sentence-semantics -situations
普通语言学 6-Syntax解析
?
Syntax
pedago gy
• Syntax 来自古希腊语：sý ntaxis • 布局、陈列（“arrangement” or “setting out together”）
符号学中的 Syntax
• Morris (1938):符号学（semiotics）的三个分支
1. Syntactics: 符号之间的关系
NP
N’ 是介于名词 N 和名 词短语NP的中间层次
X-语杠
• X-语杠是大于中心语，小于短语（XP）的中间成分。 • X-语杠理论意味着每个短语都有中心语，即每个短语 都是一个向心结构（endocentric structure）。 • 这有别于传统结构语言学区分向心结构和离心结构（ exocentric structure）的做法。
• 句子是理论/抽象单位,由语法界定。 正确/不正确 • 语段是物理单位，属于言语表达或运用的范畴。 合适/不合适
如何解决？？？
• 句子功能的区分：
1. 2. 3. 4. 陈述句（statement） 疑问句（question） 命令句（command） 感叹句（exclamation）
如何解决？？？
???
• 现代句法学的句子定义不再使用“思想” 这一抽象的概念。 • 例如：an apple 表达思想,但不是句子； He came late, because he overslept. 一个句子，两个思想。
Bloomfield
• 现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。 • 语法中最大的语言单位 / 适用于句法规则的最大结构单 位。 • 一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的 语言形式中（Bloomfield, 1933）。 • An independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.
语言学第五章Semantics
语⾔学第五章SemanticsChapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus1. What is semantics2. Meanings of “meaning”3. Sense and reference4. Sense relations5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Different focus of the study in semantics:Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions?) within a single language.Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”The word “meaning” has different meanings.It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.The naming theory: Plato & AristotleWords are just names or labels for things.Can you show the limitations of this theoryThe semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ?thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning associative meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaningIt makes the central part of meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ?Involving the …real world? experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.domicile: very formal, official steed: poeticresidence: formal horse: generalabode: poetic nag: slanghome: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Youre a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. orWill you belt up.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. When you hear …click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relationsSynonymygradableAntonymy complementaryconverseHyponymyPolysemy4.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialectsBritish English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorflat apartmenttube undergroundii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in stylekid, child, offspringkick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, deceaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningcollaborator, accompliceiv. Collocational synonymsaccuse, chargev. Semantically different synonymssurprise, amaze, astound4.2 AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are three types of antonyms.i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how. good, badyoung, oldhot, coldii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.alive, deadmale, femalepresent, absentiii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other. husband, wifebuy, sellbefore, after4.3 HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness. Superordinate: the more general wordHyponyms: the more specific wordsCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinateflower, rose, lilyanimal, cat, dogfurniture, bed, desk4.4 PolysemyPolysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic features.HUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaningThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. LeechThe basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)Does Tom smokingTom does not smoke. argument predicateKids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)It is hot. → (BE HOT)AssignmentsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupiedliterate/illiterate above/belowdoctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughterhonest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercisesI. Multiple choice.1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentenceII. Make judgments (true or false)1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word.3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。
Sentence meaning_课件
Sentence meaningSemantic relations betweensentencesSynonymyInconsistencyContradictionTautology (同义反复)EntailmentPresuppositionSynonymyJohn is an orphan.is synonymous withJohn is a child and has no father or mother. InconsistencyMary speaks fluent Chinese.is inconsistent withMary speaks only English.ContradictionCulpepper carefully lowered himself from the ground floor to the attic.contradicts itself.Tautology: (同义反复)Tom's moustache was on his upper lipis tautologous.EntailmentJohn is a bachelor.entailsJohn is a man.PresuppositionMy wife is a teacher.presupposesI have a wife.An Integrated TheoryThe principle of compositionality (语义合成性): The meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of its constituent words and the way they are combined.Katz argued in his article “The structure of a semantic theory”that semantics should be an integral part ofgrammar in 1963.An Integrated TheoryA semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules.The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.SNPVPDet N V NPDet N The man hit the ballMeanings of words are combined at each level respectively. This effectively provides a solution to the integration of syntax and semantics.。
语言学-第五单元-sentence-meaning
E g: John loves Mary → (Lm) (j)
Analyzed in the same way as those with one argument.
