An Analysis of Loanword in Chinese Language

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English Loan-words in Chinese

Tentative Study of English Loan-words in ChineseSubmitted to the School of Foreign Languages for Practicum in Using the English LanguageCONTENTSABSTRACT (i)摘要 (ii)1Introduction (1)2Why English loanwords come to China (2)2.1The social and historical factors (2)2.2Chinese traditional culture, the psychological factors (3)2.3The respective features of the English and Chinese languages (4)3The development of English loanwords in Chinese (5)3.1Coming in the 1980s (5)3.2Rising in the 1990s (6)3.3Booming in the 21st century (7)4Borrowing Methods of English Loanwords in Chinese (9)4.1Loan words borrowed phonetically and semantically (9)4.2Loan words translated according to their original meaning (10)4.3Loan words composed of both an English part and a Chinese part (11)4.4 A shift in the meaning of some established native Chinese Characters (11)4.5English “aliens” (12)4.5.1 Abbreviations (12)4.5.2 Oral English words (13)4.6Half loan word, half loan translation (13)4.7Borrowings imitating the English sound (14)5The influence of English loanwords in Chinese (16)5.1The creation of Chinese words (16)5.2The forms of transliteration and abbreviation (16)5.3Enlarging words in science, life and entertainment (17)5.4Deriving and composing many new words (17)6Conclusion (19)Bibliography (21)AbstractThe necessity and the development of the society are the basic conditions and strong power for the vocabulary expansion. With China’s opening and reform to the outside world, there is more communication between China and other countries, and with more media there is more information and convenience, which put forward modern Chinese to enrich its vocabularies.Borrowing loan-words is one important means to recognize new things. This paper probes into language borrowing, especially the lexical borrowing between the two languages, English and Chinese. By introducing factors of English loan words’coming into the Chinese language, summarizing the development of English loanwords in Chinese, analyzing different borrowing methods and exploring the influence and meaning of English loanwords in Chinese, this paper draws the conclusion that loanwords cannot be used at random or created with imagination.Key Words: English loan-words, National cultural psychology, Language, Society摘要社会的发展和对词汇的需求量成为了词汇发展的基本条件和强大推动力。

英语语言学判断题

判断题：正确写A,错误写BChapter1:1.Linguisticsisthesystematicstudyoflanguage.True.2.Linguisticsdealswithaparticularlanguage.False.3.Linguisticsisscientificbecauseitishelpfultolanguageuse.False.4.Thetaskofalinguististodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem.True.5.Linguisticsisgenerallydividedintogeneralandspecificlinguistics.False.6.Generallinguisticsdealswiththegeneralaspectsoflanguageapplication.False.7.Generallinguisticsdoesnotstudytheoriesoflanguage.False.8.Phoneticsstudieshumansoundpatterningandthemeaningofsoundsincommunication.False.9.Phonologystudieshowasoundisproduced.False.10.Morphologyisthestudyofsentences.False.11.Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesofwords.False.12.Semanticsisthestudyofwordmeaning.False.13.Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontextoflanguageuse.True.14.Sociolinguisticsdealswiththerelationbetweenlanguageandsociety.True.15.Psycholinguisticsdealswiththerelationoflanguagetopsychology.True.16.Appliedlinguisticsmeansthelanguageapplicationtospecificareas.False.17.Modernlinguisticsaimsatprescribingmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.False.18.Synchroniclinguisticsdealswithaseriesoflanguagephenomenaatthesametime.False.19.Diachroniclinguisticsisalsocalledhistoricallinguistics.True.nguemeanscompetence.False.21.ParoleisaFrenchword;itmeanstheconcretelanguageevents.True.22. F.deSaussurewasaSwisslinguist.True.23.N.ChomskyisanAmericanlinguist.True.24.AccordingtoChomsky,theinternalizationofasetofrulesabouthislanguageenablesaspeakertopr oduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungramm aticalandambiguous.True.25.Chomskyregardscompetenceasanactofdoingthingswithasentence.False.26.PerformanceisthefocusofChomsky'slinguisticstudy.False.Competence,instead.27.Detailsoflanguagesystemaregeneticallytransmitted.False.28.Displacementoflanguagemeanslanguageuseinafar-awayplace.False.29.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemeanslanguagecanbeusedfreely.False.30.Dualityoflanguagemeanslanguageisatwo-levelsystem.True.Chapter2:1.Writingismorebasicthanspeech.False.2.Therehavebeensome2,500languagesintheworld.False.3.Abouttwothirdsoflanguagesintheworldhavenothadwrittenform.True.4.Linguistsareinterestedinallsounds.False.5.Thelimitedrangeofsoundsthataremeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmed iumoflanguage.True.6.Phoneticsimilarity,notphoneticidentity,isthecriterionwithwhichweoperateinthephonologicala nalysisoflanguages.True.7.Thegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundintheoralcavity.True.8.Thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueresultsinthesound[j].True.9.[k],[g]and[n]arevelarsounds.False.10.[i]isasemi-closevowel.False.11.[h]istheglottalsound.True.12.[ei]isamonophthong.False.13.Phonologyisofageneralnature.False.14.Phoneticsdealswithspeechsoundsinallhumanlanguages.True.15.Aphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.True.16.Aphonemeisaphoneticunit.False.t.17.‘Tsled'isapossiblewordinEnglish.False.18.Englishisatonelanguage.False.Chapter3:1.Theword‘predigestion'iscomposedof twomorphemes.False.2.‘Teach-in'isacompoundword.True.3.Pronounsbelongtoclosedclasswords.True.4.Theword‘unacceptability'hasfourmorphemes.True.5.Theword‘boy'isafreemorpheme.True.6.T hemorpheme‘—or'in‘actor'isani nflectionalmorpheme.False.7.The-sin‘works'of‘Heworkshard.'isaboundmorpheme.False.8.Theword‘unsad'isacceptableinEnglish.False.poundingisaverycommonandfrequentprocessforenlargingthevocabularyoftheEnglishlan guage.True.10.Theprefixa-in‘asexual'means‘without'.True.Chapter4:1.Phrasescanconsistofjustoneword,butmoreoftentheycontainotherelementsaswell.True.2.InXP,XreferstoanysuchheadasN,V,AorP.True.3.In‘abookaboutghosts',thecomplementis‘ghosts'.False.Thecomplementis‘aboutghosts'.4.InTG,determinerisoftenwrittenasDet.True.Chapter5:1.Hyponymyisarelationofexclusionofmeaning.False.2.Thewords‘alive'and‘dead'arerelationalopposites.False.3.Thewords‘lead'（领导）and‘lead'（铅球）arehomographs.True.4.Thewords‘flat'and‘apartment'arestylisticsynonyms.False.5.Thewords‘politician'and‘statesman'arecollocationalsynonyms.False.6.Thewords‘buy'and‘purchase'are dialectalsynonyms.False.7.Thewords‘shock'and‘surprise'aresemanticallydifferentsynonyms.True.8.Inthesenseset<freshman,sophomore,junior,senior>,‘junior'and‘senior'are co-hyponyms.True.9.Thewords‘doctor'and‘patient'arerel ationalsynonyms.True.10.‘IhavebeentoBeijing.'entails‘IhavebeentoNorthChina.'True.11.‘Hisfriendiscoming.'presupposes‘Hehasafriend.'True.12.‘Maryissingle.'isinconsistentwith‘Maryismarried.'True.13.‘HisdumbboyspokegoodEnglish.'isacontradiction.True.Chapter6:1.Pragmaticsisalinguisticbranchthatdevelopedinthe1890s.False.2.CourseinGeneralLinguisticswaspublishedin1889.False.3.Contextreferstotherelationbetweenlinesorparagraphsofatext.False.4.IfIsaidtoyou,‘It'sverystuffyhere.',thenmyillocutionaryactmaybeaskingyouto switchonthe air-conditioner.True.5.IfSmithsaidtoyouinasupermarket,‘Iamthirstynow,butIhavenomoneywithme',thenhisperl ocutionaryactisyourbuyinghimacoca-cola.True.6.AccordingtoAustin,‘Heisaboy.'isaconstative.True.7.AccordingtoAustin,‘Ibetyousixpenceitwillbefinethisevening.'isaperformative.True.8.‘Openthedoor!'isadirective.True.9.‘Theroomisair-conditioned.'isanexpressive.False.10.‘Wehavenevermetbefore.'isarepresentative.True.11.‘Ifireyou!'isacommissive.False.…isadeclaration.12.‘Iwillreturnthebooktoyousoon.'isanexpressive.False.13.‘Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse'isamaximofrelation.False.14.‘Bebrief'belongstothemaximofmanner.True.15.‘Make yourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange) .'belongstothemaximofq uality.False.16.B'sreplyviolatesthemaximofqualityinthedialoguebelow:A:Wheredoyoulive?B:InSouthChinaNormalUniversity.False.17.Bprobablymeansthathedoesn'twanttomakeanycommentonthelecture,inthe dialoguebel ow:A:Whatdoyouthinkofthelecture?(Thespeechmakeriscoming)B:Dowehaveclassesthisevening?True.18.Bprobablymeansthatitisimpolitetoaskaboutherage,inthedialoguebelow:A:Howoldareyou?B:Iam80.True.19.BprobablymeansthatAshouldnotlaughathimsincetheyknoweachother,inthedialoguebelow:A:Areyouagoodstudent?B:Areyou?True.Chapter7:1.Soundchangestendtobesystematic.True.2.Theword‘home'waswrittenas'ham'inOldEnglish.True.3.Theword‘mice',whichispronouncedas[mais],waspronouncedas[mi:s]inMiddle English.True.4.InChaucer'stheCanterburyTales,wecanfind‘his'toreplace‘it'inModernEnglish,asin‘Wha nthatAprillewithhisshouressooth'.Thisreflect sthechangeinthe‘agreement'rule.True.5.‘Ilovetheenot.'beforethe16thcentury,hasnowbecome‘Idonotloveyou.'This meansthechan geinnegationrule.True.6.TheEnglishpronoun‘our'hasexperiencedaprocessofsimplificationfromOld English.True.7.Theword‘fridge'isaloanword.False.8.Theword‘walkman'isablend.False.9.Theword‘mike'isaclippedword.True.10.Theword‘videophone'isanacronym.False.11.UNESCOisablend.False.12.Theword‘quake'isthe resultofback-formation.False.13.ISBNmeansInternationalStandardBookNumber.True.14.Theword‘baby-sit'isawordfromback-formation.True.15.Theword‘question'isawordborrowedfromFrench.True.16.Theword‘tea'isaloanwordfrom Chinese.True.17.Theword‘education'comesfromLatin.True.18.Theword‘dinner'comesfromFrench.True.19.Theword‘beer'comesfromGerman.True.20.Theword‘meat'weusenowhasgonethroughthenarrowingofmeaning.True.21.Theword‘holiday'hasgonethroughthewideningofmeaning.True.22.Theword‘silly'usedtomean‘happy'inOldEnglish.True.23.Theuseoftheexpressions‘toupdate',‘tohost'and‘tocheckup'indicatesthe influenceofAmer icanEnglish.True.puterlanguageisoneofthesourcesthathaveinfluencedtheEnglishlanguage.True.25.Onepossibleaccountoftheincreasinguseof‘cheap'insteadof‘cheaply'in‘Hegotitcheap.'is thatofthe‘theoryofleasteffort'.True.26.Theexpression‘It'sme'isNotacceptableinEnglish.False.Chapter8:1.Theterm‘diglossia'wasfirstusedbyFergusonin1959.True.2.Pidginscamefromablendingofafewlanguages.True.3.Atypicalexampleofabilingualcommunityisanethnicghettowheremostoftheinhabitantsareeithe rimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrants.True.4.Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanberevealedthroughdifferencesatsyntactic,lexicalandph onologicallevels.True.5.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofbilingualismisthespecializationoffunctionofthetwovarietie s.False.6.Of‘reply'and‘answer',thelatterismoreformal.False.7.M.A.K.HallidayisaBritishlinguist.True.8.Thedeletionofthelinkverb‘be'asin‘Youcrazy'istypicalofthe syntaxofBlackEnglish(1,2).True.9.AprominentphonologicalfeatureofBlackEnglishisthedeletionoftheconsonantat theendofaword ,asin‘desk'[des].True.10.Theuseofsuchsentencesas‘Iain'tafraidofnoghosts'tomean‘I'mnota fraidof ghosts'isoneoft hesyntacticfeaturesofBlackEnglish.True.11.Accentisanimportantmarkerofsociolect.True.12.ReceivedPronunciationinBritishEnglishisadialectofLondonthatisrepresentativeofstandardE nglish.False.13.AnRPaccentoftenservesasahighstatusmarker.True.Chapter9:1.Theword‘dog'oftenconjuresupdifferentimagesintheUSandHongKong.True.2.PeopleintheWestEndinLondonspeakdifferentlyfromtheEastEnders.True.nguageplaysamajorroleinsocializingthepeopleandperpetuatingculture,especiallyinprintfor m.True.4.TheEskimoshavefarmoreword sforsnowthantheEnglishnativesinthat‘snow'is morecrucia ltothelifeoftheformer.True.5.FortheBritishpeople,theChinesegreeting‘Haveyouhaddinner?'wouldturninto‘It'sfinetoda y,isn'tit?'.True.6.ItisstandardpracticeforanEnglishnativestudenttogreethisteacherbeforealecture bysaying‘Go odmorning,teacher!'.False.7.TheChinese‘uncle'meansthesameastheBritish‘uncle'.False.8.ItisproperinEnglishtosay‘no,no'inresponsetosuchapraiseas‘You'vemadegoodprogress.' toshowone'smodesty.False.9.YoucanneveraskanEnglishnativethequestionofhisnameorage.False.10.InEnglish,theword‘blue'isassociatedwithunhappyfeelings.True.11.Itisacceptabletotranslate‘Everydoghashisday.'into‘每条狗都有自己的日子。

