Motivation Theory

Motivation Theory§5.1 conceptMotivation:•the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need •Need:some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive •Process:unsatisfied need---tension---drives---search behavior---satisfied need----reduction of tension§5.2 Early theory of Motivation The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts.3 specific theories were formulated during this time1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow •There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological, safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as each need is sequentially satisfied,the next need becomes dominant•Separation:Lower order needs---needs that are satisfied externally; physiological & safety needs•review:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding, receiving wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. 2.little empirical support2.Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor proposed 2 distinct views of human being•The assumption that employees dislike work,are lazy,dislike responsibility,& must be coerced to perform•employees dislike work &,whenever possible,will attempt to avoid it; They must be coerced,controlled,or threatened with punishment to achieve goals; avoid responsibilities & seek formal direction whenever possible; Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work & will display little ambition •Theory Y: The assumption that employees like work,are creative,seek responsibility,& can exercise self-direction higher order needs dominate individuals3. Motivation-Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg, individual’s relation to his work•Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction•satisfaction, No satisfaction•Hygiene factors:those factors---such as company policy & administration,supervision,& salary---that,when adequate in job,placate workers.When these factors are adequate,people will not be dissatisfied§ 5.2 Contemporary theory of Motivation having one thing in common:each has a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation1.ERG theory Clayton Alderfer of Yale reworked Maslow’s theor y to align it more closely with the empirical research•There are 3 groups of core needs:existence, relatedness,& growth •Difference:(1)more than 1 need may be operative at the same time,(2)if the gratification of a higher level needs is stifled,the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases•Maslow: a rigid steplike progression. ERG:contains a frustration-regression dimension •Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives of Spain & Japan place social needs before their physiological requirements2.McClelland’s theory of needs Ach,pow,aff are 3 important needs that help to understand Mo•Achievement need:The drive to excel,to achieve in relation to a set of standards,to strive to succeed•nPow:the desire to make others behave in a way that they would not otherwise have behaved in•nAff: the desire for friendly & closely interpersonal relationships•High achievers preferring personal responsibility,feedback, moderate risks---successful in entrepreneurial activities, salespeople & running a self-contained unit within a large organization; The best managers are high-power need & low-affiliation need,level in a hierarchical organization3.Cognitive Evaluation Theory may be relevant to that set of jobs that falls in between--neither extremely dull nor intersting•Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarded tends to decrease the overall level of motivation•Explanation:the individual experiences a loss of control over his behavior so the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes; the elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce a shift--from an external to an internal explanation•If extrinsic rewards are to be effective motivators,they should be made contingent on an individual’s performance?•Independent? Substitution? Test done with students; high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impacts of extrinsic rewards4.Goal-setting Theory in the late 1960s Edwin Locke proposed that intention to work to a goal is a major source of motivation•The theory that specific & difficult goals lead to higher performance.Specificity,challenge,feedback•the specificity of the goal act as an internal stimulus than the generalized goal;Factors like ability & acceptance given,difficult goals exert a high level of effort;feedback helps identify discrepancies between the advance & goal.•Self-generated feedback(monitoring his own progress) ---a more powerful motivator;Participative goals may have no superiority over assigned goals when acceptance is taken as a given, participation add the odds that harder goals be agreed5.Reinforcement theory•Moderator: goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, national culture •self-efficacy: t he individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task; Culture bound: low power distance & uncertainty avoidance,high in quality of life; not in Portugal, Chile •reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of it’s consequences. Strictly speaking,it’s not a theory of motivation6.Equity theory•Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any inequities• 4 referent comparisons: Self-inside--one’s experience in a diff erent position inside his current organization; Self-outside; Other-inside; Self-outside•Minor qualifications:1.people have a great deal more tolerance of overpayment inequities than of underpayment inequities. 2.not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent types• 4 propositions relating to inequitable pay: Given payment by time,the overrewarded produce more than equitably paid employees; the underrewarded produce less or poorer quality of output Given payment by quantity of production,the overrewarded produce fewer,but higher quality,units than equitably paid employees; the underrewarded produce a large number of low-quality units.•Distributive justice:perceived fairness of the amount & allocation of rewards among individuals. satisfaction Procedural justice:perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. commitment 7.Expectancy theory help to explain why workers aren’t motivated on their jobs & merely do the minimum necessary to get by•The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome & on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual•Effort-performance relationship,skill,appraisal system,subj performance-reward relationship, incentive scheme,stable reward-personal goal relationship8.Ability & opportunity success on a job is constrained by support resources•Opportunity to perform:high value of performance are partially a function of an absences that constrain the employee•=f(A,M,O)•Integration•Culture boundClass 6.Applications of Motivation§6.1 Management by Objective A program that encompasses specific goals,particularly set,for an explicit time period,with feedback ongoal progressMBO 4 ingredients:goal specificity,participative D-M,an explicit time period,&performance feedback•Converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members•objectives cascade down through the organization: overall organizational,divisional,departmental, individual objectives•Linking MBO and Goal-setting theory:specific hard goals.Area of possible disagreement---participation•MBO In practiceClass 6.Applications of Motivation§6.2 Behavior Modification A program where managers identify performance-related employee behaviors & then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors & weaken undesirableperformance behaviorsOB Mod Emery Air Fright use containers•5-step problem-solving model: (1)identification of performance-related behaviors;(2)measurement of the behaviors; (3) identification of behaviorscontingencies; (4)development & implementation of an interventionstrategy;(5)evaluation of performance improvement•Reinforcement theoryClass 6.Applications of Motivation§6.3 Employee Involvement A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees & is designed to encourage increased commitment to theorganization’s successExamples of•participative management:A process where subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superior•representative participation:workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employeesWorks councils:group of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnelBoard representatives:a form of representative participation. Employees sit on a company’s board of directors & represent the interests of the firm’s employeesExamples of•Quality circle:a work group of 8-10 employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems,investigate causes,recommend solutions,& take corrective actions Management retains control over the final decision; improve productivity;a simple device?•Employee stock ownership plans(ESOPs):company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits•Linking:Theory Y;ERG theory•In practiceClass 6.Applications of Motivation§6.4 Variable pay A portion of an employee’s pay is based o n some individual &/or organizationalmeasurement4 of the widely used model•Piece-rate pay plan:workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed•Bonus•Profit-sharing plans:organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability •Gainsharing:an incentive plan where improvement in group productivity determines the total amount of money that is allocated•expectancy theory§6.5 Skill-based pay•Pay levels are based on how many skills employee have or how many jobs they can do•Flexibility,Downsize,facilitate communication, meet the needs of ambitious employees, performance improvement.Downside:obsolete,immediate needs,don’t address level of pe rformance •linking:ERG theory,Achievement needs,reinforcrment§6.6 Flexible benefit•Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal needs by picking & closing from a menu of benefit options.•Expectancy theory§6.7 Comparable worth• A doctrine that holds that jobs equal in value to an organization should be equally compensated, weather or not the work content of those jobs issimilar•expands the notion of “equal pay for equal work” to include jobs that are dissimilar but comparable value•Supply-demand factors in market;public sector;Private sectors§6.8 Special issues •Motivating professions---long-term commit to their field of expertise; keep current in; autonomy•temporary workers---freedom;highly compensated;permanent status;skills•the diversified workforce---flexible work schedule;job sharing,temporary assignment varied needs;flexible leave policies§6.9 Summary•Individual diffenence•goals and feedback•participative•rewards and performace•equity。