E g: kill is CAUSE (x ,(BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y))))).
Cause
(x
y becomes non-alive)
• father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
– x is a parent of y, and x is male.
• take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
– x causes x to have y.
• give: CAUSE (x, (~HAVE (x, y)))
– x causes x not to have y.
Sense Relations
a. John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die. kill = CAUSE( x, (BECOME (y, (~ALIVE(y))))) die = BECOME( x, (~ALIVE(x)))
ⅰ. ﹁/ ～p
ⅱ.conjunction＆ disjunction∨ implication→
equivalence≡
(and)
(or)
(if…then) ( iff…then/if and only
if…then)
Propositional Logic: study of the truth conditions for propositions:
how the truth value of a composite proposition is
英语语言学期末温习
Chapter5 Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2. Lexical meaning:Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.(1)D ialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumn fallflat apartment(2)S tylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）Amaze VS Astound2.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1. an round object used in game.2. a large formal social event at which people dance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. . rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form. . tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. . tear v. /tear n.4.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animalSubordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,5.反义词AntonymyIt is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:品级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4. Sentence sense relations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包括于）. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）. John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异样）. The table has bad intensions.5. Analysis of meaning1. Componential Analysis成份分析法----分析辞汇抽象意义It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist 提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc. (通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1. speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的概念；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。
Chapter-5-Semantics(语义学)
• Three types of connotative meanings: • positive(褒义), neutral(中性),negative(贬义)
• A good meal, • A good car, • A good movie, • a good road, • A good child, • good weather • A good umbrella
• A fast road, • a fast typist • A fast book • A fast decision.
the hearer (stimulus—response)
Jill is hungry and wants Jack to pick the
apple for her from the tree:
Jill
Jack
• S-------------r…….s---------------R
• 证实论：一个句子只有得到经验证实才有 意义：John is outside。
Chapter 5 Semantics(语义学）
5.1 what is semantics
• Semantics（语义学）is the study of meaning.
• What is meaning? Love, friendship， truth, fact, democracy, good, chair, ghost, unicorn；真善美，justice, soul
SemanticsI
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
boys said they would do the dishes.
The interpretation of pronouns
Pronominals
[IPMary
and reflexives differ in where their antecedents occur:
meaning of individual words is important in interpreting a sentence, but so is the way in which they are arranged. will consider three examples of this principle:
NPa
NPb
C-command
NPa c-commands NPb if the first category above NPa contains NPb. XP NPa
– The first category above NPa is XP and it contains NPb.
NPb
– The NP “that boy” is inside the same IP as the reflexive, but it can’t be the antecedent. – Only the NP “teacher” can be the antecedent.
[IP
That boy’s teacher admires him].
– [The students/they] arrived early. – The cat scratched [Jane/her] on the arm. – The cat looked at itself in the mirror.
Semantics and Pragmatics 语言学
teacher : student above : below before : after host : guest employer : employee
Reference
Referent: the thing that the symbol identifies. Reference: the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. E.g. The dog is barking.
Sense
Sense refers to the meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)
Contradiction
My father has just come from Paris. My father has never been to Paris.
Tom is a bachelor. Tom is married.
Sense Relations of Sentences
英语语言学概论 Chapter 7 Semantics
3 objects, characteristics and state of affairs in the real world. 4 the speaker and the specific situational context(情景语境)
(4) Theories of meaning
Conceptual meaning: the meaning given in the dictionary: Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.
Basic concepts
Reference(所指 指称 the relation between 所指,指称 所指 指称): the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers to. Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for. Denotation is invariant and utteranceindependent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.