AnalysisonEnglis...

AnalysisonEnglis...第一篇：Analysis on English and Chinese advertising language universals分析英汉广告语言的共性摘要：本英国硕士论文从消费心理入手研究了广告语言对消费者几种消费心理的影响，指出英汉广告语言的共性必须是善于捕捉人们的心理活动，在创意上通过语言、形象的渲染，来博得消费者的认同与共鸣。

一、引言广告的目的在于将广告信息传达给消费者，以促使消费者采取有关的消费行为。

美国学者 Lewis 曾提出过“注意（Attention）、兴趣（Interest）、欲望（Desire）、行动（Action）”原则，这一原则揭示了广告实现其效果的心理过程，认为广告要实现其效果，必须能够引起消费者的注意，激发其兴趣，唤起其购买欲望，最终引导消费者作出购买选择。

可见，消费者的消费行为并不是简单的机械活动，相反，它是一个复杂的、伴随着人的心里活动和行为的过程，它既要受动机的支配，又要受消费需要的影响。

因此，要开启成功广告的大门，就必须研究广告语言和消费者的消费行为，了解消费者的心理活动。

二、英汉广告语言与消费心理广告离不开语言，广告的信息主要靠语言来传递，任何一则富有魅力的广告语言，都来自于对消费者的了如指掌。

因此，广告语言要集中反映消费者的需求、动机和选择，能否抓住消费者的消费心理去引导消费，这一点显得尤为重要。

然而，由于人们的消费意识和消费观念不同，因此，受其支配的消费心理也千差万别，总的来说，现代人的消费心理主要表现在：1、追求时尚、新颖和美的心理时尚的东西，总是新潮的，总是领导消费的。

现代社会，人们大都表现出一种追求商品的趋时和新颖，消费者在购买商品时十分看重商品的款式和流行样式，以满足其对未来追求的心理欲望，实现其好奇心。

同样，爱美是人的天性，美能给人们的内心带来愉悦感、幸福感。

随着现代社会的进步，人们生活水平的提高，人们对自身美化和产品美感的渴求越来越强烈。

什么是借词

什么是借词？What is loanword?借词的定义有广义和狭义之分。

狭义的借词指语言是带有严格等级划分的系统结构，主张把借词的概念限定在因音译而变换的词汇。

广义的借词指除语言学这一维度外，也应把社会、文化因素纳入研究借词的范畴。

“不论语音上的模仿还是语义上的模仿，新词都放映了外来语言文化的影响。

【3】There is a general and narrow definition of loanword. Narrow loanword refers that language is a system organization with strict grade division. It advocates limiting the concept of loanword in the lexicon which changes due to transliteration. General loanword means that we should take social and cultural factors into consideration when studying loanword. Whether it is imitation in phonetic sound or semantic meaning, neology reflects itself influenced by foreign language culture.英语的词汇众多，表达丰富，这与其善于借用不同民族和文化的语言密不可分。

其中汉语的丰富英语词汇方面功不可没。

在英语各类借词的来源中，汉语的数量排第11位。

[4] 汉语借词主要是通过意译、翻译借词等形式。

There are numerous vocabularies and rich expression in English. And that’s deeply related to its frequently using different national and cultural languages. Among them, abundant English vocabularies of Chinese make great contributions. In the origin of kinds of loanword, the number of Chinese ranks 11th. Chinese loanword represents it mainly by the means of free translation and translation.音译借词这是一种语言吸收外来语最快和最直接的方式。

金融英语期末试卷

documents.学年度第一学期《金融英语》2011 -2012 ( ) 3. In documentary credit, the issuing bank is usually a bank located in the beneficiary's country.( ) 4. An advising bank or notifying bank is the bank that advises the applicant that a letter of credit 卷期末考试A(L/C) has been issued, confirmed, or amended.( ) 5. Acceptance must be made at the back of the bill and signed by the drawee.( ) 6. In cheque transactions, the drawer and the payer are the same person. 姓名专业年级学号( ) 7. Both a crossed cheque and a open cheque can be cashed over the counter.( ) 8. Education loan is, just one tpye of amortization loans.( ) 9. Short-term loans are often used to satisfy fixed asset investment whereas medium andlong-term loans are often used to finance working capital needs.( ) 10. By barter, it means that people use goods to trade for other goods made by other people.Ⅳ. Choose the best answer.(2分/题，10题共20分)( ) 1. The first modern international monetary system was the _________?Match the words in the left column with the proper chinese equivalents in the right Ⅰ.A gold standard B Bretton Woods Systemcolumn.10 points,1 point for each ）（C Jemaica System D European Monetary SystemA 通货膨胀( ) 1 financial assets( ) 2. Used to settle official transactions at the IMF, ______ are sometimes called paper gold.B 托收行( ) 2 executiveA dollarsB ECUsC 金融资产( ) 3 barterC SDRsD all currenciesD 有利可图的( ) 4 installment( ) 3. The ____fees are one-time charges negotiated in advance and imposed when the loan机密的 E ( ) 5 profitableagreement is signed.) 6 recipient ( 分期付款 FA managementB front-end 指定的人G ) 7 ( orderC commitmentD participation( 行政人员H ) 8 inflation( ) 4. The person paying the money is _______ of a cheque.I 物物交换) 9 confidental (A the draweeB the endorser ( 收信人J ) 10 remitting bankC the payeeD the endorsee( ) 5. The documents will not be delivered to the buyer until ________.分）105题，（II.Give the full name to the following words.2分/ 题共A the buyer has cleared goods B the goods have arrived ______________________________ ECU ．1C the bill is paid or accepted D both A and B______________________________ IMF ．2( ) 6. If it is not stated as D/P or D/A, the documents can be released_________.______________________________ SDRs 3．A against acceptance pour avalB against acceptance 4． D/A_______________________________C against paymentD in either way．5CPA ________________________________ ( ) 7. Under_____, no draft is drawn. It is also used as a means of avoiding the stamp duty（10分）. Decide whether each of the following statements is true(T) or false(F). Ⅲpayable on drafts.the ( personal with be not should transactions Business 1. ) confused Similarly, transactions.A the acceptance creditB the derferred payment credit transactions of different entities should not be accounted for together.D the negotiated creditC the payment credit ) 2. A usance credit means a credit which stipulates the immediate payment on presentation of(( ) 8. ________is the bank to which the pricipal has entrusting the collection.“We needed furniture(家具) for our living room.”Says John Ross, “and we just didn't have enough money to buy it. So we decided to try making a few tables and chairs.”B The collecting bank John got married six A The remitting bankmonths ago, and like many young people these days, they are struggling to make a home at a time when D Both A and BC The presenting bankthe cost of living is very high. The Rosses took a 2-week course for $ 280 at a night school. Nowthey ) 9. Which principle has the assumption that the business will continue in operation?(build all their furniture and make repairs around the house.B The going-concern concept A The cost principleJim Hatfield has three boys and his wife died. He has a full-time job at home as well as in a shoe C The matching principle D Both A and Bmaking factory. Last month, he received a car repair bill for $ 420. “I was deeply upset about it. Now I ( ) 10. _______ is the most important part of a bank letter.have finished a car repair course, I should be able to fix the car by myself.” B Body ASubjectJohn and Jim are not unusual people. Most families in the country are doing everything they can to D SignatureC Complimentary closesave money so they can fight the high cost of living. If you want to become a “)do-it-yourself”, you can Ⅴ. Translate the following sentences. (20分go to DIY classes. And for those who do not have time to take a course, there are books that tell you 1. The usual way wordor by writing stamping the the drawee accepts a draft iss authorized signature and the ACCEPTED” on the face of the draft, plus the drawee'“how you can do things yourself.1. We can learn from the text that many newly married people _______. date accepted.that theA. find it hard to pay for what they need verify reasonable good 2. Banks wiil act in faith and exercise care and mustdocuments received appear to ba as listed in the collection order. B. have to learn to make their own furniture.C. take DIY courses run by the government. hospitals, as churches, most government agencies, andsuch 3. Nonprofit organizationscolleges use accounting information in much the same way that profit oriented businesses D. seldom go to a department store to buy things2. John and his wife went to evening classes to learn how to _____ do.4. 用货币作为交换媒介是货币的主要职能之一。

