能劣化,抗冻性下降㊂夏京亮等[8]研究了MB值对机制砂混凝土性能的影响,研究表明,当MB值低于1.4时,混凝土的孔隙结构和抗渗能力得到了一定改善,MB值高于1.4时,各项指标迅速下降㊂为揭示机制砂混凝土宏观性能的变化规律,相关学者普遍采用核磁共振的方法研究其微观结构[9-10]㊂于本田等[11]运用核磁共振的方法揭示了高强机制砂混凝土收缩开裂的机制,研究表明,通过改善机制砂混凝土内部孔结构,增强界面密实度,能够提高混凝土的抗裂能力㊂因此,可采用核磁共振的方法,通过探究机制砂混凝土内部孔结构,对机制砂混凝土宏观性能随MB值的变化进行解释㊂同时,不少学者将混凝土内部孔结构与宏观性能建立联系,验证了二者之间的相关性,使核磁共振的方法更好地运用于试验中[12-13]㊂郭剑飞[14]对混凝土孔隙结构与强度的关系进行了研究,并建立了相关模型说明了二者之间存在一定的联系㊂Lian等[15]在进行多孔混凝土研究中根据格里菲斯理论建立了新模型,该模型能够根据材料孔隙度很好地预测混凝土的抗压强度㊂目前,不少相关学者采用灰熵关联度的方法分析混凝土强度与孔隙结构之间的关系,并都得出预期的结果[16-18]㊂灰熵关联度可对系统中的各个影响因素间的相似程度㊁吻合程度做定量描述㊂鉴于目前对机制砂混凝土强度与孔隙结构之间联系研究较少,可采用灰熵关联度的方法进行分析㊂本文通过掺加矿物掺合料配合聚羧酸减水剂配制出了C90高强机制砂混凝土,通过控制泥粉掺量,研究MB值为0.85~2.00机制砂混凝土的力学性能和微观孔隙结构㊂利用核磁共振技术测试微观孔隙特征,来观测MB值对孔隙结构的影响,并建立灰色关联熵分析孔隙结构的不同参数对机制砂混凝土强度的相关度,之后建立灰度模型(grey models,GM)对强度进行预测㊂本文通过对不同MB值的高强机制砂混凝土力学性能与孔隙结构之间的关系进行研究,为MB值界限值的制定提供理论依据㊂1㊀实㊀验1.1㊀材㊀料水泥(cement,C)采用内蒙古冀东产P㊃O42.5普通硅酸盐水泥,密度为3.03g/cm3,初凝时间为170min,终凝时间为380min,体积安定性合格,28d抗压强度为54.2MPa;粉煤灰(fly ash,FA)采用汇丰牌Ⅱ级粉煤灰,密度为2.55g/cm3,比表面积为425.4m2/kg;偏高岭土(metakaolin,MK)采用内蒙古超牌建材公司生产偏高岭土,密度为2.67g/cm3,比表面积为33660m2/kg㊂胶凝材料主要化学成分如表1所示㊂表1㊀胶凝材料主要化学成分Table1㊀Main chemical composition of cementitious materialsMaterial Mass fraction/%SiO2Al2O3CaO MgO SO3Fe2O3K2O Na2O TiO2 C22.06 5.1363.37 1.06 2.03 5.120.580.310.34 FA45.124.2 5.6 2.1 MK51.2639.250.260.25 0.410.780.910.27泥粉采用卓资山碎石场开采位置处泥土,研磨后过0.075mm筛,液限W L=40%,塑限W P=19%㊂890㊀水泥混凝土硅酸盐通报㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀第42卷粗骨料为乌兰察布市卓资山碎石场生产的玄武岩,表观密度为2930kg /m 3,堆积密度为1800kg /m 3,压碎值为11.83%,粒径范围为5~20mm㊂机制砂为乌兰察布市卓资山碎石场生产的水洗粗砂,其母岩为玄武岩,细度模数为3.5,压碎指标为16.3%,石粉含量为1.6%,MB 值为0.85㊂外加剂采用内蒙古恒众工程材料有限公司产聚羧酸减水剂,减水率为30%㊂1.2㊀试验方法试验为探究MB 值对机制砂混凝土力学性能及孔隙结构的影响,通过掺入0%㊁0.5%㊁1.0%㊁1.5%和2.0%(质量分数,下同)的泥粉得到5组不同MB 值的机制砂混凝土,5组不同MB 值的机制砂混凝土配合比如表2所示㊂表2㊀机制砂混凝土配合比Table 2㊀Mix proportion of manufactured sand concreteSample No.MB value Mix proportion /(kg㊃m -3)Cement FA MK Mud powder MS Gravel Water WRA MP00.8541050400777.0010731506MP0.5 1.104105040 3.89773.1210731506MP1.0 1.3541050407.77769.2310731506MP1.5 1.70410504011.66765.3210731506MP2.0 2.00410504015.54761.4610731506㊀㊀Note:FA means fly ash;MK means metakaolinite;MS means manufactured sand;WRA means water reducing admixture.机制砂MB 值的测试方法参照‘建设用砂“(GB /T 14684 2022)进行测定㊂依据‘混凝土物理力学性能试验方法标准“(GB /T 50081 2019)对机制砂混凝土进行力学性能试验㊂抗压强度试验与劈裂抗拉强度试验需制成100mm ˑ100mm ˑ100mm 的非标准试件,在标准条件(温度(20ʃ2)ħ,相对湿度ȡ95%)下,养护到7㊁28d 龄期㊂微观结构试验采用纽迈MesoMR23-060V-Ⅰ型核磁共振仪(NMR),测定5种MB 值机制砂混凝土试件7和28d 孔隙结构特征参数㊂根据核磁共振原理,CPMG 脉冲序列可克服仪器本身磁场非均匀性的影响,测定被测样品的横向弛豫时间T 2[19-20]㊂弛豫过程的变化快慢用弛豫时间常数衡量:变化过程快,弛豫时间常数小;变化过程慢,弛豫时间常数大㊂2㊀结果与讨论2.1㊀泥粉与机制砂MB值的关系图1㊀泥粉含量对机制砂MB 值的影响Fig.1㊀Influence of mud powder content on MB value of manufactured sand MB 值本质上反映了其膨胀性黏土含量的多少,膨胀性黏土含量高,会对混凝土产生不利影响[21]㊂向机制砂中掺入不同比例的泥粉,泥粉含量对机制砂MB 值的影响如图1所示㊂可以看出,随着泥粉含量的增加,机制砂MB 值呈线性增加㊂当泥粉含量为0%时,MB 值为0.85;当含量为1.5%时,MB 值为1.70;泥粉含量为2.0%时,MB 值达到2.00㊂拟合系数R 2为0.9976,泥粉与MB值很好地满足了线性关系,可见泥粉含量是MB 值增长的重要因素㊂2.2㊀MB 值对机制砂混凝土工作性能影响图2为新拌混凝土拌合物坍落度和扩展度随MB值的变化规律㊂可以看出,新拌混凝土拌合物坍落度和扩展度均在整体上表现出随MB 值增加而逐渐降低的趋势㊂当MB 值从0.85增加至2.00时,坍落度从220mm 降低至165mm,减小了25%;扩展度从500mm 降低至420mm,减小了16%㊂因此,随MB 值增大,新拌混凝土拌合物流动性变差㊂出现这种变化主要是由于泥粉本身具有较强的吸水性,其次,聚羧酸减水剂第3期葛成龙等:不同MB 值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构891㊀对泥粉较为敏感,聚羧酸减水剂的分子会被吸附到泥粉的层间结构中,降低了减水剂分子的数量,进而降低了减水剂的减水效率㊂在用水量和减水剂用量不变的情况下,随泥粉含量增加,浆体内部自由水逐渐减少,用于新拌混凝土拌合的有效用水量也相应减少,拌合物黏聚性增加,流动性变差㊂图2㊀新拌混凝土拌合物坍落度和扩展度随MB 值得变化规律Fig.2㊀Variation of slump and expansion degree of fresh concrete mixture with MB value 2.3㊀MB 值对机制砂混凝土力学性能影响不同MB 值的机制砂混凝土抗压强度与劈裂抗拉强度如图3所示㊂图3(a)可以看出混凝土7㊁28d 抗压强度均呈先增大后减小的趋势㊂当MB 值从0.85增长到1.10,混凝土7㊁28d 抗压强度分别增加2.3㊁0.8MPa,增长率为3.01%和0.83%,抗压强度均达到最大值㊂随着MB 值的增加,混凝土抗压强度不断下降,当MB 值到达2.00时,与MB 值为1.10时相比,7㊁28d 的抗压强度分别下降了2.8㊁5.4MPa,下降率分别为3.56%和5.54%㊂当MB 值为1.10时,7d 到28d 的抗压强度增长率为23.92%,而MB 值为2.00时,抗压强度增长率为21.37%㊂由图3(b)可以看出,当MB 值小于1.35,泥粉对机制砂混凝土7㊁28d 的劈裂抗拉强度影响较小,MB 值为0.85时,7d 的抗拉强度最高,为4.18MPa;MB 值为1.10时,28d 抗拉强度达最高值,为6.06MPa㊂当MB 值大于1.35时,机制砂混凝土抗拉强度下降趋势明显加快,MB 值为2.00时达最低点,此时7㊁28d 抗拉强度较最大值下降0.28㊁0.49MPa,下降率分别为6.70%和8.08%㊂从机制砂混凝土随MB 值的强度变化规律可以看出,适当泥粉的加入对混凝土强度具有一定的改善作用㊂黏土因自身特性具有很强的吸水性,会吸附掉一部分存在于混凝土中含量不稳定的自由水,从而改善混凝土的密实性与保水性,使得强度提升㊂另外,泥粉在混凝土中的存在形式多为包裹型,这种存在形式会使泥粉包裹于集料表面产生虚弱黏结区[22]㊂当泥粉掺入量过多时会阻碍水泥石与集料之间的黏结,对界面过渡区产生不利影响,从而影响混凝土强度㊂图3㊀机制砂MB 值对机制砂混凝土力学性能影响Fig.3㊀Effect of MB value of manufactured sand on mechanical properties of manufactured sand concrete892㊀水泥混凝土硅酸盐通报㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀第42卷2.4㊀T 2谱分析孔隙中饱和流体的弛豫时间T 2受孔隙结构影响㊂孔径越大,弛豫时间越长;孔径越小,存在于孔中的水受到的束缚越大,弛豫时间越短[23]㊂由图4机制砂混凝土的T 2谱分布可以看出,5组MB 值机制砂混凝土的弛豫时间范围由7d 龄期时的0.049~943.79㊁0.049~1335.452㊁0.049~1644.676㊁0.053~1431.459㊁0.049~666.992ms,演变为28d 龄期时的0.053~155.223㊁0.049~77.526㊁0.053~289.942㊁0.053~89.074㊁0.049~1011.638ms,第三或第二峰结束时的弛豫时间在时间轴上左移,即较大孔径的孔隙减少,同样整体孔径对应孔隙数量也在减少㊂由此可表明,胶凝材料随龄期的增加水化反应更加充分,水泥水化产生的凝胶体填充于毛细孔中,矿物掺合料在水化过程中产生的水化产物也起到填充孔隙的作用,因此,弛豫时间范围产生变化㊂弛豫时间T 2分布反应了孔隙尺寸的分布,同样T 2谱的峰面积反映了样本内部孔隙多少㊂由图4可知,对于7和28d 龄期的机制砂混凝土,T 2谱总面积均表现为MP2.0>MP1.5>MP1.0>MP0>MP0.5,第1峰的峰面积最小值为MP0.5组,第3峰的峰面积最大值为MP2.0组㊂可以看出,微量泥粉的加入会使混凝土孔结构得到一定的细化,但随泥粉掺量的增多,混凝土的孔隙率增大,同时也阻碍了内部大孔径向小孔径的演变㊂这是由于泥粉本身为黏土成分,不具有活性,不参与水化反应,不改变原有水化产物种类也无新物质生成,只对水化速度㊁进程和水化产物生成量有影响,使得水化产物中的钙矾石与Ca(OH)2晶体含量减少,从而影响水泥水化,导致孔隙增多[24-25]㊂图4㊀机制砂混凝土横向弛豫时间谱分布Fig.4㊀Transverse relaxation time spectra distribution of manufactured sand concrete 2.5㊀饱和度与孔隙度高强机制砂混凝土结构紧密,孔隙小且连通差,仅通过孔隙度这一指标不足以说明问题,还需引用可动流体辅助说明㊂通过计算T 2截止值的方法得到自由流体饱和度与束缚流体饱和度,从而分析可动流体饱和度与孔隙结构的关系㊂由图5机制砂混凝土的饱和度与孔隙度可以看出,7d 与28d 龄期的孔隙度均呈先减小后增大的趋势㊂当MB 值为1.10时孔隙度最低,7d 为0.176%,28d 为0.163%;当MB 值为2.00时孔隙度最大,7d 龄期为0.213%,28d 龄期为0.201%㊂可以看出,加入适当的泥粉会使孔隙率得到一定下降,泥粉掺入量过多则会增大孔隙度㊂主要是由于泥粉粒径为小于0.075mm 的颗粒,加入混凝土内会发挥着与石粉类似的微骨料填充效果,从而改善孔结构㊂但因泥粉本身疏松多孔,具有很强的亲水性,对自由水的吸附作用非常显著,导致有效用水量降低,影响水泥水化,并且还会产生膨胀或松软等现象,使得孔隙度增大㊂束缚与自由流体饱和度也随着MB 值的提高呈规律性变化㊂当MB 值为1.35时,7d 龄期的束缚流体饱和度达到最高值87%;MB 值为1.10时,28d 龄期的束缚流体饱和度达最高值91%,较7d 龄期时有所提高㊂当MB 值为2.00时,7d 到28d 龄期束缚流体饱和度并未出现明显变化,均为79%㊂可以看出,过多的泥粉掺量还会影响内部孔结构演变时对大孔径的填充效果㊂第3期葛成龙等:不同MB 