Extension(外延 the class of entities to 外延): 外延 which a linguistic expression is correctly applied. Intension(内涵 内涵):the set of defining 内涵 properties which determine the applicability of a linguistic expression. Extension and intension are two aspects of denotation, which are complementary to each other.
semantics名词解释
semantics名词解释1. Semantics(semantically)意义学，语义学；关于意义的研究。
在语言学中指对词和句子的含义进行探讨，包括各种词汇和语法构造的意思以及它们在具体语境中的运用方式。
例句：1. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words and sentences.意义学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇和句子的含义。
2. Semantic analysis involves examining the structure and meaning of language.语义分析涉及审查语言的结构和含义。
3. The study of semantics is important in understanding how language is used to convey meaning.研究语义对于理解语言如何传达含义至关重要。
4. The semantics of a sentence can change depending on the context in which it is used.一句话的语义会因其所在的语境而有所改变。
5. In semantics, we look at both the denotative and connotative meanings of words.在语义学中，我们关注词语的指示意义和隐含意义。
6. The semantic content of a text refers to its underlying meaning and themes.一段文本的语义内容指的是其潜在的意义和主题。
7. Understanding the semantics of a language is important in accurately translating it into another language.了解一种语言的语义对于准确翻译它到另一种语言至关重要。
普通语言学 6-Syntax
4. 句法分析的最初模式
• 短语结构规则生成基本的句子结构，再 通过转换生成句子。 • 每个句子都有两层结构：深层结构和表 层结构。 • 深层结构是句子的抽象句法表示。 • 表层结构是实际发出的或者听到的句法 结构，它是句法派生的最后阶段。
模式
• 短语结构规则生成深层结构，通过应用 一组转换规则，再形成表层结构。
•节点C, D, F, H, J是终极节 点。
C-统制
• 用来解释句子是否合乎语法的结构关系 • C-统制：αC-统制β，当且仅当α不统辖β ，而且每一个统辖α的γ也统辖β
怎么确定C-统制？(Radford, 2002)
• 把α和β想象为火车站点
• αC-统制β：乘北向列车从α出发，在第一 个站点下车，换乘（不同线路的）南向 列车到达β。
?
Theory
• Syntactic Structures (1957): 乔姆斯 基革命 • 儿童为什么能够很容易地习得第一语言？ • 为什么语言使用者可以说出无限的合乎语 法的句子，并且说出并听懂以前从未说出 和听过的句子？
语言观
• 天赋论（innateness hypothesis） • 语言习得机制（LAD）
笛卡尔 洪堡特 索绪尔
• 语言：(有限的成分集合构成的)句子的集合 • 语言能力(competence)与语言运用(performance)
目 的
• 用于描写各种语言的普遍语法（UG） • 思维的本质和机制
grammar
?
发展阶段
1. 经典理论（ 1950s）建立了生成语法的概念，以及短语 结构规则和转换的概念。 2. 标准理论（ 1960s）确立了与转换相关的深层结构和表 层结构，并且为了限制生成不合形式的句子，在深层结 构中引入了语义成分。 3. 扩展的标准理论（ 1970s）提出表层结构决定了语义解 释，并且引入了语迹理论。 4. 管辖和约束理论（ 1980s），也称作原则与参数理论， 引入了规则和规范的概念，包括X-语杠理论，θ 理论， 格理论，约束理论，移位理论。 5. 最简方案（ 1990s及以后），核心假设是应该用最少的 理论和描写工具对语法进行描写。
语言学讲义 考研 5 Semantics
Grace Tan
1
考点
• • • • • 语义学定义 语义三角说 LEECH的七种意义类型 词汇意义关系(同义,反义,下义) 识别各实例中词与词的意义关系，句与句间的蕴 涵、前提、回话含义、同义、不相容、语义矛盾、 语义反常等 • 用成分分析同下义词、反义词、句子意义的区别 • 反义词的种类及例子
• 情感意义反映作者或说话人对所谈论的人或物、 事态等表示的个人情感或态度。这种意义可以通 过选用表情词直接了当地表现出来。
考研语言学 谭宗燕
18
• Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative/derogative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.