起源于中国的那些英语词汇

起源于中国的那些英语词汇English words from Chinese words are often denoted as being 'loanwords.' A loanword is one that does not share a literal translation of the word. Rather the word is based on the adopted language. Quite simply, the word is borrowed and then co-opted into the new language.那些来自于中国的词汇通常都被称之为“外来词汇”。

这种词不是逐个字翻译过来的，而是基于这种外来语言的。

简单来说就是，这个词汇是从别处借过来的，然后用到一种新的语言之中。

1. Gung Ho工合Pronounced gōng hé in Mandarin. The literal translation is,"work together." The English use was popularized by Marines fighting in the Pacific in World War II. The phrase came to mean: "whole heartedly enthusiastic, and loyal, eager, and zealous."在普通话里的发音为gōng hé，意思是“合作、同心协力”。

在英语中广泛被使用是二战时期海军陆战队在太平洋作战时期。

这个短语的意思是：“竭诚热情，忠诚、愿望、热心。

”2. Typhoon台风Pronounced dàfēng in Mandarin and tai fung in Cantonese. The literal translation is "strong wind." Experts say the term, typhon from the Greek and Arabic, was strengthened with the Chinese translation.在普通话中的发音为：dàfēng，广东话的发音为：tai fung。

汉语借用英语外来词的特点及语用理据

汉语借用英语外来词的特点及语用理据全文共10篇示例，供读者参考篇1Hey guys, today I'm gonna talk to you about the special features and language rules of Chinese words borrowed from English. It's gonna be super fun and interesting, so let's dive right in!First of all, did you know that Chinese has borrowed a ton of words from English? These words are called "" (wàiláicí), which means "foreign words". They are usually used to describe modern technology, fashion, or other new concepts that didn't exist in traditional Chinese culture. For example, words like "" (shǒujī - cell phone), "" (diànnǎo - computer), and "" (cháoliú - trends) are all borrowed from English.One cool thing about these borrowed words is that they often keep their original pronunciation and spelling. So even though they look different in Chinese characters, you can still recognize the English sound. For example, the word "" (qiǎokèlì - chocolate) sounds just like the English word "chocolate".Another interesting thing is that borrowed English words can be used in a more casual or slangy way in Chinese. For example, instead of saying "" (xièxie - thank you), you might hear people say "Thx" or "" (xièxie xièxie - thanks thanks) to be more casual and friendly.In conclusion, the borrowed English words in Chinese add a modern and international flavor to the language. They make it easier to talk about new things and communicate with people from different cultures. So next time you hear a borrowed English word in Chinese, remember how cool and useful it is! Thanks for listening, guys!篇2I'm going to talk about some cool words we use in Chinese that we borrowed from English! We call them "" or "" in Chinese, which means "loanwords". These words make our language more interesting and international. Let me tell you some of them and explain why we use them.First, let's talk about ""(qiǎo kè lì), which means chocolate in English. We borrowed this word from English because it's easier to say and remember than the Chinese word for chocolate, ""(zhū gǔ lì). Plus, it sounds fancy and cool, just like chocolate itself!Next, we have ""(shǒu jī), which means mobile phone in English. This word is also borrowed from English because it's a popular and modern invention. The English word "mobile phone" is too long and hard to remember, so we use "" instead. It's short, sweet, and easy to say!Another example is ""(kā fēi), which means coffee in English. We borrowed this word because coffee is a popular drink all over the world. The Ch inese word for coffee, "" (kā fēi), is easy to pronounce and sounds similar to the English word. It's a perfect match!Lastly, let's talk about ""(bǐng gān), which means cookie in English. We borrowed this word because cookies are a delicious snack tha t everyone loves. The Chinese word for cookie, "" (bǐng gān), is easy to say and sounds cute. It's a fun word to use when we're talking about yummy treats!In conclusion, borrowing words from English makes our language more colorful and fun. These loanwords are easy to say, remember, and use in everyday conversations. They help us connect with people from different cultures and countries. So next time you hear a loanword in Chinese, remember that it'sthere to make our language more interesting and international! Thanks for listening!篇3Hello everyone! Today, I'm going to talk about the special features of borrowing English words in Chinese. It's really cool how we use English words in Chinese, isn't it?First of all, do you know why we borrow words from English? Well, sometimes Chinese doesn't have a word for something new, like "computer" or "internet", so we borrow the English word instead. This makes it easier for us to talk about these modern things. It's like we're adding new words to our language!Another reason we borrow English words is because they sound cool. Have you ever noticed how some English words just sound more exciting or fun than Chinese words? That's why we like to use them in Chinese. It makes our language more interesting and diverse.But wait, there's more! When we borrow English words, we often give them our own Chinese twist. We might change the pronunciation a little bit, or use them in a different way. This shows how creative we are with language!So, next time you hear an English word in Chinese, remember that it's not just a random choice. There's a reason why we borrow words from English, and it's all part of the beauty of language. Let's keep having fun with English words in Chinese!篇4Hello everyone! Today we're going to talk about Chinese borrowed words from English and their characteristics and usage.First of all, you might be wondering, what are borrowed words? Well, borrowed words are words that come from one language to another language. In this case, English has loaned some words to Chinese, and they have become a part of everyday language.One of the characteristics of Chinese borrowed words from English is the pronunciation. Since Chinese and English are very different languages, the pronunciation of borrowed words might be a bit different from the original English word. For example, the English word "computer" is borrowed into Chinese as "" (diàn nǎo), with a different pronunciation but the same meaning.Another characteristic is the written form of borrowed words. When English words are borrowed into Chinese, they are oftenwritten using Chinese characters that sound similar to the English word. For example, the English word "coffee" is borrowed into Chinese as "" (kā fēi), using characters that sound like the English word.In terms of usage, Chinese borrowed words from English are often used in everyday conversation, especially among young people. They add a trendy and modern element to the language. For example, words like "" (shǒu jī) for "cell phone" or "" (dān shēn) for "single" are commonly used in Chinese conversations.In conclusion, Chinese borrowed words from English have become an important part of the language, adding a fresh and modern touch to everyday communication. So next time you hear someone using a borrowed word in Chinese, don't be surprised – it's just the language borrowing a little bit from English to make things more interesting! Thank you for reading!篇5Hello everyone! Today I'm going to talk about a super cool topic - the borrowed words from English in Chinese!You know, Chinese is a really old language with thousands of characters, but lately we've been borrowing a lot of words from English. It's like mixing two awesome things together!it makes us sound super smart and cool. Like when we use the word "coffee" instead of the traditional Chinese word for it. It's like we're saying, "Hey, I'm hip and trendy!"Another reason is that some English words just fit better in certain situations. Like when we say "OK" instead of "" or "." It just sounds more natural, you know?But we also have to be careful with how we use borrowed words from English. We need to make sure they make sense in Chinese and that people understand what we're trying to say. Otherwise, it can get really confusing!Overall, borrowing words from English can be a fun way to mix things up in our language. So next time you hear someone use an English word in Chinese, just remember - it's all about being cool and trendy!篇6Well, you know, there are some really cool words in Chinese that actually come from English! It's like a fun little language exchange between the two languages. These borrowed words, or loanwords, bring a whole new flavor to Chinese and make it even more awesome.is because it gives Chinese speakers a way to talk about new things that didn't exist before. Like, for example, the word "computer" in Chinese is "" (diànnǎo), which comes from the English word "computer." Can you imagine trying to explain what a computer is without using that word? It would be so hard!Another reason for borrowing words from English is because it makes Chinese sound more modern and hip. You know, like when you say "cool" or "awesome" in Chinese, it just adds that extra bit of coolness to your language. Words like "" (shǒujī) for "cell phone" or "" (wǎnghóng) for "internet celebrity" make Chinese sound super trendy and up-to-date.But wait, there's more! Borrowing words from English can also make it easier for Chinese people to connect with the rest of the world. Like, when you hear words like "" (kāfēi) for "coffee" or "" (yīnyuè) for "music," it makes it easier for Chinese speakers to talk to people from other countries. It's like a secret code that helps us all understand each other better.So, next time you hear a borrowed word in Chinese, remember that it's not just a random word – it's a cool little bridge between Chinese and English that makes both languages even more awesome. Keep on borrowing, Chinese!篇7Once upon a time, there were lots of English words that came to Chinese, and they became our friends! These English loanwords brought us new ways to express ourselves and helped us connect with the world. Let's learn more about them!First of all, let's talk about the special characteristics of English loanwords in Chinese. These words are like guests from another country, bringing with them a unique charm. They are often used in trendy and fashionable contexts, making our language more colorful and diverse. For example, "coffee" is a loanword from English that has become a popular drink in China. People can now enjoy a nice cup of coffee while chatting with friends or working on their laptops.Moreover, English loanwords have also enriched our language by providing us with new vocabulary. For instance, words like "internet" and "computer" have become essential in our daily lives. Thanks to these loanwords, we can talk about modern technology and stay connected with others around the world. Isn't it cool how these words have made our lives easier and more convenient?In addition, the use of English loanwords in Chinese reflects the influence of globalization. As our world becomes more interconnected, it is important for us to embrace different cultures and languages. By using English loanwords in our daily conversations, we are showing our openness to new ideas and our willingness to adapt to a changing world.In conclusion, English loanwords have become an integral part of the Chinese language, adding richness and diversity to our vocabulary. Let's continue to embrace these words and celebrate the beauty of cultural exchange. Let's keep learning and exploring the world through language!篇8Hello everyone! Today I want to talk about some Chinese words that borrow from English. I think it's super cool how languages can mix together like that!One of the words that we use in Chinese that comes from English is "" (diànnǎo), which mea ns computer. Isn't that neat? We just took the English word "computer" and made it our own! It's so fun to see how words from one language can be used in another.Another word is "" (shǒujī), which means cellphone. We got that from the English words "cell" and "phone" and put them together to make a new word in Chinese. I love how creative language can be!Some people might wonder why we borrow words from English instead of just using Chinese words. Well, sometimes it's easier to use a borrowed word because it's already familiar to a lot of people. Plus, it's just fun to mix languages together and see what comes out!I think it's really cool how languages can influence each other like that. It shows how connected we all are, even if we speak different languages. And who knows, maybe one day we'll see even more words borrowed from English in Chinese! Language is always changing and growing, just like us.So next time you hear a word in Chinese that sounds like English, remember that it's just a fun way for languages to mix and play together. Isn't that awesome? I think so! See you next time, friends!篇9My topic today is about the use of English loanwords in Chinese and why do we use them. So, what are Englishloanwords? They are words borrowed from English into Chinese and used in our daily conversations. For example, we often say "coffee" instead of (kāfēi), and "pizza" instead of (pīsà).There are several reasons why we use English loanwords in Chinese. Firstly, it makes us sound more trendy and modern. Using English words can make us seem cool and international. It's like we are keeping up with the latest trends and fashions. Secondly, some English loanwords are just easier to pronounce or remember than their Chinese counterparts. For example, it's much simpler to say "OK" than (hǎo de) in some situations. Lastly, the use of English loanwords can also help save time and space. Instead of using a long Chinese sentence, we can just use a short and simple English word to convey the same meaning.However, we should also be careful when using English loanwords in Chinese. Sometimes, overusing these words can make us sound pretentious or show-offy. We should always consider the context and the audience before using English loanwords in our conversations.In conclusion, the use of English loanwords in Chinese can be fun and useful. It adds a unique flavor to our language and helps us express ourselves in a more interesting way. But remember, moderation is key! Let's keep using Englishloanwords in Chinese wisely and make our language more diverse and colorful.篇10Oh! Hi everyone! Today I want to talk about something super cool – Chinese words borrowed from English! Do you know that there are so many English words that we use in Chinese? It's so fun to see how languages can mix together like that.One of the reasons why we borrow English words is because they often describe new things or concepts that we don't have words for in Chinese. For example, have you heard of "" (shǒujī)? It means "mobile phone" in English. But in Chinese, we just say "" because it's easier to say and everyone knows what it means.Another reason why we borrow English words is because they sound cool and modern. Like "" (cháoliú) – it means "trend" in English. Doesn't it sound so trendy and hip? It's like we're saying, "Hey, I know what's cool and I'm up-to-date!"Some people might say that borrowing English words is a bad thing because it might make our language less pure. But I think it's okay as long as we still keep our own Chinese words too.It's like mixing different colors to make a beautiful painting –each color is important.So, next time you hear a Chinese word that sounds like English, remember that it's just our way of adding a little extra flavor to our language. Isn't that neat? Let's keep learning and exploring new words together! Bye-bye!。