值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构893㊀图5㊀机制砂混凝土核磁共振饱和度与孔隙度Fig.5㊀Nuclear magnetic resonance saturation and porosity of manufactured sand concrete 2.6㊀孔隙类别分布吴中伟院士根据孔径类别划分为:无害孔(d <20nm)㊁少害孔(20nmɤd <100nm)㊁有害孔(100nmɤd <200nm)和多害孔(d ȡ200nm),并指出只有减少100nm 以上的有害孔和多害孔,增加少害孔与无害孔,才能改善混凝土的性能[26]㊂由图6机制砂混凝土的孔径类别分布可以看出,混凝土多害孔所占比例随MB 值增大呈先减小后增大的趋势㊂混凝土7d 龄期时,100nm 以上孔径所占比例在MB 值1.35时达最低点,为14%,多害孔占9%;100nm 以上孔径所占比例在MB 值2.00时达最高点,为21%,其中多害孔所占15%㊂在混凝土28d 龄期时,100nm 以上孔径在MB 值1.10时所占比例达到最低点9%,其中多害孔占5%,较7d 时所有降低㊂随着MB 值的提高,多害孔所占比例逐渐提高,MB 值2.00时多害孔比例达最高点17%,较7d 龄期有所提升㊂与7d 龄期相比,28d 龄期混凝土100nm 以上孔径所占比例分别减少了33%㊁40%㊁7%㊁6%㊁0%㊂可以看出,随MB 值提高,混凝土孔隙结构得到细化,多害孔所占比例减少㊂当MB 值大于一定的数值(1.10~1.35)之后,多害孔的占比开始增加,过多的泥粉会影响混凝土内部大孔径随龄期向小孔径的演变㊂泥粉的吸水特性会吸附一定的自由水,从而改善混凝土内部孔隙,对水化反应产生促进作用,并且还会发挥微骨料的作用,使得多害孔所占比例降低㊂但掺入过多的泥粉会影响水泥水化,降低聚羧酸减水剂对水泥的分散作用,并且混凝土硬化后膨胀的泥粉又会失水收缩,从而导致混凝土内部多害孔所占比例增大㊂图6㊀机制砂混凝土孔隙类别分布Fig.6㊀Pore category distribution of manufactured sand concrete894㊀水泥混凝土硅酸盐通报㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀第42卷3㊀机制砂混凝土强度预测模型3.1㊀灰色关联熵分析灰熵关联是多因素统计方法的有效工具之一,通过对整体进行关联性分析,从而揭示影响系统的主要因素和各因素对系统影响的差异㊂灰色关联熵分析法是在灰色关联法的基础上提出的,避免了灰色关联法局部关联点倾向以及主观因素对关联度的影响等缺点[27]㊂为了分析不同MB值的机制砂混凝土孔隙结构特征对抗压强度的影响,对核磁共振所测的7和28d龄期的机制砂混凝土的孔隙结构试验数据与抗压强度进行灰色关联熵分析㊂设机制砂混凝土抗压强度为参考序列,取孔隙率㊁束缚流体饱和度㊁自由流体饱和度㊁T2谱面积以及多害孔㊁有害孔㊁少害孔㊁无害孔作为孔隙结构参数与孔径类别两种对比序列,通过计算得出机制砂混凝土抗压强度与孔隙结构参数以及抗压强度与孔径类别两种灰熵关联度㊂机制砂混凝土灰色关联熵与灰熵关联度计算结果如表3㊂表3㊀机制砂混凝土灰色关联熵与灰熵关联度Table3㊀Manufactured sand concrete grey relational entropy and grey entropy correlation degreeParameter Grey relation entropy Grey entropy correlation grade7d28d7d28d Porosity 1.5822 1.60050.98310.9944 Bound fluid saturation 1.6046 1.60840.99700.9994Free fluid saturation 1.5247 1.55160.94730.9641T2spectral area 1.5712 1.59800.97620.9929Harmless hole 1.6086 1.60670.99950.9983Less harmful hole 1.6078 1.60320.99900.9961Harmful hole 1.5105 1.60230.93850.9956Many harmful hole 1.5959 1.55400.99160.9656可以看出,对7d龄期抗压强度影响最大的是束缚流体饱和度(孔结构特征方面)和无害孔(孔径类别方面),灰熵关联度分别为0.9970和0.9905㊂孔隙结构特征对7d龄期机制砂混凝土抗压强度的灰熵关联度按从大到小排序为束缚流体饱和度㊁孔隙度㊁T2谱面积㊁自由流体饱和度;孔径类别对7d龄期机制砂混凝土抗压强度的灰熵关联度按从大到小的排序为无害孔㊁少害孔㊁多害孔㊁有害孔㊂对于28d龄期的机制砂混凝土强度,影响程度最大的是束缚流体饱和度和无害孔,灰熵关联度分别为0.9994和0.9983㊂孔隙结构特征对28d龄期机制砂混凝土抗压强度的灰熵关联度按从大到小的排序为束缚流体饱和度㊁孔隙度㊁T2谱面积㊁自由流体饱和度;孔径类别对28d机制砂混凝土灰熵关联度按从大到小排序为无害孔㊁少害孔㊁有害孔㊁多害孔㊂可见,束缚流体饱和度与无害孔对混凝土强度影响最大,束缚流体饱和度与无害孔都反应的混凝土内部小孔径,混凝土内部小孔径对混凝土强度有着非常重要的作用㊂3.2㊀GM(1,3)模型的建立基于灰色理论,根据导出的微分方程对计算值和实际值相比,得出残差值后利用该模型进行预测㊂本文主要建立GM(1,3)模型,即表示模型是1阶方程,包含有3个变量的灰色系统模型㊂根据孔隙结构与孔径类型对机制砂混凝土的抗压强度灰熵关联度分析可知,影响机制砂混凝土强度(X(0)1)的主要因素有:束缚流体饱和度(X(0)2)㊁无害孔(X(0)3)㊂以五种MB值混凝土的抗压强度以及主要相关因素作为样本数据构建灰色GM(1,3)模型㊂对原始数据进行无量纲均值化处理,结果如表4所示㊂表4㊀机制砂混凝土无量纲均值化Table4㊀Manufactured sand concrete dimensionless mechanizationSample No.7d28d CompressivestrengthBound fluidsaturationHarmlessholeCompressivestrengthBound fluidsaturationHarmlessholeMP00.99250.9873 1.0009 1.0170 1.02860.9600 MP0.5 1.0224 1.0204 1.1208 1.0257 1.0370 1.1535 MP1.0 1.0080 1.04450.9459 1.0036 1.00260.9053 MP1.50.99120.99520.93480.98460.98570.9200 MP2.00.98600.95260.99760.96880.9190 1.0610第3期葛成龙等:不同MB 值机制砂混凝土的性能和微观孔隙结构895㊀㊀㊀对于系统中含有多个相关变量,可用多变量灰色预测模型GM(1,N )来分析[28]㊂设系统特征数序列为X (0)1=(x (0)1(1),x (0)1(2), ,x (0)1(n )),相关因素序列X (0)i =(x (0)i (1),x (0)i (2), ,x (0)i(n ))(i =1,2, ,N ),X (1)i =(x (1)i (1),x (1)i (2), ,x (1)i (n ))为X (0)i (i =1,2, ,N )的1-AGO 序列,其中x (1)i(k )=ðk t =1x (0)i (t )(k =1,2, ,n )㊂序列Z (1)1=(z (1)1(2),z (1)1(3), ,z (1)1(m ))为X (1)1的紧邻均值生成序列,其中:z (1)1(k )=12(x (1)1(k )+x (1)1(k -1))㊀(k =2,3, ,m )(1)式中:z (1)1(k )为背景值㊂由此,可建立GM(1,3)模型:x (0)1(k )+az (1)1(k )=ð3i =2X (1)i (k ),其中a 为发展系数,b i 为启动系数㊂由最小二乘参数估计可得:β=(B T B )-1B T Y ,β=(a ,b 1,b 2)T ,其中:B =-z (1)1(2)x (1)2(2)x (1)3(2)-z (1)1(3)x (1)2(3)x (1)3(3)-z (1)1(4)x (1)2(4)x (1)3(4)-z (1)1(5)x (1)2(5)x (1)3(5)éëêêêêêêùûúúúúúú;Y =x (0)1(2)x (0)1(3)x (0)1(4)x (0)1(5)éëêêêêêêùûúúúúúú(2)GM(1,3)模型研究内容分别考虑束缚流体饱和度和无害孔对7和28d 龄期的不同MB 值机制砂混凝土抗压强度的影响㊂对MB 值为0.85㊁1.10㊁1.35㊁1.70㊁2.00试件的束缚流体饱和度㊁无害孔和抗压强度进行数据建模,将试验所得MB 值为1.10㊁1.35㊁1.70㊁2.00试件的束缚流体饱和度㊁无害孔和抗压强度的数据作为验证代入GM(1,3)模型中㊂得到不同MB 值的7和28d 龄期机制砂混凝土强度预测模型如式(3)和式(4)所示㊂x (0)1(k )=-1.7218z (1)1(k )+0.9125x (1)2(k )+0.8369x (1)3(k )(3)x (0)1(k )=-1.7689z (1)1(k )+1.4077x (1)2(k )+0.3912x (1)3(k )(4)通过计算GM(1,3)模型所得测试结果与试验结果比较如表5所示㊂表5㊀GM (1,3)模型预测结果与试验结果比较Table 5㊀Comparison of GM (1,3)model prediction results with experimental resultsAge /dMB value Experimental value Predicted value Residual error Relative error /%7 1.10 1.0224 1.0185㊀0.00380.371.35 1.0081 1.0158-0.00770.761.700.99120.98520.00600.612.000.98600.9873-0.00130.13281.10 1.0257 1.0279-0.00220.211.35 1.00360.99860.00490.491.700.98460.9876-0.00300.302.000.96880.96850.00030.03由表5中GM(1,3)模型预测结果与试验结果可以看出,通过构建灰色GM(1,3)模型对机制砂混凝土的强度预测具有较好的精度,7d 龄期机制砂混凝土的强度预测值平均相对误差为0.47%,28d 龄期机制砂混凝土的强度预测值平均相对误差为0.26%㊂4㊀结㊀论1)机制砂MB 值随泥粉含量的增加呈线性关系㊂机制砂混凝土的抗压强度随MB 值呈先增大后减小的趋势㊂当MB 值为1.10时,试验龄期下的抗压强度均达到最大值;MB 值1.35时为机制砂混凝土劈裂抗拉强度的临界阈值㊂2)机制砂混凝土的T 2谱面积呈先减小后增大的规律,在MB 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材料力学部分专业术语中英文对照
CMmi@ Selected Technical Terms in Mechanics of Materials材料力学部分专业术语中英文对照（version 1.0, September 4, 2011）This tabulated list of selected technical terms in mechanics of materials is developed by Changwen Mi to facilitate the students in various engineering majors at the Southeast University. This file reflects part of our constant efforts in implementing bilingual teaching of a series of undergraduate and graduate mechanics courses hosted by the Department of Engineering Mechanics at the Southeast University. We had made every effort to ensure the accuracy and completeness of this file for the students’ sake. We, however, make no guarantee of the effects of using this file.Geometric properties of an area 截面几何性质centroid 形心centroidal axis 形心轴first moment of an area 静矩moment of inertia; second moment of an area 惯性矩parallel axis theorem 平行移轴定理products of inertia 惯性积polar moment of inertia 极惯性矩radius of gyration 惯性半径composite area组合截面principal