17
3) Affective Meaning
• Affective meaning expresses the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.
semanticsgracetan考研语言学谭宗燕识别各实例中词与词的意义关系句与句间的蕴涵前提回话含义同义不相容语义矛盾语义反常等反义词的种类及例子考研语言学谭宗燕meaningrelationshipbetweenmanhyponymousbecausesemanticfeaturessemanticallybeefsynonymsdespitestylisticdifferences
semantic知识点总结
semantic知识点总结Definition and Importance of SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language and the interpretation of words, phrases, and sentences. It examines how words and symbols convey meaning, how meanings are structured and organized, and how meanings are used in communication. Semantics is a fundamental aspect of language and communication, as it enables people to understand and convey meaning effectively.The importance of semantics lies in its role in language comprehension, communication, and reasoning. It allows individuals to understand the meaning of the words and sentences they encounter, to interpret and infer meaning from context, and to express themselves effectively. Semantics also plays a crucial role in the development of language, as it helps children and language learners to acquire and understand the meanings of words and symbols.Role of Semantics in Language UnderstandingSemantics plays a crucial role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It involves several key processes, including lexical semantics (the meanings of individual words), compositional semantics (the derivation of meaning from word combinations), and pragmatic semantics (the use of language in context).Lexical semantics focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, including denotation (the literal meaning of a word) and connotation (the associated or suggested meanings of a word). Lexical semantics also explores the relationships between words, such as synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with opposite meanings), and the polysemy (multiple meanings) and homonymy (same form, different meanings) of words.Compositional semantics is concerned with how the meaning of a phrase or sentence is derived from the meanings of its constituent words and the syntactic structure of the sentence. It involves processes such as semantic composition, which combines word meanings to form sentence meanings, and semantic ambiguity resolution, which resolves multiple possible interpretations of a sentence. Compositional semantics also considers the influence of context and pragmatic information on meaning derivation, such as the use of inference and presupposition in language understanding.Pragmatic semantics focuses on the use of language in context and the interpretation of meaning in communication. It considers how speakers and listeners use context, background knowledge, and communicative intentions to convey and infer meaning. Pragmatic semantics also examines various communicative phenomena, such as implicature (indirect or implied meaning), speech acts (the performative function of language), anddiscourse coherence (the organization and connection of utterances in a conversation or text).Aspects of Semantic Knowledge in Linguistics and Cognitive ScienceSemantic knowledge is a central topic in linguistics and cognitive science, as it provides insights into the nature, structure, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It encompasses various aspects of language and cognition, including lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics.Lexical semantics is the branch of semantics that focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, semantic relations between words, and the representation and processing of word meanings. Lexical semantics also considers the influence of semantic properties, such as imageability (the ease with which a word evokes mental images) and concreteness (the degree to which a word refers to tangible objects or experiences), on word processing and memory.Conceptual semantics is concerned with the representation and organization of concepts and meanings in the mind. It explores how people categorize and classify the world, how they form and distinguish concepts, and how they encode and retrieve meaning from memory. Conceptual semantics also investigates the relationships between language and thought, such as the influence of linguistic categories and structures on conceptual organization and the influence of conceptual knowledge on language comprehension and production.Computational semantics is the area of semantics that addresses the computational modeling and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It focuses on developing formal and computational models of meaning representation, meaning inference, and meaning generation. Computational semantics also considers the use of natural language processing (NLP) techniques, such as semantic parsing, semantic role labeling, and semantic similarity measurement, to extract and