Dealing With the Bad Loans of the Chinese Banks

Dealing with the Bad Loans of the Chinese Banks By: John P. Bonin and Yiping HuangWorking Paper Number 357January 2001Dealing with the Bad Loans of the Chinese BanksJohn P. BoninDepartment of EconomicsWesleyan UniversityandWilliam Davidson InstituteUniversity of Michigan School of BusinessYiping HuangSalomon Smith Barney and CitibankandAustralian National UniversityAbstractChinese banks suffer from serious financial fragility manifested by high proportions of non-performing loans and low capital-adequacy ratios. A key policy introduced recently by the Chinese government to reduce financial risks is the establishment of four asset management companies (AMCs) for dealing with bad loans. Drawing on the experiences of the Resolution Trust Corporation in the United States and bank restructuring in the Central European transition economies, we argue that the original AMC design will not be successful in resolving the existing non-performing loans (NPLs) nor will it prevent the creation of new bad loans. We recommend a modification of the current proposal that redefines the relationships between the parent banks and the AMCs by transferring the deposits of problem enterprises along with their NPLs from parent banks to AMCs.JEL Classification Numbers: G21, P34Key words: Bad loans, State-owned banks, Asset Management Companies, ChinaNon-Technical SummaryChina’s banking sector is dominated by four large multi-purpose, extensively branched, state-owned banks (SOBs) that account for more than 70% of both credits to enterprises and household deposits. From the late 1970s to the late 1990s, the financing responsibility for large state-owned enterprises (SOEs) shifted from the fiscal budget to these SOBs. During this period, fiscal revenues to GDP fell from 30% to 12% while bank loans to GDP increased from 50% to 120%. By the mid-1990s, over one-half of SOEs were making losses and about three-quarters of the loans on the books of these banks were to SOEs. Many of these loans should be classified as non-performing. By 1999, three of these SOBs would be insolvent, if assets were marked to market, although all four remain highly liquid because of their dominant share of household deposits in an economy with a high savings rate and few competing assets for household portfolios.In the mid-1990s, the Chinese authorities engaged in a series of reforms to deal with the bad loans problem culminating in the creation of four asset management companies (AMCs), one for each bank, to take on these bad loans. This paper looks briefly at the international experience with AMCs, focusing on the U.S. Resolution Trust Company upon which the Chinese reform was modeled, and summarizes the experiences of three fast-track transition countries in dealing with bad loans to draw implications for China’s program. First, bad loan recovery will be much more difficult in China than in the U.S. due to the extent of the problem, the nature of the assets, and the nascent state of China’s capital markets. Second, transition experiences point to the crucial importance of dealing with the flow problem of new bad loans. This incentive problem was handled successfully in Hungary by separating weak clients from banks and privatizing banks to foreign owners as a credible commitment to no further government bailout.In 1999, the Chinese authorities established four AMCs as temporary institutions to deal with bad loans originated before 1996 that totaled 19% of 1999 GDP. AMCs are charged with both the disposal of assets and the restructuring of SOEs, with the latter facilitated by debt-equity swaps approved by State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC). They are responsible to three government agencies; in addition to the SETC, these are the Ministry of Finance and the People’s Bank of China, the central bank. Thecombination of the direct relationship between an AMC and its parent bank and this shared oversight leaves several unresolved issues. First, AMCs are set up as SOEs so that their governance is beset with traditional problems. Second, AMCs are expected to engage in a broad range of financial activities without the requisite human capital. Third, the incestuous relationship with the parent bank that retains the SOE client makes the flow problem paramount. Fourth, the difficulty of committing credibly to a once-off policy may lead to further default and a serious moral hazard problem.We offer a modest proposal that transforms the AMCs from temporary institutions to continuing players in China’s financial sector and addresses these incentive problems. Since the recognition of bad loans is a dynamic process, we recommend that the entire client relationship, not just the bad assets, be transferred from the parent bank to the AMC. Each of the four large banks will decide which SOEs it wishes to retain as client as which it prefers to transfer to its AMC. This establishes the SOB’s full responsibility for the SOEs that it keeps as clients. It also provides the AMC with leverage over the clients whose loans it has inherited since these SOEs will depend on the AMC for their banking needs. In addition to downsizing somewhat the SOBs, this proposal allows the AMCs to develop into viable financial institutions that will compete eventually for commercial business. The skills learned by the staff in working with weak clients in restructuring debts will be useful in future banking activities. Our proposal supports the development and competitiveness of China’s banking sector by establishing new domestic financial institutions akin to venture capitalists or investment banks.1. IntroductionChina was the only major economy in East Asia that not only avoided the recent financial crises but also continued to exhibit strong growth. This was attributable mainly to the strengths of the Chinese economy, including the current account surpluses, the dominance of foreign direct investment in capital inflows, the size of foreign exchange reserves and the control of capital account (Huang and Yang 1998). China was fortunate to have controls over the capital account in place when the East Asian financial crises began (Fernald and Babeson 1999). The insulation of the domestic capital market helped to prevent a fatal international attack due to uncertainties of capital flows. However, strong evidence of the fragility of China’s banking sector can be found in Bonin (1999), Bonin, Cheng, and Jaffee (1999), Cheng, (1999), and Lardy (1998). Furthermore, gradual liberalization of China’s capital account is inevitable with its accession into the WTO.1 If financial risk is not eliminated quickly, the probability of a banking crisis will increase. Such a crisis would not only lower the living standards of the Chinese people but also eliminate many of the achievements of economic reform overnight. International experience suggests that cleaning up banking problems is costly, often accounting for 10 to 20 per cent of GDP (Goldstein and Turner 1996; Dziobek and Pazarvasioglu 1997). Existing estimates indicate that the costs for China would be at the upper end of this range, at best.2 Resolving the bad loan problem is crucial to sustaining growth and continuing reform as the ratio of bank loans to GDP stands at more than 120%.3 In any banking system, the bad loans problem consist of a stock component, old debt that is not performing, and a flow component, new lending that may become non-performing. The two components are linked by the normal client relationship in bankingand, in some countries, by the government’s encouraging or even directing state-owned banks to lend to unprofitable state-owned enterprises (SOEs).4 New lending to a client with non-performing old debt is likely to become a bad loan. Government-encouraged loans to SOEs that are chronic loss-makers are likely to be non-performing. Both aspects must be considered in designing policy for bad loans in China.The Chinese government has taken a series of measures designed to build a strong banking system including: recapitalization of the state-owned banks (SOBs), adoption of the international standard accounting system, establishment of four asset management companies (AMCs) and introduction of debt-equity swaps as an instrument for dealing with bad debt. The exact policy procedures for dealing with the bad loans are still unfolding, as the transfer of the non-performing loans (NPLs) to the AMCs was completed only recently. Hence, many questions remain to be answered and some opportunities to modify policy remain. Is the current institutional set up of the AMCs efficient? Will the AMCs be able to work out the NPLs as expected? Will asset sale and debt for equity swaps prove feasible? How will the government prevent moral hazard problems from affecting all parties: the enterprises, the banks and the AMCs?This paper analyzes the bad loan problem of the Chinese banks with an ultimate goal of providing some answers to these questions. The next section explains why financial fragility developed rapidly during the reform period and assesses the seriousness of the bad loan problem. Section 3 discusses the experiences of the Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) in the United States and bank restructuring policies in three Central European transitional economies with an eye to drawing lessons for the Chinese AMCs. Section 4 characterizes the institutional arrangements for the AMCs and identifies someremaining problems. Section 5 presents a suggestion for modifying the current AMC program. Section 6 concludes with a consideration of the impact of complementary reforms on bank policy.2.Growing Financial FragilityFinancial fragility emerged during the reform period as a result of the evolving triangular relationship among the SOEs, the SOBs and the fiscal system (Huang and Yang 1998). The reform of SOEs was aimed at transforming them into financially viable, independent economic units. To expand enterprises’ autonomy and incentives and to strengthen their responsibilities, the government experimented with the responsibility system, the contract system and the share-holding system (Huang et al 1999). To increase further the enterprises’ independence, financial relations between the SOEs and the state were redefined through the loans for grants and the tax for profit reforms during the first half of the 1980s. Bank loans replaced free budget grant allocations as the key source of SOEs’ capital and tax payments replaced profit remittances as sources of fiscal finance.The objective of the SOB reform was to build a well functioning two-tier bank system with the central bank responsible for financial supervision and monetary policy and the commercial banks responsible for the allocation of capital. Currently, the four major SOBs account for about 70 per cent of domestic credit and hold over 70 per cent of household deposits (Lardy 1998). Rounding out the financial sector are rural consumer cooperatives holding about 10% of domestic credits and 20% of household deposits and urban commercial cooperatives with about 5% of each. As a group, trust and investment companies (TICs), which are not allowed to take household deposits, had held anappreciable share of domestic credit, around 6%, until recent bankruptcies lowered their market share. No other bank, or group of banks, currently holds any appreciable market share in domestic credits or household deposits although new private banking licenses are increasing. The four large SOBs are to remain under state ownership for the foreseeable future; they are large by international standards when assets are used to measure size. At the end of 1996, the largest, the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), was ranked fifth and all four were among the top fifty of all banks in the world.5 Hence, the big four SOBs dominate a banking sector that is itself the dominant part of the financial sector in China.The Commercial Bank Law, promulgated in 1995, separated commercial banking and investment banking and set prudential ratios for bank portfolios. The law made banks responsible for their profits and losses but also mandated that they conduct lending according to the needs of the national economy and social development following the direction of the state’s industrial policy. The latter directive is often in conflict with the former and indicates that SOBs are not independent from policy lending. Hence, SOBs can not be expected to bear full responsibility for their lending decision. The goal of fiscal reform was for the state to withdraw gradually from direct allocation of capital and to concentrate on supplying public goods. From the mid-1980s, the fiscal system was decentralized to give more incentives to the local governments. In 1994, a new scheme was introduced to specify clearly the division of local-central tax revenues (Brean 1998).These reforms had clear, but sometimes contradictory, objectives and were implemented gradually and often incompletely. This led to important drawbacks and eventually gave rise to financial fragility. The debt-equity ratio of the SOEs rosedramatically from 23 per cent in 1980 to 440 per cent in 1998, following the loan for grant reform. The enterprise reforms succeeded in expanding autonomy and providing incentives but failed to establish a governance system for monitoring and enforcing responsibility. Loss-making SOEs were rarely liquidated and redundant workers were not usually dismissed until very recently. Between 1980 and 1994, enterprise expenditures on social welfare increased by six times and, in the mid-1990s, it was roughly half of the SOEs’ total wage bill (Huang et al 1999). Consequently, the profitability of SOEs fell sharply and, from 1996, the consolidated state sector became a net loss-maker. As a result, SOBs were often forced to extend new loans to illiquid SOEs.The financial deficits of the SOEs had direct fiscal implications. The revenue capacity