centroidal axis主形心轴principal moment of inertia主惯性矩principal moments of inertia about centroidal axes 主形心惯性矩Structural members 构件bar 杆prismatic bars 等截面直杆CMmi@ shaft 轴column 柱（只受压缩）thin-walled tubes （闭口）薄壁杆thin-walled open tubes 开口薄壁杆pressure vessel 压力容器beam 梁neutral surface 中性层neutral axis 中性轴simply supported beams 简支梁cantilever beams 悬臂梁composite beams 复合梁overhanging beams 外伸梁continuous beams 连续梁fully stressed beams; beams of constant strength 等强度梁beams of variable cross section 变截面梁wide-flange beams 工字梁web 腹板flange 翼缘fixed support; clamped support 固定端pin support 固定铰支座roller support 可动铰支座curved beams 曲梁truss 桁架frame 刚架cross-section 横截面oblique cross-sectionaxis 轴线rigid joint 刚性结点CMmi@ Loads 荷载/载荷force 力force couple 力偶moment 力矩moment of a couple 力偶矩unit load 单位力unit couple 单位力偶concentrated loads 集中力distributed loads 分布力intensity of distributed loads 分布力的集度surface force 面力body force 体积力static loads 静载dynamic loads 动载allowable loads 许用荷载reaction 反作用力internal forces 内力axial force 轴力shear force 剪力Stress, Strain and Deformation 应力、应变及变形normal stress 正应力nominal stress 名义应力true stress 真实应力average stress 平均应力maximum stress 最大应力minimum stress 最小应力allowable stress 许用应力shear stress 剪切应力pure shear 纯剪切normal strain 正应变nominal strain 名义应变true strain 真实应变shear strain 切应变deformation 变形displacement 位移deflection 挠曲Common Terms in Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 可变形体力学常用术语mechanics of materials 材料力学strength of materials 材料力学mechanics of deformable bodies 变形体力学strength 强度stiffness 刚度stability 稳定性homogeneity/homogeneous 均质/匀质的continuity/continuous 连续性/连续的isotropy/isotropic 各向同性/各向同性的infinitesimal elastic deformation 微小弹性变形elasticity 弹性elastic deformation弹性变形linearly elastic body线性弹性体mechanical properties力学性质plasticity 塑性elastoplastic materials 弹塑性材料tension 拉伸compress 压缩shearing 剪切torsion 扭转bending 弯曲buckling 失稳allowable load method 许用荷载法allowable stress 许用应力allowable stress method 许用应力法method of safety factor 安全系数法method of discount factor 折扣系数法factor of safety 安全系数stress concentration factor 应力集中因数residual stress / initial stress / prestress 残余应力初应力，预应力stress distribution 应力分布equation of equilibrium 平衡方程method of sections 截面法Other Mechanical Terms 其它力学术语dimensionless quantities 无量纲量composite material复合材料specimen 试件elastic-perfectly plastic assumption理想弹塑性假设plastic hinge塑性铰Axial Loading 轴向荷载axially loaded bars 拉压杆，轴向承载杆axial tension 轴向拉伸axial compression 轴向压缩axial forces 轴向力internal forces 内力method of section 截面法diagram of axial forces 轴力图stress tensor 应力张量longitudinal 纵向的transverse 横向的Saint-Venant’s Principle 圣维南原理stresses on oblique planes 斜截面上的应力axial deformation 轴向变形elongation 伸长量extensometer 引伸计、伸展仪、伸长计uniaxial stress 单向应力，单轴应力normal stress 正应力sign convention 符号规定transverse/lateral strain 横向应变Tension/compression rigidity 拉压刚度(EA)stress concentration factor 应力集中系数Mechanical Behavior of Materials 材料力学行为gauge length 标记长度constitutive relations 本构关系（物理方程）Hooke’s Law 胡克定律generalized Hook’s law广义胡克定律stress-strain diagram 应力应变图Hook’s law of shearing剪切胡克定律brittle 脆性brittle materials脆性材料ductile 韧性ductile materials塑性材料，韧性材料，延展性材料plastic deformation塑性变形，残余变形creep 蠕变CMmi@ relaxation 松弛proportional limit 比例极限elastic modulus; modulus of elasticity 弹性模量Young’s modulus 杨氏模量elastic limit 弹性极限yield stress 屈服应力yield strength 屈服强度offset yield stress名义屈服强度strain hardening 强化，冷作硬化ultimate strength, strength limit 强度极限ultimate stress极限应力low carbon steel 低碳钢cast iron 铸铁transversely isotropic 横向同性necking 颈缩plastic flow 塑性流动percent reduction in area 断面收缩率percent elongation 延伸率bulk modulus 大块模量，体积模量Poisson’s ratio 泊松比Shearing and bearing Stress 剪切和挤压应力Shear/shearing 剪切Shear/shearing stress 切应力bearing 挤压bearing stress挤压应力bearing surface 挤压面single shear 单剪double shear 双剪CMmi@ rod 吊杆boom 托架pin 销钉rivet 铆钉joints/connectors 连接件lap joint 搭接butt joint 对接pure shear 纯剪切theorem of conjugate shearing stress 切应力互等定理shear modulus切变模量ultimate shear stress 剪切极限应力yield shear stress 剪切屈服应力Torsion 扭转torsional moment 扭矩twisting moment 扭力矩power & torque 功率与扭矩torque diagram 扭矩图angle of twist 扭转角angle of twist per unit length 单位长度扭转角torsional rigidity 抗扭刚度，扭曲刚度section modulus in torsion 抗扭截面系数slip-lines 滑移线slip bands 滑移带，剪切带free torsion 自由扭转constrained torsion 约束扭转Bending 弯曲symmetric bending 对称弯曲symmetric longitudinal plane 纵向对称面transverse loading 横向荷载shear force 剪力shear flow 剪流shear force diagram 剪力图equation of shear forces 剪力方程bending moment 弯矩equation of bending moment 弯矩方程bending moment diagram 弯矩图pure bending纯弯曲Transverse bending 横力弯曲plane cross-section hypothesis 平面假设hypothesis of uniaxial stress 单轴应力假设neutral surface 中性层neutral axis 中性轴bending normal stress 弯曲正应力section modulus 抗弯截面系数bending shear stress弯曲切应力constant-strength beam; fully stressed beams 等强度梁deflection 挠曲，挠度angle of rotation 转角slope 斜率curvature 曲率radius of curvature 曲率半径deflection curve 挠曲线approximate differential equation of deflection 挠曲轴近似微分方程flexural rigidity 抗弯刚度method of successive integrations 积分法boundary condition 边界条件continuity condition 连续性条件symmetry condition 对称性条件method of superposition 叠加法linear superposition 线性叠加superposition of loads 荷载叠加superposition of rigidized structures 刚化叠加，变形叠加method of singular/discontinuity function 奇异函数法boundary values 边界值moment-area theorems 图乘法unsymmetric bending 不对称弯曲shear center弯曲中心bending strain energy 弯曲应变能Indeterminate Problems 超静定问题statically determinate problem 静定问题statically indeterminate problem 静不定问题，超静定问题degree of static indeterminacy 静不定次，超静定次数redundancy 冗余，多余redundant restraint 多余约束basic determinate system 基本静定系force method 力法equation of deformation compatibility 变形协调方程complementary equation 补充方程thermal stress 热应力coefficient of thermal expansion 线胀系数assembly stress 装配应力residual stress 残余应力thermal strain 热应变eigenstrain 特征应变CMmi@ Stress States 应力状态state of stress 应力状态damage mechanisms 破坏机制stress state of a point 