analyze semantic information from texts and to build intelligent systems that understand and generate natural language.In addition, there are other important aspects of semantic knowledge in linguistics and cognitive science, such as cross-linguistic semantics (the study of semantic universals and variation across languages), diachronic semantics (the study of semantic change over time), and psycholinguistic semantics (the study of the cognitive processes and mechanisms underlying language understanding and production). These aspects contribute to our understanding of how meaning is structured and processed in language and cognition and how semantic knowledge is represented and used in different linguistic and cognitive contexts.In conclusion, semantic knowledge is a crucial aspect of human cognition and communication. It plays a central role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend and convey meaning effectively. Semantic knowledge encompasses variousaspects of language and cognition, such as lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics, and provides insights into the nature, organization, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. By exploring and understanding semantic knowledge, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language and thought are intertwined and how we make sense of the world through meaning.。
semantics
SemanticsObjectives:getting students to understand1)semantics and the theory of meaning. )y g 2)Leech’s seven types of meaning;semantic triangle,triangle3)sense relations between words andsentencesOutline:1. Definition of semantics2What is meaning?2. What is meaning?3. Different kinds of meaning4. Major theories on the study of meaning5. Sense relationship between words p6. Sense relations between sentences 7Analysis of meaning (componential analysis7. Analysis of meaning (componential analysis,predication analysis)1. What is Semantics ?Semanticsis generallyconsideredt ob e t h e s t u d y o fmeaning inl a n g u a g e.Dating from Plato,the study of meaning has along history.Philosophers,psychologists,andsociologists all claim a deep interest in the studyof meaning,although they differ in their focus ofinterest.Philosophers:the relation between linguistic osop e s:e e o be wee gu s cexpression and what they refer to in the real world and evaluation of the truth value of it.Psychologists:understanding the working of human mind through language .History:In linguistics,compared with other y g ,pbranches we have discussed,semantics isvery young and new.But it also has a long y y g ghistory.“linguistics” Cinderella of linguistics (Kempson)The term semantics is a recent addition to thelanguage English language.It has only a history of alittle over a hundred years.22.what is meaning?What does “imperialism”mean ?(signify)I didn't mean to hurt you.(intend)Life without faith has no meaning.(value)g ()I know the guy you mean .(refer to )doesn't’t He doesn t t know the meaning of the word“fear”(sense)Ten dollars would mean a lot to me.(matter)I found a road that wasn’t meant to be there.(supposed to)Perhaps you are meant to become a journalist rather than a lawyer.(destined)1894it was introduced in a paper entitled p p“Reflected meanings:a point in semantics”1897Breal first used it as the science ofmeaning.1900its English version came outg1980s semantics began to be introduced into ChinaOne of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.g f g pLeech.G.N.Semantics.London:PenguinBooks Ltd,1974.,Palmer.F.R.Semantics.Cambridge:CUP,1976.a technical term in semantics,the word of meaning As semanticsshould have its definition.However,it is a controversial issue and so far there is no agreementat this point among linguists.Generally, we say a linguistic form has two types of meaning: denotation and connotation.Denotative meaning: the person, object, abstract notion, event, or state which the word denotes.E.g. Sofa, John’s car, perplexity, Robert is lying on the bed. Connotative meaning:the overtones (implications) of meaning, that is what the linguistic form suggests.h i h h li i i fE.g. A B Cli hi kislim thin skinnystrong-minded firm pig-headedPublic servant government employee bureaucratinvestigator detective spyDecease die pegged outstatesman politicianNotes:1)some words do not have negative connotations1) some words do not have negative connotationswhen they are used generally. But in some textsthey may have additional meaning.(context-they may have additional meaning. (contextspecific)e.g.when “boy”is used by a 20-year-old white e.g. when boy is used by a 20year old whiteman to a 40-year-old black man, it obviously has a negative connotation reflecting the attitude of the g gspeaker. 