of the fiscal system declined significantly during the reform period. The share of fiscal revenues to GDP decreased from above 30 per cent in the early 1980s to 12 per cent in the late 1990s (Brean 1998). However, the government could not refrain from intervening in enterprise activities, especially from subsidizing loss-making SOEs.6 In doing so, the government sought financial resources from the commercial banks in the form of policy loans, which accounted for about 35 to 40 per cent of total bank loans in the 1990s (Institute of Economics 1998). Projects financed by policy loans usually have high default rates. Bank loans to GDP increased from 50% in the late 1970s to 120% in the late 1990s. Clearly, a shift from fiscal financing to bank lending, or quasi-fiscal financing, occurred during this period and the government incurred contingent liabilities for some of the assets on the SOBs’ balance sheets.These institutional weaknesses had adverse impacts on the health of the banking system. The profitability of the SOBs banks declined consistently in the 1990s. Ifuncollected interest payments are excluded from the revenue side of the financial accounts, most SOBs, except the Bank of China, would report financial losses by 1996 and in the following years (Li 1998). At that time, the average capital-adequacy ratio was only 4.4 per cent, which was lower than in 1994 and much lower than that required by China’s Commercial Bank Law (Lardy 1998). In 1998, the Chinese government recapitalized the banks to raise their capital-adequacy ratio to above 8 per cent. However, since uncollectable loans are not accounted for properly, capital adequacy ratios are not very meaningful.Discussions of China’s banking problems concentrate on NPLs, although the exact quantification of these is difficult. Chinese authorities do not release official data for confidence reasons. Prior to 1998, Chinese banks used a loan classification system based on actual loan performance that divided NPLs into three types: overdue, doubtful and bad.7 This approach underestimated NPLs, as it did not include highly risky loans that were still paying interests and were not yet overdue.8 The central bank once dictated that SOBs could classify no more than 5 per cent of all of their loans as overdue, no more than 8 per cent as doubtful and no more than 2 per cent as bad (Lardy 1998). Existing estimations suggest that the proportion of the NPLs was likely to have been about 24 per cent (CCER, 1998, and Li, 1998) before the Asian crisis and about 29 per cent (Fan, 1999, and Li, 1998) after the crisis. Such proportions are very high even compared with NPLs in the crisis-affected East Asian economies.9These estimates are supported by SOE survey data found in Yuan (1999) that report non-performing debts owed by the SOEs. In 1995, the proportion of non-performing debts in Yuan’s samples ranged from 19% in Jiangsu province to almost 43%in Jiln province with ratios for Sichuan and Hunan provinces around 31%.10 Bad debts, themselves, were 6 per cent of total debt in 1995, which is similar to the estimate by CCER (1998) for the whole banking sector in 1997. Obviously, the state budget will have to bear most of the cost of bank restructuring and this has important macroeconomic implications. China is regarded as a low debt burden country, with a debt to GDP ratio of 25 per cent, of which about 10 per cent is domestic debt and 15 per cent is external debt. This ratio is significantly lower than the internationally acceptable level for sustainability of 60 per cent (Fan 1999). However, given the low and declining revenue capacity of the fiscal system, the feasibility of accumulating further debt may not be as attractive as the low ratio suggests. More importantly, if unrecoverable bank loans were included, total debt would already account for more than 45 per cent of GDP.3.International Experiences with Bad-Debt WorkoutKlingebiel (1999) considers the experiences of several countries in setting up centralized asset management companies both to deal with NPLs and to resolve solvency problems of distressed financial institutions. Two types of agencies are identified: rapid asset disposition agencies and longer term restructuring agencies. Of the seven cases considered, four are in the former category. Of these, only the U.S. Resolution Trust Company (RTC) has been wound up. The other three are still in existence, although they were designed to be temporary government agencies. In two of these three cases, Mexico and the Philippines, Klingebiel concludes that the asset management agencies hid the extent of the bad loan problem and prolonged the effective resolution of the banking crisis. After a brief review of the successful RTC experience in the U. S., we summarizethe experiences with banking sector reform in three fast-track Central European transition economies. In our opinion, these experiences are more relevant for China than is the U.S. case.3.1. The Resolution Trust Company in the United StatesThe RTC was set up as a rapid asset disposal agency in 1989 to resolve bad loans from the portfolios of failed Savings and Loan Associations (S&Ls).11 As part of a public agency, the RTC had several objectives: to maximize the net revenues from the sale of transferred assets, to minimizing the impact on local real estate markets and financial markets, and to maximize available and affordable housing for low-income individuals. The assets transferred amounted to $465 billion or about 8.5% of total financial sector assets and approximately 8.5% of GDP in 1989. For comparison with China, it is important to note that the RTC acquired both performing and non-performing assets and that the level of NPLs reached only 3% of total banking sector assets at the height of the U.S. crisis. Furthermore, about 50% of the assets were real estate loans and mortgages while 35% were cash and other securities. Hence, many of the transferred assets were either good or could be sold quickly through bundling, securitization, and auctions in the deepest capital market in the world.The RTC was set up as a temporary federal agency intended to operate until 1996 only; it completed its work in 1995 so that the sunset clause was honored. The majority of the senior personnel at the RTC came from the Federal Deposit Insurance Company and, consequently, its staff had experience with the resolution of failed financial institutions. Nonetheless, the RTC relied on private sector contractors to evaluate, manage and sell many of the assets. An effective management structure allowed the RTC to collectalmost one-third of the assets transferred reducing significantly the amount to be sold. Although the recovery rate on total assets transferred was 86%, the final cost of the RTC’s operations amounted to $88 billion, which is about 20% of the total value of assets transferred and over 1.5% of 1989 GDP.According to Klingebiel (1999), several unfavorable factors influenced the RTC’s operations. First, sporadic government funding increased resolution costs. Second, rapid asset disposal was hampered by inconsistent multiple objectives. On the other hand, several favorable factors were identified. First, the amount of assets transferred was a relatively small percentage of overall financial assets and many of these were performing at the time. Second, the assets could be bundled and securitized for quick sale in deep capital markets. Third, the RTC was able to contract out the disposal of assets to private sector agents having the necessary skills and expertise. As we shall argue below, China’s situation makes it unlikely that these favorable factors apply; rather China’s reform policy is more likely to fall victim to unfavorable factors.3.2 Bank restructuring in Central EuropeThe experiences of the fast-track Central European (CE) countries, i.e., the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, with bank insolvency and bad loans provide a list of more don’ts than do’s.12 Of these three countries, the Czech Republic had a financial structure most resembling that of China with a relatively high ratio of bank loans to GDP and market shares of the big four banks of about 70% for loans and 80% for deposits. Furthermore, at the beginning of the banking reform in 1990 in then Czechoslovakia, all of the working capital of SOEs was funded by short-term, low-interest, revolving bank credit referred to as TOZ loans. A centralized hospital bank, Konsolidacni Banka (KnB),was created for restructuring these loans on commercial terms. All TOZ loans were transferred along with a comparable amount of enterprise deposits from the other banks. However, the SOE clients remained with their parent banks that provided banking services and new loans. In several stages, other loans classified as bad were transferred from the largest Czech banks to KnB for work out and the government recapitalized the parent banks.Although considered appropriate at the time, the Czech solution failed to insure the strength of the domestic banking system. Neither the creation of a separate hospital bank for credit obligations extended on non-market terms nor several rounds of cleaning up the banks’ balance sheets made the big four Czech banks strong financial pillars. What went wrong? Simply put, the foundations for a strong market-oriented banking sector were not put in place. First, the big banks did not achieve independence from the government as the state-retained majority or near majority stakes in them after these banks participated in voucher privatization. Second, the incentive (flow) problem was not solved as the banks not only retained their clients but they became even more involved with some of them as a result of voucher privatization. In the privatization process, banks through their investment funds took ownership stakes in some of their clients so that the potential arose for a conflict of interest between the bank as an equity holder and the bank as a debt holder. When a mini-currency crisis hit, Czech firms became distressed and the banks’ balance sheets suffered. Interestingly, the Czech government’s protectionist policy had allowed domestic banks to maintain high spreads and, hence, earn reasonable profit margins. Even in this environment in which banks could self-capitalize, the bad loans problem was not resolved because soft lendingpractices were continued. The large Czech banks are currently in need of another round of significant recapitalization before they can be sold to foreign investors. Estimates now indicate that the total cost of bank restructuring in the Czech Republic may be about 30% of GDP, making the Czech clean-up the highest cost restructuring program in any transition economy to date.By contrast, Hungary pursued a policy of privatizing state banks by selling controlling shares to strategic foreign investors as rapidly as possible. Such sales required recapitalization of the banks to make the combination of current net worth and franchise value attractive to a foreign investor. Two major and several minor recapitalizations of its domestic banks earned Hungary the dubious distinction as the country most oblivious to moral hazard. The first major recapitalization was insufficient both because the instruments used were not sufficiently liquid or financially attractive and because the recapitalized banks were still servicing bad clients. A second major recapitalization, using market-type instruments, was ultimately successful because it was followed closely by privatization to independent, foreign, owners. This combined recapitalization and privatization strategy left Hungary with the strongest banking sector of all transition countries.The Hungarian experience points to the importance of achieving independent governance both from the state and from undesirable clients. Of more importance than inherited bad loans to the forward-looking operations of the bank are inherited bad clients. The Hungarian bank with the most exposure to loss-making SOEs was Magyar Hitel Bank (MHB). Prior to searching for a strategic foreign investor but after recapitalization, MHB’s loan portfolio was divided into good and bad assets. The badloans along with these clients’ deposits were separated from the good part of MHB and a department was set up to work with these clients in an attempt to recover some portion of the bad loans. Only the good bank was privatized; this transaction attracted a strategic foreign investor who increased subsequently the bank’s capital.The Polish experience indicates the inappropriateness of making banks responsible for enterprise restructuring. The World Bank supported a program of bank-led enterprise restructuring based on the notion that the major bank creditor had sufficient information about their clients either to promote restructuring or to decide to liquidate large SOEs. Financial restructuring dominated bankruptcy as the preferred option (Gray and Holle, 1996). The main instrument used to restructure loans was the debt-equity swap; this option was chosen disproportionately by the weaker banks. Hence, weak banks with no expertise in restructuring large companies wound up taking ownership stakes in their weak clients. Furthermore, new bank credit was provided to ailing enterprises in about a third of the cases surveyed by Gray and Holle (1996). In a case study of one Polish bank, Bonin and Leven (2000) find that new credit extended to three large military-industrial clients in the program exceeded the total amount of bank recapitalization and left the bank with more, rather than less, exposure to these clients after financial restructuring. As in the Czech Republic, Poland’s program strengthened, rather than severed, the ties between banks and their undesirable clients. Hence, the Polish program provided breathing room for weak SOEs to postpone painful restructuring and, in doing so, it underscored the importance of banks divesting themselves of their non-viable clients.。