一点应力状态transformation of stresses 应力变换principal stresses 主应力principal axes 主轴，主方向stress circle 应力圆Mohr’s Circle 莫尔圆state of biaxial stress 二向应力状态state of plane stress 平面应力状态state of triaxial stress 三轴（复杂）应力状态triaxial stress 三向应力experimental stress analysis 实验应力分析volumetric strain energy density 体积应变能密度distortional strain energy density 畸变能密度volumetric strain 体应变decomposition of stress tensor 应力张量分解transformation of strain 应变变换Strength Theory 强度理论strength condition 强度条件equivalent stress 相当应力maximum tensile stress theory最大拉应力理论maximum tensile strain theory最大拉应变理论maximum shear stress theory最大切应力理论maximum distortion energy theory 最大畸变能理论Mohr theory of failure莫尔强度理论measurements of strain 应变测量strain gauge 应变计strain rosette 应变花three-element rectangular rosette 三轴直角应变花three-element delta rosette 三轴等角应变花full bridge 全桥接线法half bridge 半桥接法bridge balancing 电桥平衡compensating block 补偿块Combined Loadings 组合荷载eccentric tension 偏心拉伸eccentric compression 偏心压缩core of cross-sections 截面核心Stability of Columns 压杆稳定buckling 屈曲stability condition 稳定条件Euler’s formula欧拉公式critical load 临界压力critical stress 临界应力equivalent length相当长度，有效长度coefficient of equivalent length 长度因数slenderness ratio （压杆的）柔度或长细比long columns 大柔度杆intermediate columns 中柔度杆short columns小柔度杆safety factor of stability稳定安全因数discount factor of stability 折扣安全因数Energy Methods 能量方法strain energy 应变能strain energy density 应变能密度modulus of resilience 回弹模量modulus of toughness 韧度模量principle of work and energy 功能互等定理Castigliano’s theorem 卡氏定理reciprocal theorem of displacement; Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem位移互等定理method of dummy, method of virtual forces 虚力法method of unit dummy load 单位力法Dynamic Loading 冲击荷载impact load 冲击荷载dynamic load 动荷载constant acceleration 等加速constant rotation 等角速转动horizontal impact 水平冲击vertical impact 竖直冲击statically equivalent load 静力等效荷载dynamic load factor 动荷系数Cyclic Loading and Fatigue 交变荷载及疲劳cyclic/alternate load 交变荷载cyclic stress交变应力，循环应力fatigue failure 疲劳失效stress amplitude应力幅stress scope 应力范围cycle characteristics 循环特征symmetric cycling 对称循环unsymmetric cycling 非对称循环pulse cycling 脉冲循环fatigue life疲劳寿命stress-life diagram应力-寿命曲线，S-N曲线endurance limit 疲劳极限fatigue strength 疲劳强度surface roughness 表面粗糙度surface strength 表面强度equal-amplitude fatigue 等幅疲劳fatigue strength condition 疲劳强度条件fatigue factor of safety 疲劳安全因数。
高分子材料工程专业英语第二版课文翻译(基本全了
A 高分子化学和高分子物理UNIT 1 What are Polymer?第一单元什么是高聚物？What are polymers? For one thing, they are complex and giant molecules and are different from low molecular weight compounds like, say, common salt. To contrast the difference, the molecular weight of common salt is only 58.5, while that of a polymer can be as high as several hundred thousand, even more than thousand thousands. These big molecules or ‘macro-molecules’ are made up of much smaller molecules, can be of one or more chemical compounds. To illustrate, imagine that a set of rings has the same size and is made of the same material. When these things are interlinked, the chain formed can be considered as representing a polymer from molecules of the same compound. Alternatively, individual rings could be of different sizes and materials, and interlinked to represent a polymer from molecules of different compounds.什么是高聚物？首先，他们是合成物和大分子，而且不同于低分子化合物，譬如说普通的盐。
低碳钢英语
IntroductionLow-carbon steel, a versatile and widely utilized material in various industrial sectors, is known for its unique combination of mechanical properties, cost-effectiveness, and ease of fabrication. It is a fundamental component in the construction of infrastructure, machinery, automotive components, and numerous consumer products. This comprehensive analysis delves into the multifaceted aspects of low-carbon steel that underpin its high quality and adherence to stringent standards, providing a detailed examination from metallurgical, mechanical, environmental, economic, and manufacturing perspectives.Metallurgical AspectsAt the core of low-carbon steel's high quality lies its carefully controlled chemical composition. Characterized by a carbon content typically ranging between 0.05% and 0.25%, this steel type strikes a balance between ductility, strength, and weldability. The low carbon content minimizes the formation of hard and brittle carbide compounds, ensuring good formability and excellent cold working properties. Additionally, the presence of small amounts of alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, and traces of phosphorus and sulfur are meticulously regulated to enhance specific properties without compromising overall performance.The standardized production process of low-carbon steel involves primary refining to remove impurities, followed by secondary refining techniques like ladle furnace treatment or vacuum degassing to further enhance purity and homogeneity. These processes ensure consistent microstructural characteristics, which directly contribute to the predictability and reliability of the material's behavior in service. Moreover, rigorous quality control measures, including chemical analysis and non-destructive testing, are employed throughout the manufacturing cycle to guarantee compliance with international standards like ASTM, AISI, and EN, thereby reinforcing the material's high-quality status.Mechanical PropertiesLow-carbon steel exhibits a remarkable balance of strength, ductility, and toughness, making it suitable for a wide range of structural and mechanical applications. Its yield strength, typically ranging from 200 to 550 MPa, allows it to withstand significant loads without permanent deformation. The relatively high ductility, quantified by elongation values of up to 35%, enables the material to deform plastically and absorb energy, preventing sudden failure under stress. Furthermore, its impact resistance, measured by Charpy