2) some words or phrases always have negative )p y gassociations. E.g. the number “4” in Chinese, “13” in English3) connotation is language-specificd (di i ti f id ite.g. propaganda (dissemination of some ideas it has the meaning of exaggerating and evenf l if i f t )falsifying some facts)imperialism (negative to Chinese, but neutral even positive to westerners “ImperialInn ”“Imperial Hotel ”)what about “turtle ”, “dragon ”“communism ”?4) semantics will mainly deal with denotative meaning,rather than connotative meaning meaning, rather than connotative meaning3Diff t ki d f i3.Different kinds of meaningG.Leech(1974)“Semantics”Leech’s seven types of meaning1.Conceptual meaning also called “denotative”or “cognitive”meaning cognitive meaning.This refers to the definitiongiven in the dictionary.It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication andis integral to the essential functioning of language.Man [+Human][+Male][+Adult]Girl [+Human][-Male][-Adult]2A i i i i i d i h2.Associative meaning meaning associated withthe conceptual meaning which can be further di id d i t f ll i tdivided into following types:a)connotative meaningi l ib)social meaningc)affective meaningfl t d id)reflected meaninge)collocative meaning3.Thematic meaninga)connotative meaning communicative value attributed to an expression over and above its purelyconceptual meaning.l i“woman”unappreciable properties:frail,prone to tears,cowardly,irrational,inconstant,short-sighteddl i i l i h i h dvirtues:gentle,hardworking,sensitiveb)social meaning what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use,including variations like dialect,time,topic,style etc. E.g.i i lik di l i i l E“thou”“管”used in Northern part of Anhui province.province)ff ti i f li d ttit d f th c)affective meaning feelings and attitudes of thespeaker/writer mother (love,care)maternal parent (neutral)d)reflected meaning the meaning when we associate one )g gsense of an expression with another.e.g.“dear”e)collocative meaning what is communicated throughassociation with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. E.g.rotten (general)addled eggs,rancid bacon and butter,sour milk ,putrid fish,fetidbreath.“on”“turn on”,“jump on”?What about on in turn on ,jump on ?Th ti i Thi i h t i i t d b Thematic meaning:This is what is communicated bythe way in which the message is organized inemphasis terms of order and emphasis.Now compare thefollowing pair of sentences:voluntarilyThe young man donated the kidney voluntarily.The kidney was donated by a young manvoluntarilyvoluntarily.The two sentences express the same conceptual meaning meaning,but they have different communicativevalues,but they answer different questions.What are they?y“what did the young man donate?”“who by?”who was the kidney donated by?Th /Rh h b dTheme/ Rheme theory: a sentence can be segmented into two parts: the first part, termed theme(主位), ish i i hi h ll h Gi the starting point, which usually conveys the Giveninformation, seen by the speaker to be known to the dd Th d h Rh addressee. The rest, termed the Rheme （述位）,conveys the information which is New,unknown or d b th k t b k t th assumed by the speaker to be unknown to theaddressee. （Prague School ）E.g. I saw a man in the street. He was the son of my yneighbor.4.Major theories concerning j gthe study of meaning1) Naming Theory?1)Naming Theory?The form is a wordin a language andthe meaning is theobject in the worldthat it stands for,refers to or denotes.2)Even with nouns,there will beproblems problems,because many nouns suchas unicorn,fairy,ghost,heaven relateto creatures or things that do not exist.Words are names or labels for Words are names or labels forthings.things.In other words,the semanticrelationship holding betweenwords and things is therelationship of naming.Weak points of NamingTheories1)Thi th t l1) This theory seems to applyl tonly to nouns.2)Even with nouns,there will beproblems problems,because many nouns suchas unicorn,fairy,ghost,heaven relateto creatures or things that do not exist.2) Context and behaviourismD i th i d hl f During the period roughly from 1930to 1960,linguists gave pre-eminence ,g g pto the empirical or observational meaningaspect in the study of meaning.This theory holds that meaningshould be studied in terms of situation,use,context---elements closely linked h i w i t h l a n g u a g e b e a v o u r.Fi th th l diFirth,the leadingBritish linguist of thegperiod held the view“that We shall knowa w o r db y t h ecompany it keeps.”a piece of papera daily paper y p pan examination paperan examination paperhia white papera term paper3) behaviourist theory )yAccording to Bloomfield,the meaning of a linguistic form shouldbe viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it,and the responsehearer.”which it calls forth in the hearer.h f f k d ill the famous account of Jack and Jill S r sR E f Events before Events after hSpeechspeech speechS r s R Events before Events after Events beforespeech Events afterSpeech speec speechBloomfield argued that meaning consists in the Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech and the practical events S d R th t d d f ll it S and R that precede and follow it.4) ConceptsThis theory holds that words and ythings are related through the di ti f t f th i d mediation of concepts of the mind.This can be best illustrated by the i i i l d d b Semiotic Triangle advanced byO g d e n a n d R i c h a r d s .Thought or ReferenceSymbol ReferentThought or Reference conceptSymbolReferent Linguistic elementsh dThe object, etc, in the ld f i such as words or sentences world of experienceAccording theory to this theory,there is no direct link b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n dreferent (between language e e e t (betwee a guageand the world).The link is i th ht f via thought or reference,the concepts of our minds.pWeak points ?Weak points ?Thi th i This theory raises anew problem.Forpexample,what isprecisely the linkbetween the symbola n d c o n c e p t ?S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v esuggested that the link is simply a psychological one---when we think of a name,we think of a concept.5) MentalismThis approach has been headed by pp yChomsky since 1960’s.Mentalists b li th t d t d d f th believe that data needed for thestudy of language can be supplied y g g ppby direct resort to intuition.They argue that people often judge hi h which sentences are synonymous,which sentences are ambiguous,g ,which sentences are ill-formed or b d b d th i i t iti absurd,based on their intuition.Therefore they regard the task ofsemantics mainly as one to explainthose data supplied by direct resort t i t iti b t ti th i to intuition by constructing theoriesThe SYMBOL refers to the linguistic elements(word, sentence,etc.),the REFERENT refers to the object in the worldof experience,and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to experienceconcept.“things”The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the “concept”associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language,and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.e.g.The dog over there looks unfriendly.The word“dog”is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind(the use of mind),i.e.what a“dog”is like,but it is not directly linked to the referent(the particular dog)in this di l li k d h f(h i l d)i hiparticular case.C t th thComments on the theory:1) meanings don’t reside in words, but in )ea gs do es de wo ds,bupeople’s minds 2)i di id l l h diff i th i2) individual people have differences in theirexperiences and personal backgrounds, which affect how people think.3)Phenomenon of single word but neglects 3) Phenomenon of single word but neglectsthe semantic relationship among words.5Sense relationship 5. Sense relationshipSense relates to the complex systemof relationships that hold betweenthe linguistic elements themselves;it is concerned only withintra-linguistic relations.Pairs of words can be formedi t t i tt tinto certain patterns toindicate sense relations.C r o w /h e l l o ,s o w /b o a r,ewe/ram,mare/stallion etc.form a pattern indicating a sexmeaning related to sex.Duck/ducking,pig/piglet, dog/puppy,lion/cub,etc. form another pattern indicating a relationship between adult and young.Narrow/wide male/female Narrow/wide, male/female,buy/sell, etc. show a differentpattern related to opposition.In fact fact,when we are talking ofsense relations,we are talking of synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,y y c p o l y s e m y,h o m o n y m y,e t c.In fact,when we are talking of relations sense relations,we are talking ofsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,p o l y s e m y,h o m o n y m y,e t c.synonymyS i d tSynonymy is used to mean“ sameness of meaning”gContext plays an important part indeciding whether a set of lexicali t e m s i s s y n o n y m o u s ."Wh t i f fl !"" What a nice ----of flowers!"The “range selection items range,selection,choice,”etc.are synonymous.。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。
现代语言学名词解释
现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
Semantics_语义学
Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.。
semantic_roles
Semantics features
First consider the following sentences: The hamburger ate the man. My cat studies linguistics. A table was singing a song. All the sentences follow the syntactic rule of „NP + V + NP‟, but they are all semantically odd. What is the source of the oddness we experience? The answer may lie in the basic components of the conceptual mes
• Instead of thinking of the words as containers of meaning, we can look at the roles they fulfill within the situation described by a sentence. If the situation is a simple event, such as the boy kicked the ball, then the verb describes the action. The noun phrase describes the roles of entities, such as people and things ,involved in the action. We can identity a small number of semantic roles for these noun phrases.