用英语介绍旗袍

用英语介绍旗袍“旗袍”在英语中有一个固定的词，不过是一个loanword，外来语，写做cheongsam，是从广东话Cantonese里来的。

我们也可以拼写为qipao或者chipao：The cheongsam is a body-hugging one-piece Chinese dress for women; the male version is the changshan. It is known in Mandarin Chinese as the qipao or chipao, and is also known in English as a mandarin gown.旗袍是中国一种紧身的连衣女子服饰，男子的被称为长衫。

英语中也用mandarin gown来表示这种服饰。

清朝时候的旗装是很宽松的，1900年之后，在上海，旗袍的样式发生了改变：The modernized version is noted for accentuating the figures of women, and as such was popular as a dress for high society. As Western fashions changed, the basic cheongsam design changed too, introducing high-necked sleeveless dresses, bell-like sleeves, and the black lace frothing at the hem. By the 1940s, cheongsam came in a wide variety of fabrics with an equal variety of accessories. 现代版的旗袍很贴身，更能显出女子的身材，为上流社会的女性所推崇。

Loan words

The Influence of Loanwords to ChineseStudent: Sun Xiwen200773010Tutor: Sheng Haiyan2009-11-30OutlineTitle:The Influence of Loanwords to Chinese Statement:During the communication between Chinese and different languages, many words become a part of Chinese vocabulary. Borrowing some English words is an evident character of Chinese itself and its culture development. Loanwords won’t decline Chinese language system, contrarily, they can help Chinese modenize and keep in contact with other languages.Outline:Part 1 : After the Opium War, Loanwords first entered China. Chinese were forced to understand loanwords. Loanwords became a part of the communication between Chinese and English.Part 2 : After the founding of PRC, it’s much easier for English to join the communication with Chinese. Chinese were facing more and more new words. Lots of loanwords entered Chinese peple’s daily life.Part 3 : During the Opening and Reform Policy, the Chinese government abolished the blocks in communications.The globalization has made our world aglobal village. Almost everyone can say some English words. Loanwords are becoming a part of Chinese.The Influence of Loanwords to ChineseThe definition and importance of loanwards in Chinese.Loanwords are words absorbed from other languages by means of transliteration and free translation on a regular basis. Chinese , language of an independent culture system, respectively, the Chinese Culture system, absorbed a great deal of borrowings in its development history. The borrowing of words is the best embodiment for accommodation, adaptability and regeneration of a language and its culture. Usually, when loanwords come into Chinese, they will shock the formed criterion in this language. But after conserving good words and washing out bad ones, those which are left can enrich Chinese vocabulary.The development and history of Chinese vocabulary indicate that its glossary system can evolute and grow in the process of absorbing words in other languages instead of falling. At the same time, without the strike and bestiring of those words, the development will be much slower.The new outlook of Chinese wouldn’t have appeared the impact of loanwords in the late 18th century. The obsorption of loanwords in the May 4th Movement directly lead to the colorfulness of words. And the Opening and Rrform Policy has not only brought rodical changes to China, also flourished the Chinese language system.1. Loanwords first came into Chinese people’s lifeDated back to the 1840s, after the Opium War, China was exposed to the developed European countries. Chinese were forced to learn English during thatperiod. Because of the failure in so many wars against other countries, those intellectuals and precursors tried their best to strengthen China by learning from developed countrise and studying their advanced technology. To reach their goals, they had to read all kinds of books written in foreign languages, and most are in English. But the feudalization lasted for almost two thousand years led to the circustances that there were no idiographic Chinese words corresponding with those new English words. To solve these problems, translators then invented transliterated words to help readers understand those books. The Revolution of 1911 was another exposion of loanwords. Lots of advanced scholars, such as Li Dazhao, Lu Xun and Chen Duxiu translated quite a large of foreign language and created Vernacular literary works which influenced modern Chinese greatly.Here are some loanwords during this period:beer (啤酒) coffee (咖啡)chocolate (巧克力) sofa (沙发)angel (安琪儿) jeep (吉普车)engine (引擎) romantic (罗曼蒂克)hysteria (歇斯底里) humor (幽默)logic (逻辑) model (模特)fee (费) poker (扑克)jazz (爵士) salon (沙龙)Take coffee as an example, there is neither “咖”nor“啡”in <康熙词典>. It means that Chinese didn’t come into contact with coffee in the beginning of Qing Dynasty. Xu Ke, a businessman in the late Qing Dynasty said: “饮咖啡：欧美有咖啡店，略似我国之茶馆。