or Izod tests, confirms its ability to withstand abrupt load changes and resist brittle fracture.These mechanical properties are tailored through controlled cooling processes, such as annealing, normalizing, or quenching and tempering, depending on the desired end-use requirements. The ability to manipulate the material's properties via heat treatment aligns with the high-quality standards expected in modern engineering materials, allowing designers to select the most appropriate grade for specific applications.Environmental ConsiderationsIn an era where sustainability and environmental responsibility are paramount, low-carbon steel stands out as an eco-friendly choice due to its recyclability and energy efficiency during production. Over 90% of the world's steel is recycled, with low-carbon steel being no exception. Its magnetic properties facilitate easy separation from waste streams, ensuring efficient recycling and a significantly reduced carbon footprint compared to producing virgin steel. Moreover, advancements in steelmaking technologies, such as electric arc furnaces and direct reduction methods, have led to substantial reductions in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with low-carbon steel production.Economic ViabilityLow-carbon steel's affordability is a key factor contributing to its widespread adoption and high-quality perception. The raw materials required forits production, primarily iron ore and scrap steel, are abundant and readily available, keeping production costs relatively low. Furthermore, the streamlined manufacturing processes and mature supply chains associated with low-carbon steel minimize production time and expenses, translating into competitive pricing for end-users.The cost-effectiveness of low-carbon steel does not compromise its durability or long-term performance. Its inherent corrosion resistance, particularly when coated or galvanized, ensures a prolonged service life, reducing maintenance costs and the need for premature replacement. This economic advantage, coupled with its adaptability to various applications, solidifies low-carbon steel's reputation as a high-quality, economically viable material choice.Manufacturing and Fabrication AdvantagesLow-carbon steel's high-quality status is further bolstered by its exceptional machinability, weldability, and formability. Its soft nature and low hardness make it easier to machine with minimal tool wear, ensuring accurate and efficient production of intricate parts. Excellent weldability, characterized by a low tendency for hot cracking and a narrow heat-affected zone, facilitates robust and reliable joining techniques, while its good ductility allows for cold forming, bending, and stamping without the risk of cracking or fracturing.Moreover, low-carbon steel's compatibility with various surface treatments, coatings, and finishes enhances its aesthetic appeal and corrosion resistance, expanding its applicability across diverse industries. The ease with which it can be transformed from raw material into finished products, while maintaining consistent quality standards, underscores its position as a high-quality, highly adaptable material.ConclusionIn summary, low-carbon steel embodies high quality and adherence to stringent standards through its meticulously controlled chemical composition,balanced mechanical properties, environmental sustainability, economic viability, and superior manufacturability. From the metallurgical precision in its production to its versatile application capabilities, low-carbon steel consistently demonstrates its worth as a dependable and efficient material choice across numerous industries. Its ability to meet and exceed expectations in terms of performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental responsibility cements its status as a high-quality, standardized material that continues to drive innovation and progress in the global marketplace.。
原料处理工艺流程英文
原料处理工艺流程英文The raw material processing workflow is a critical aspect of any manufacturing industry, ensuring the smooth and efficient transformation of raw inputs into finished products. This article outlines the various stages involved in the raw material processing workflow, focusing on the key steps and considerations for effective and sustainable production.1. $$Material Selection and Acquisition$$The first step in the raw material processing workflow involves careful selection and acquisition of the required raw materials. This process is typically guided by the specific requirements of the end product, such as its physical properties, performance characteristics, and compliance with industry standards. Suppliers are carefully evaluated based on their quality control practices, production capabilities, and sustainability credentials. Contracts are negotiated to ensure a reliable and timely supply of raw materials, often including provisions for quality assurance, pricing, and delivery terms.2. **Material Reception and Inspection**Upon arrival at the manufacturing facility, the raw materials undergo a thorough inspection process. This ensures that the materials meet the specified quality standards and are free from defects or contaminants. Inspection may involve visual checks, mechanical testing, chemical analysis, and other techniques depending on the nature of the materials. Any materials that fail to meet the required standards are rejected and returned to the supplier, while acceptable materials are stored in appropriate conditions to maintain their quality.3. **Material Preparation and Pre-processing**The next stage involves preparing the raw materials for further processing. This may include cleaning, sorting, cutting, grinding, or other operations depending on the type of material and the