Syntax & Semantics
Syntax1.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to formsentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (ormore) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.3.The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in itsnarrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Semantics1. Semantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.2. Word meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Major sense relations3.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.2 Antonymya. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …b. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-femal e, …c. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …d. Reversive3.3 HyponymyHyponymy ----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a. Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.b. Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.c. Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.g. Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …3.4 Polysemy Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.3.5 HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. Homophone---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling 4. Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]。
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Classifying Situation
Dynamic verbs
Dynamic situation types include events(事件) and processes(过程). In events, the speaker views the situation as a whole, In a process, we view the internal structure of a dynamic situation. Eg. The mine blew up. (event) He walked to the shop. (process)
Classifying Situation
In English: (typically) adjectives-----states eg: a. The pears are ripe. b. The pears ripened.(119) verbs-----dynamic
* There are a number of stative verbs: be, have, remain,
many language have grammatical forms, such as verb ending, which allow a speaker to locate a situation in time.
Aspect:
a grammatical system relating to time, describe the internal temporal nature of a situation.
Classifying Situation
Stative verbs display grammatical differences from dynamic verbs. 1) Progressive forms can be used of dynamic situations but not states. eg. a. I am learning Swahili. b. *I am knowing Swahili. 2) It usually sounds odd to use the imperative with statives.(Imperatives imply action and dynamism) eg. a. Learn Swahili! b. *Know Swahili! 3) Distinction between state and dynamic situations is not always clearcut. eg. Remain at your posts! (121) 4) Verbs may have a range of meanings, some of which may be more stative than others. eg. a. She has a sister in New York. (stative use) b. She is having a sister in New York.* c. She is having a baby. (non-stative use)
How languages allow speakers to classify situations by using semantic distinctions of situation type, tense and aspect.
How systems of mood allows speakers to adopt differing attitudes towards the factuality of their sentences. How evidentiality systems allow them to identify the source of their belief.
Classifyinபைடு நூலகம் Situation
5.2.2 Verbs and situation types
Certain lexical categories, in particular verbs, inherently describe different situation types. Some describe states, others are dynamic and describe processes and events.
eg: My hair turned grey. --122
Classifying Situation
Two important semantic distinctions in verbs underlying different dynamic situation types.
The first distinction is between durative (延续动词) and punctual (即时动 词) The second is between telic(终结动词)and atelic(非终结动词). Durative is applied to verbs which describe a situation or process which lasts for a period of time, while punctual describes an event that seems so instantaneous that it involves virtually no time. eg. John coughed. (punctual) (semelfactive V: instantaneous atelic event) John slept. (durative) Telic refers to those processes which are seen as having a natural completion. Eg. Harry built a raft. (telic/ resultative) telic --- bounded eg: build atelic --- unbounded ( continue indefinitely) eg: gaze
Sentence Semantics 1: Situations
Content
Introduction Classifying Situation
1. Introduction 2. Verbs and situation types 3. A system of situation types 4. Tense 5. Aspect 6. Comparing aspect across languages 7. Combining situaton type and aspect
Stative verbs: allow the speaker to view a situation as a
steady state, with no internal phases or changes. By using a stative, the speaker does not overtly focus on the beginning or end of the state.( like be, have, know, love, etc.) eg. Mary loved to drive sports cars.(120)
Classifying Situation
Processes can be subdivided into several types, for example inchoatives (表始动词) and resultatives(结果动词).
Inchoatives are processes where our attention is directed to the beginning of a new state, or to a change of state. Resultatives are processes which are viewed as having a final point of completion: our attention is directed to the end of the process. (describe a successful conclusion)
Classifying Situation
The telic/atelic distinction interacts with aspectual distinctions: a combination of either the English perfect or simple past with a telic verb will produce an implication of completion. The combination of a progressive aspect and a telic verb does not produce this implication. eg. Mary painted my portrait. The portrait is finished. Mary has painted my portrait.
Modality and Evidentiality
1. Modality 2. Mood 3. Evidentiality
Introduction
Languages allow speakers to construct different views of situations. In this chapter, we’ll learn
Mary was painting my portrait.
Classifying Situation
5.2.3 A system of situation types