《英语词汇学》重要术语中英文对照

1. Native words 本族词Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words.2. Loan words 借词Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.3. Slang words 俚语Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.4. Function words 功能词Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else.5. Content words 实义词Content words are usedtoname objects, qualities, actions, processes or states,and have independent lexical meaning.6. Free forms 自由形式Forms which occur as sentences are free forms.1. Morphemes 语素Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.2. Allomorphs 语素变体position or adjoining sounds.3. Free morpheme 自由语素Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.5. Root 词根Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.6. Affix 词缀Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.8. Derivational affix 派生词缀Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning handcan derive a word when it is added to another morpheme.9. Prefixes 前缀Prefixes are affixes added before words.10. Suffixes 后缀Suffixes are affixes added after words.1. Word-formation rules 构词规则Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of alanguage may create new words.2. Stem 词干Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.3. Base 词基Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.4. Compounding 合成法Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit.5. Derivation 派生法Derivation or affixation is a word-formation process by which new words arecreated by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.6. Conversion 转化法Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.7. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the addition of a prefix to the base.8. Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation refers to the addition of a suffix to the base.1. Initialism 首字母连写词Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase and it is pronounced letter by letter.2. Acronyms 首字母拼音词Acronyms are word formed from the initial letters of the name of anorganization or a scientific term, and they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.3. Clipping 截短法The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.4. Blending 拼缀法Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its fullform or both of which are not in their full forms.5. Back-formation 逆成法Back-formation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.6. Reduplication 重叠法Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition of one word or of two almost identical words with achange in the vowels or of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants.7. Neoclassical formation 新古典词构成法Neoclassical formation is the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek.1. Conventionality 约定俗成It is the characteristics of relation between the sound-symbol and its sense:there is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that meaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other.2. Motivation 理据Motivation refers to the direct connection between word-symbol and its sense.3. Echoic/ onomatopoeic words 拟声词Echoic words or onomatopoeic words are words motivated phonetically whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.4. Morphological motivation 语素结构理据A word is morphologically motivated if a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.5. Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors and it isusually provided by the figurative usage of words.6. Grammatical meaning 语法意义Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.7. Inflectional paradigm 词形变化The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its inflectional paradigm. Nouns are declined, verbs are conjugatedandgradable adjectives have degrees of comparison.8. Denotative meaning 外延意义The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary.9. Connotative meaning 内涵意义Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or aphrase suggests in one ’s mind.10. Social or stylistic meaning 社会意义Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.11. Affective meaning 情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudesof the speaker or writer.12. Componential analysis 语义成分分析The conceptual meaning or denotative meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such ananalysis is called componential analysis.1. Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy happens when more than one meaning is attached to a word.2. Radiation 词义辐射Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every directionlike rays.3. Concatenation 语义的连锁、联结Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and theprimary meaning.4. Homonymy 同音异义、同形异义Homonymy is the relation between pairs or groups of word which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike or both.5. Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形异义词Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.6. Homophones 同音异义词Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.7. Homographs 同形异义词Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.8. Phonetic convergence 音变的汇合Phonetic convergence is the kind of phenomenon where two or more wordswhich once were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation.9. Semantic Divergence 词义分化When two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them, the word has undergone the process of semantic divergence.1. Synonyms 同义词A synonym may be defined as a word having the same meaning as anotherword: as one of two or more words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use.2. Complete synonyms 完全同义词Two words are totally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaningand interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.3. Relative synonyms 相对同义词Relative synonyms are words that are not fully identical but may differ in shades of meaning, in emotional colouring, in level of formality, in collocation, and in distribution.4. Antonymy 反义关系In its general sense, antonymy refers to all types of semantic oppositeness.5. Contraries/gradable antonyms 相对性反义词Contraries or contrary terms display such a type of semantic contrast that theycan be handled in terms of gradability, that is, in terms of degrees of the quality involved.6. Complementaries/contradictory terms 互补性反义词Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition sothat the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other.7. Conversives/converses/relational opposites 换位性反义词Conversives represent such a type of binary semantic opposition that there is an interdependence of meaning, or say, one member of the pair presupposes the other.8. Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.9. Superordinates 上义词The general term in a hyponymy pair is called a superordinate linguistically.10. Hyponyms 下义词The specific term in a hyponymy pair is called the hyponym or subordinate.11. Semantic field 语义场Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field arejoinedtogether by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.1. Context 语境Context in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that come immediately before andafter any wordin an act of communication. But, in broadersense, it may cover the whole passage and sometimes the whole book in which a word occurs, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.2. Linguistic context 语言语境Linguistic context is lexical, grammatical and verbal context in its broad sense.3. Extra-linguistic context 语言之外的环境Extra-linguistic context refers not only tothe actual speech situation in whichawordis usedbut alsotothe entire cultural backgroundagainst which a word, or anutterance or a speech event is set.4. Lexical context 词汇语境Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemousword.5. Grammatical context 语法语境In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word.6. Verbal context 言语语境The verbal context, in its broadest sense, may cover an entire passage, or evenan entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.7. Ambiguity 歧义Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or groupof sentences with morethan one possible interpretation or meaning.8. Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义Lexical ambiguity is caused by polysemy.9. Structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or aphrase.1. Change of word meaning 语义变化When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning. Broadly speaking, change of meaningrefers tothe alteration of the meaningof existingwords as wellas the addition of new meaning to establish words.2. Restriction of meaning 语义专门化Restriction of meaningor specialization of meaningmeans that a wordof widemeaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.3. Extension of meaning 词义扩展化Extension of meaning or generalization means the widening of a word ’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.4. Degeneration of meaning 词义降格There are two main forms of degeneration or pejoration.One refers to the process where words once respectable or neutral may shift toa less respectable, oreven derogatory meaning. The other refers to the weakeningof meaningresultingfrom habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.5. Elevation of meaning 词义升格It refers to the process that the meaning of a word goes uphill.6. Metaphor 暗喻Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing is applied to another.7. Metonymy 转喻It is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.1. Idiom 习语An English idiomis a groupof words with a special meaningdifferent fromthe meanings of its constituent words. It is a combination of two or more words whichare usually structurally fixedandsemantically opaque, andfunction as a single unitof meaning.2. Phrase idioms 惯用短语All phrase idioms have a noun, verb, adjective, preposition or an adverbas thecentral word and correspond to the familiar parts of speech, and are capable of a given syntactic function.3. Clause idioms 从句成语Clause idioms or subject-less clause patterns contain objects and / or complements.4. Sentence idioms 句子成语The two major types of sentence idioms are proverbs or sayings and typical conversational expressions.5. Proverbs 谚语Proverbs are sentences accepted by the people and handed down to the present day because they express some obvious truth or familiar experience in aconcise and witty style.。

Loan Words in the English Vocabulary

山西师范大学现代文理学院毕业论文从词源学的角度看英语中的外来词汇姓名景佳伟系别外语系专业英语班级0904学号0990030437指导教师张亚丽答辩日期成绩内容摘要英语因它的简单和丰富已经成为一门国际化的语言，他的宽容和灵活性，是他大量吸收外来词汇，从而具有了顽强的生命力，外来词汇极大的丰富英语，使英语表达起来更加更加生动和贴切，同时也促进语言的交流和文化的交流。