requirements of the manufacturing process. Pre-processing steps are designed to improve the homogeneity, consistency, and workability of the materials, ensuring that they are ready for the subsequent stages of the workflow.4. **Primary Processing**Primary processing is the core stage of the rawmaterial workflow, where the raw materials are transformed into intermediate products or components. This stagetypically involves complex mechanical or chemicaloperations such as extrusion, molding, casting, sintering,or other techniques. The choice of processing method depends on the nature of the materials and the desired properties of the intermediate products. Careful monitoring and control are essential to ensure that the processing parameters are optimized for maximum efficiency and quality.5. **Secondary Processing and Finishing**After primary processing, the intermediate products may require further modification or finishing to meet the final specifications. This may include machining, grinding, polishing, painting, or other operations. Secondary processing steps are tailored to the specific needs of the end product, enhancing its aesthetics, functionality, and durability. Quality control checks are conducted throughout this stage to ensure that the products meet the required standards.6. **Quality Assurance and Testing**Throughout the entire raw material processing workflow, quality assurance and testing play a crucial role. This involves conducting regular checks and inspections at each stage of the process to ensure that the materials and products meet the specified quality standards. Testing may involve physical properties measurements, chemical analysis, performance testing, and other techniques depending on the product's requirements. Any deviations from the standards are addressed promptly, either through corrective actionsor by rejecting and replacing the affected materials or products.7. **Packaging and Storage**After passing quality assurance checks, the finished products are packaged for shipment or storage. Packaging materials are chosen to protect the products from damage during transportation and handling, while also meeting any relevant regulatory requirements. Proper labeling and documentation ensure that the products can be easily identified and tracked throughout the supply chain. Storage conditions are carefully controlled to maintain the qualityand integrity of the products until they are ready for useor sale.8. **Waste Management and Recycling**A sustainable raw material processing workflow also considers waste management and recycling practices. Any waste generated during the processing stages is handled responsibly, either through disposal in accordance with environmental regulations or through recycling and reuse. This helps to minimize the environmental impact of the manufacturing process and contributes to a circular economy. In conclusion, the raw material processing workflow involves a series of carefully coordinated steps that transform raw inputs into finished products. Effective management of this workflow requires attention to detail, rigorous quality control, and a commitment tosustainability. By optimizing each stage of the process, manufacturers can ensure the efficient and cost-effective production of high-quality products that meet the needs of their customers and contribute to a sustainable future.。
真空电弧熔炼流程
真空电弧熔炼流程Vacuum arc melting is a crucial process in the production of high-quality metallic materials. This method involves melting the materialin a vacuum environment using an electric arc to create a pure and homogeneous alloy. 真空电弧熔炼是生产高质量金属材料的关键过程。
这种方法包括在真空环境中使用电弧将材料熔化，从而形成纯净且均匀的合金。
One of the main benefits of vacuum arc melting is the ability to produce materials with precise chemical compositions and low impurity levels. This is essential for industries that require high-performance materials for advanced applications. 真空电弧熔炼的主要优点之一是能够生产具有精确化学成分和低杂质水平的材料。
这对于需要高性能材料进行先进应用的行业至关重要。
The process begins by placing the raw material in a water-cooled copper crucible inside the vacuum chamber. An electric arc is then initiated between the raw material and a non-consumable tungsten electrode, which heats the material to its melting point. 流程从将原料放入真空室内的水冷铜坩埚开始。
蜂胶中药饮片生产工艺流程
蜂胶中药饮片生产工艺流程英文回答：The production process of propolis herbal tea can be divided into several steps. First, the raw materials, including propolis and other herbal ingredients, need to be collected and inspected for quality. The propolis is usually obtained from beehives, while the herbal ingredients can vary depending on the desired effects of the tea. Once the raw materials are ready, they are cleaned and sorted to remove any impurities.Next, the propolis and herbal ingredients are processed to enhance their medicinal properties. This can involve grinding, crushing, or extracting the active compounds through methods like decoction or maceration. The specific processing techniques may vary depending on the type of herbal tea being produced.After processing, the propolis and herbal ingredientsare mixed together in specific proportions to create a balanced blend. This is an important step as it determines the taste and efficacy of the final product. The mixture is then further processed to ensure homogeneity and consistency.Once the blend is ready, it is compressed into tablets or packaged as loose tea. The packaging is designed to preserve the freshness and quality of the tea. It may include individual tea bags or sealed containers to prevent moisture and air from affecting the tea's properties.Finally, the packaged propolis herbal tea is labeled and stored in a suitable environment. This can include temperature-controlled warehouses or refrigerationfacilities to maintain its potency and shelf life. The tea is then ready to be distributed and consumed.中文回答：蜂胶中药饮片的生产工艺流程可以分为几个步骤。
钕铁硼永磁材料制造流程中气流磨的作用
钕铁硼永磁材料制造流程中气流磨的作用In the manufacturing process of neodymium iron boron permanent magnets, gas jet milling plays an important role.在钕铁硼永磁材料的制造过程中，气流磨具有重要的作用。
Gas jet milling is a type of mechanical milling where high-speed compressed gas is used to accelerate particles and achieve particle size reduction. This technique allows for fine grinding of the raw materials used in the production of neodymium iron boron magnets.气流磨是一种机械磨削的方法，利用高速压缩气体加速颗粒，并实现颗粒尺寸的减小。
这种技术可以对制造钕铁硼磁体所使用的原材料进行细致的研磨。
The main purpose of gas jet milling in the manufacturing process of neodymium iron boron magnets is to reduce the particle size of the raw materials. By reducing theparticle size, we can increase the surface area available for chemical reactions and improve the homogeneity of themixture. This has a direct impact on the magnetic properties and performance of the final product.气流磨在制造钕铁硼磁体的过程中主要目的是减小原材料的颗粒尺寸。
磷酸锰铁锂前驱体生产工艺流程
磷酸锰铁锂前驱体生产工艺流程英文回答：The production process of lithium iron manganese phosphate precursor involves several steps. Firstly, the raw materials including manganese oxide, iron oxide,lithium carbonate, and phosphoric acid are weighed and mixed in a specific ratio. This mixture is then transferred to a ball mill where it is ground to obtain a homogeneous powder.Next, the powder is transferred to a high-temperature furnace for the calcination process. The furnace is heated to a specific temperature and the powder is heated for a certain duration to promote the reaction between the raw materials. This calcination process helps in the formation of the desired lithium iron manganese phosphate precursor.After the calcination process, the powder is cooled down and then subjected to a milling process. This millingprocess helps in reducing the particle size and improving the homogeneity of the powder. The milled powder is then sieved to remove any impurities.The next step involves the addition of a binder to the powder. The binder helps in improving the cohesion and strength of the precursor material. The binder is mixed with the powder in a specific ratio and then subjected to a mixing process to obtain a homogeneous mixture.Once the mixture is ready, it is transferred to a pelletizing machine where it is pressed into pellets of desired shape and size. The pellets are then dried in an oven to remove any moisture content.The final step in the production process is the sintering process. The dried pellets are transferred to a sintering furnace where they are heated to a high temperature for a specific duration. This sintering process helps in further enhancing the chemical and physical properties of the lithium iron manganese phosphate precursor.中文回答：锂铁锰磷酸盐前驱体的生产工艺流程包括几个步骤。
橡胶型压敏胶的研究进展
234 橡 胶 工 业2019年第66卷橡胶型压敏胶的研究进展杨一涵，李 卓*，李英哲（青岛科技大学橡塑材料与工程教育部重点实验室，山东青岛 266042）摘要：橡胶型压敏胶（RPSAs）广泛应用于胶带、标签等领域，其粘合性能评价标准有初粘性、剥离强度和持粘性3项。
用作RPSAs基体的橡胶弹性体主要有天然橡胶（NR）、合成橡胶（SR）和热塑性弹性体（TPE）3类，新型TPE基RPSAs为近年来的研究热点。
对于RPSAs的优化主要从基体改性和优化配方两个方面展开，基体改性采用物理和化学改性手段，配方优化包括调整增粘树脂品种和用量等。
与其他种类的压敏胶相比，橡胶型压敏胶具有独特优势，应用领域越来越广。
关键词：橡胶型压敏胶；基体改性；粘合性能；配方优化中图分类号：TQ339 文章编号：1000-890X（2019）03-0234-06文献标志码：A DOI：10.12136/j.issn.1000-890X.2019.03.0234橡胶型压敏胶（RPSAs）是以橡胶弹性体为基体，配以适当的增粘树脂、填料、软化剂、交联剂、溶剂等制成的一种只需施以较小压力便可与被粘物紧密粘合的胶粘剂，广泛应用于单/双面胶带、商标、标签、医疗用品以及电子产品等领域[1-6]。
衡量RPSAs粘合性能的标准有初粘性、剥离强度和持粘性3项。
初粘性是指在较小压力下快速润湿基材表面所产生的粘接力，是RPSAs与被粘物接触时其表面的化学和物理性能的综合反映；剥离强度是指胶层从一个标准基材上以恒定的速率和角度剥离下来所需要的力，主要反映RPSAs与被粘物表面粘合力的大小；持粘性是指RPSAs抵抗持久性剪切蠕变破坏的能力，反映了胶层的内聚强度[7-8]。
用作RPSAs基体的橡胶弹性体主要有3类——天然橡胶（NR）、合成橡胶（SR）和热塑性弹性体（TPE）。
1 NR基RPSAs最早的RPSAs是以NR和增粘树脂共溶在甲苯和庚烷中制得[8-9]。
标准样品英文
标准样品英文Standard Sample English。
In scientific research and industrial production, standard samples play a crucial role in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of analytical results. A standard sample is a substance with a known concentration or property, which is used as a reference to calibrate instruments, validate methods, and monitor the quality of measurements. In this document, we will discuss the importance of standard samples, the types of standard samples, and the criteria for selecting and using standard samples.First and foremost, standard samples are essential for the calibration and validation of analytical instruments. By analyzing standard samples with known properties, researchers can verify the accuracy and precision of their instruments, ensuring that the measurements are reliable and reproducible. Without proper calibration using standardsamples, the results obtained from analytical instruments may be inaccurate and misleading, leading to erroneous conclusions and decisions.Secondly, standard samples are used to validate analytical methods and procedures. When developing a new analytical method or conducting a quality control assessment, researchers need to demonstrate the method's accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity. This is achieved by analyzing standard samples with known properties and comparing the results with the expected values. If the analytical method can accurately measure the properties of standard samples, it is considered reliable and suitablefor use in practical applications.Moreover, standard samples are used to monitor the quality of measurements and detect any deviations or drifts in the analytical process. By regularly analyzing standard samples alongside unknown samples, researchers can identify any changes in the instrument performance or measurement conditions. This allows for timely adjustments and corrective actions to maintain the accuracy and reliabilityof the analytical results.There are several types of standard samples available, including certified reference materials (CRMs), reference materials, and internal standards. CRMs are characterized by their high degree of traceability and certified values, making them suitable for the calibration and validation of analytical methods. Reference materials are used for routine quality control and method validation, while internal standards are added to samples to correct for variations in sample preparation and instrument response.When selecting standard samples, it is important to consider their stability, homogeneity, and traceability. Stable standard samples exhibit minimal changes in their properties over time, ensuring long-term reliability and consistency. Homogeneous standard samples have uniform properties throughout, allowing for representative sampling and accurate measurements. Traceable standard samples are accompanied by certified values and documentation, providing a clear link to national or international measurement standards.In conclusion, standard samples are indispensable tools for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of analytical results in scientific research and industrial production. By using standard samples for calibration, validation, and quality control, researchers can maintain the integrity of their measurements and make informed decisions based on reliable data. The selection and use of standard samples should be guided by rigorous criteria to ensure their suitability and effectiveness in analytical applications.。
BRINELLHARDNESSTEST
BRINELL HARDNESS TESTWhat is Hardness?Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.Measurement of Hardness:Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement procedure.Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches material C, but not material A. Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly and scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of minerals can be assessed by reference to the Moh's Scale that ranks the ability of materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of relative hardness assessment are still commonly used today. An example is the file test where a file tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the surface, the test material would be considered harder than the file. If the file bites or marks the surface, the test material would be considered softer than the file.The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use and do not provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly for modern day metals and materials. The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. There are three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship between hardness and the size of the impression, these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration reasons, each of these methods is divided into a range of scales, defined by a combination of applied load and indenter geometry.Hardness Test Methods:Rockwell Hardness TestRockwell Superficial Hardness TestBrinell Hardness TestVickers Hardness TestMicrohardness TestMoh's Hardness TestScleroscope and other hardness test methodsThe B The Bri diamete the load normall in the c measure dividingThe dia Brinell structur 10/500/hardene extreme other ha test ave account This me those mHardn Hardne exact fo of speci tables a convert materia value onBrinell Ha inell hardne er hardened d can be red ly applied fo ase of other ed with a lo g the load a ameter of th hardness nu red Brinell h /30" which m ed steel with ely hard me ardness test erages the ha t for multipl ethod is the materials wit ness Conv ss conversio or a wide ra imen, cold w and charts sh ting to a me al and thus cn a thin coa ardness T ess test meth steel or car duced to 150for 10 to 15 r metals. Th ow powered applied by th e impressio umber table hardness nu means that h a 500 kilo etals a tungs t methods, th ardness ove le grain stru best for ach th heterogen ersion or on between ange of mate working pro hould be co ethod or scal cannot be veating to the H Testhod consists rbide ball su 00 kg or 500seconds in he diameter d microscop he surface a on is the ave e can simpli umber revea a Brinell H ogram load a sten carbide he Brinell b er a wider am uctures and hieving the neous struct Equivalen n different m erials. Diffe operties and onsidered as le which is erified. An eHRC equiv s of indentin ubjected to 0 kg to avoi the case of of the inden e. The Brin area of the in erage of two ify the deter als the test c Hardness of 7applied for e ball is subs ball makes t mount of m any irregul bulk or ma tures.nts:methods and erent loads, d elastic pro s giving app not physica example woalent.ng the test m a load of 30id excessive iron and ste ntation left nell harness ndentation.o readings a rmination of conditions, a 75 was obta a period of stituted for t the deepest material, whi arities in th cro-hardnes d scales cann different sh operties all c proximate eq ally possibleould be con material wit 000 kg. For e indentatio eel and for a in the test m number is c at right angle f the Brinell and looks lik ained using 30 seconds the steel bal and widest ich will mor e uniformity ss of a mate not be made hape of inde complicate t quivalents, p e for the parverting HV th a 10 mm softer mate on. The full at least 30 s material is calculated bes and the u l hardness. ike this, "75a 10mm dia s. On tests o all. Compare indentation re accuratel ty of the ma erial, particu e mathemat eters, homog the problem particularly rticular testV/10 or HR-erials load is seconds by use of a A well 5 HB ameter ofed to the n, so the ly aterial. ularly tically geneity m. All y when 15NHardness Conversion Tables and Charts:Hardness Conversion TableHardness Conversion Table related to Rockwell C Hardness Scale (hard materials) Hardness Conversion Table related to Rockwell B Hardness Scale (soft metals)。