因此，在英语中占据着举足轻重的地位，本文从词源学的角度来分析英语中的外来词汇的来源和类型。

关键词：外来语;来源;类型;词汇;词源学iAbstractsEnglish has become an international language because of its simplicity and richness. Its tolerance and flexibility make it a substantial absorption of loan words, and thus has great vitality. Loan words have greatly enriched the English language, which make the English expressions more vivid and appropriate. It is the outcome of language contact and culture contact. As a result, it occupies a pivotal position in English. This article intends to analyze loan words in the English vocabulary in the perspective of etymology from the origins and types of the loan words in English.Key words: loan words; origin; type; vocabulary; etymologyiiContents1. Introduction (1)2. Words from the Language of the Western and Orient Countries (1)2.1 Western countries (1)2.1.1. From French Loan Words (1)2.1.1.1. On Law (2)2.1.1.2. On Religion (3)2.1.1.3. On Politics (3)2.1.1.4. On Medicine (4)2.1.1.5. On Literature (4)2.1.1.6. On Art (4)2.1.2. From Latin Loan Words (5)2.1.2.1. On Law (5)2.1.2.2. On Abbreviations (6)2.1.2.3. On Medicine (6)2.1.2.4. On Religion (7)2.1.3. From Greek Loan words (7)2.1.3.1. On Medicine (7)2.1.3.2. On Mythology (7)2.1.4. From German Loan Words (8)2.1.4.1. On Military Affair (8)2.1.4.2. On Food (9)2.1.4.3. On Proper Noun (9)2.2. Orient Countries (10)2.2.1. From Chinese Loan Words (10)2.2.1.1. On Food (11)2.2.1.2. On Chinese Distinctive Objects (11)2.2.1.3. From Dialect of China (12)2.2.2. From Japanese Loan Words (12)iii2.2.2.1. On Food (13)2.2.2.2. On Japanese Distinctive Objects (13)3. Conclusion (14)ReferencesivAn Etymological Study of Loan Words inEnglish Vocabulary1.IntroductionEtymology is a branch of lexicology, which is a branch of linguistics. It traces the form and often the meaning of words and history as far as back possible in the diachronic perspective.Language is like a mirror reflecting the social life, while vocabulary, the most sensitive and active elements of the vocabulary, is a window observing the changes of the social life. With the development of the economy, religious conflicts and cultural transmission, more and more loan words are emerging in the English vocabulary. The simplest influence a language made on another language is the loan of the words. As long as the cultural loan happens, related words can be borrowed possible.” Nowadays, about 80% of the English words are loan words. In the earlier times, they are mainly influenced by the language of the western countries, which are mainly Latin, French, Greek and German; however, at the present time, with the development of economy and foreign trade, they are also influenced by the language of the orient countries, which are Chinese, Japanese. But in the daily used language, there are still many other words coming from other countries. And the number of them is different in the different fields. For example, there are a lot of words about the law, politics, religions and the military affairs. And there are some other words about clothes, literature, etc.2. Words from the Language of the Western and Oriental Countries 2.1. Western countries2.1.1. Loan Words from FrenchIn 1066, after the Norman Conquest in the British history, French carried out the Segregation policy in language, thus making French the official language in Britain,1while English, which is regarded as the vulgar language, is continued to use among civilians as the spoken language. They constitute about 30% of English words.2.1.1.1. On LawAfter the Norman Conquest, judges in the court all use French instead of English. However, it cannot be merged into English actually. Because of the Segregation policy in language, French and English are used by different social classes separately, and they are not mixed well. The confusion of loan words on law and English is virtually the promotion of English itself. In the Middle English time, the “Hundred Year Wars” between Britain and France and the spread of “Black Death” at that time made the status of English have a profound change; English began to be used in the law field. But owing to the lack of English vocabularies and the real necessity to express the law conception, French and English are confused obviously, and French was almost accepted thoroughly in this language conflict. The following law words indicate that English law words are affected by French deeply.“Justice”, a noun, which is borrowed from French justice in Middle-English, means the maintenance or administration of what is just especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited rewards or punishments. “Plea”, is from French plai in the 13th century. In legal terminology, a plea is simply an answer to a claim made by someone in a civil or criminal case under common law using the adversary system. Colloquially, a plea has come to mean the assertion by a criminal defendant, at arraignment or otherwise in response to a criminal charge, whether he is guilty or not guilty. “Plaintiff” is from French in the 14th century. A plaintiff, also known as a claimant or complainant, is the party who initiates a lawsuit (also known as action) before a court. By doing so, the plaintiff seeks a legal remedy, and if successful, the court will issue judgment in favor of the plaintiff and make the appropriate court order. “Defendant”, a noun from French in the 15th century, means a person required to make answer in a legal action or suit. A defendant is any party who is required to answer the complaint of a plaintiff or pursuer in a civil lawsuit before a court, or any party who has been formally charged or accused of violating a criminal statute. A defendant in a civil action usually makes his or her first2court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons, whereas a defendant in a Criminal law criminal case is usually taken into custody by a police and brought before a court, pursuant to an arrest warrant. The actions of a defendant, and its lawyer’s counsel, are known as the defense defence.2.1.1.2. On ReligionDeep religious color existed in western countries all the time. In the English vocabulary, there are many words on religion borrowed from French. The following words on religion shows the significant influence religion in France made to English language.“Baptism”, is from French word baptisme in Middle English in the 14th century. “Censer”,from French in the 13th century, while capitalized, is the part of a Communion service in which the sacrament is received. “Confession”, from French in the 14th century, an act of confessing especially, is a disclosure of one's sins in the sacrament of reconciliation. “Sacrament”, sacrement, sacrament, from French in the 13th century, means a: Christian rite (as baptism or the Eucharist) that is believed to have been ordained by Christ and that is held to be a means of divine grace or to be a sign or symbol of a spiritual reality; b: a religious rite or observance comparable to a Christian sacrament.2.1.1.3. On PoliticsWhen French was introduced into English, nobles and royal families began to speak it, while English was regarded as the coarse language. So it had an important effect on British politics. The following words reflect it.“Majesty”, from French majestéin the 14th century, is royal bearing or aspect: grandeur. Majesty is an English word rooting in the Latin Maiestas, meaning literally, greatness. Over time the word became anglicised, the “i” becoming a “j” and the ending “-as”, being replaced with the English -y. “Usurp”, a verb, from Anglo-French usurper, indicates to take the place of by or as if by force : supplant. It must not let stock responses based on inherited prejudice usurp careful judgment. “Status”, from French estatut in the 14th century, means a law enacted by the legislative branch of a government.32.1.1.4. On Medicine“Surgeon”, from French, alteration of cirugien, from circugerie surgery in the 14th century, means a medical specialist who practices surgery. “Massage”, from French word masser to massage in about 1860, is the practice of applying pressure or vibration to the soft tissues of the body, including muscles, connective tissue, tendons, ligaments, and joints. A form of therapy, massage can be applied to parts of the body or successively to the whole body, to heal injury, relieve psychological stress, manage pain, improve circulation and relieve tension. Where massage is used for its physical and psychological benefits, it may be termed "therapeutic massage therapy" or manipulative therapy. “Plague”, from French plaga, refers to an epidemic disease causing a high rate of mortality.2.1.1.5. On LiteratureLiterature itself is the manifestation of life, so French also emerges in literature.“Prologue”, from French prolog in the 14th century, is the preface or introduction to a literary work. “Preface”, from Frenc h prephatia, is an introduction to a book, also any preliminary or introductory statement. In liturgical use the term is applied to that portion of the Eucharistic service which immediately precedes the canon or central portion; the preface, which begins at the words Vere dignum, "It is very meet, right, etc.," is ushered in, in all liturgies, with the Sursum Corda, "Lift up your hearts," and ends with the Sanctus, "Holy, Holy, Holy, etc." In the Western liturgies proper prefaces are appointed for particular occasions.2.1.1.6. On ArtArt arose first among nobles, and French was also emerged among nobles. Consequently, French also exists in art. The following words reflect it. “Sculpture”, from French sculptura, is the action or art of processing (as by carving, modeling, or welding) plastic or hard materials into works of art. “Design”, from French designare, usually considered in the context of the applied arts, and other such creative endeavors, is used as both a noun and a verb."Design" as a verb refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a new object (machine, building, product, etc.). As a noun, "design" is used both for the final plan or proposal (a4drawing, model, or other description), or the result of implementing that plan or proposal (the object produced).These words are major aspects of loan words on French. There are still many other aspects of it, but do not have that many. For example, on military affairs, on fashion, and so many other aspects, I will not enumerate them one by one. After the Medieval time French is continuing to crowd into English. In fact, many French words have been assimilated2.1.2. From Latin Loan WordsLatin is another important source of English loan words. During the Norman Conquest, Latin holds the same dominant status as French.2.1.2.1. On LawAlthough the number of Latin loan words is less than French loan words, a great number of legal terminologies obviously traced from Latin in the Middle- and Ancient- time and the later Renaissance. The following words illustrate it.“Custody”, from Latin custodia, means immediate charge and control (as over a ward or a suspect) exercised by a person or an authority. “Malefactor”, from Latin malefactor in the 15th century, from malefacere to do evil, from male + facere to do, is someone who has done something bad or illegal. “Testimony”, from Late Latin &Latin in the 14th century; Late Latin testimonium Decalogue, from Latin, evidence, witness, from testis witness, in law and in religion, is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter. A “jurist”, from Medieval Latin jurista, from Latin jur-, jus in the 15th century, is a professional who studies, develops, applies or otherwise deals with the law. The term is widely used in American English, but in the United Kingdom and many countries which use Commonwealth English it has only historical and specialist usage, and members of the general public are largely unaware of the term and are liable to confuse it with "juror." There is no alternative word for "jurist" in Commonwealth English. The term "legal professional" may be used for convenience, but this is not common practice.As French is, legal terminologies on Latin loan words are also assimilated and they confuse harmoniously. It is hard to tell which language is its origin only5according to their forms.2.1.2.2. On AbbreviationsIn English reading, we often meet some short forms (such as etc., e.g., i.e.), they are actually Latin abbreviations. So is English writing. Next I will exemplify some abbreviations more often seen.“A.M.”, also “a.m.” or “am”, from Latin ante meridian, means before midday (noon) or time between midnight and noon. “P.M.”, also “p.m.” or “pm”which is opposite from “A.M.”, from Latin post meridian, means after midday (noon) or time between noon and midnigh t. “A.D.” from Latin Anno Domini, means (in the year) time before the birth of Christ. So is “B.C.”.“e.g.”, from Latin exempli gratia, means for example. “etc.”, from et cetra, means “and so forth” or “and so on”. “ibid.” from ibidem, means in the same place. It is usually used among end-notes, footnotes and bibliography, and the next line of book title and author as another explanation (or as a part of it), which indicates that book title and author are the same as the above explanation in order to avoid prolixity.If we can know these abbreviations well, we can do reading and writing more quickly and efficiently. It can also improve our English vocabulary and the sense of language.2.1.2.3. On MedicineMany formal loan words on medicine are from Latin. About 25% of English loan words on medicine are from Latin, which are mainly derivation, that is, which includes a lot of suffixes. And a number of suffixes of many modern English words also derive from Latin. For example:“Abdomen” is from Latin in 1543. And in anatomy, the abdomen is a part of the body, while in humans, it is the region between the thorax and the pelvis. “Dorsal” is from Late Latin and Latin; Late Latin dorsalis, from Latin dorsum back in 1727. In anatomy, the dorsal is the side in which the backbone is located. This is usually the top of an animal, although in humans it refers to the back. In fishes, it refers to the top, front fin (see Dorsal fin). It is the anatomical opposite of ventral (referring to the front or underside of an animal). “Umbilicus” is from Latin in1799, its plural form umbilici.The umbilicus (commonly called a navel, or belly or tummy button), is essentially a scar caused at birth by the removal of the umbilical cord from a newborn baby. The scar can appear as a depression (sometimes colloquially referred to as an "innie") or as a protrusion (referred to as an "outlier").2.1.2.4. On ReligionUntil 597, Christian missionary entered into Britain to preach. With the wide spread of Christian in Britain, a great number of Latin words on religion came into English. The following words reflect it.“Priest” from Late Latin presbyter before the 12th century, is one authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion especially as a mediatory agent between humans and God specifically: an Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, or Roman Catholic clergyman ranking below a bishop and above a deacon. “Pope” from Late Latin papa, often capitalized: a prelate who as bishop of Rome is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. “Creed”from Latin credo (first word of the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds) before 12th century, is a brief authoritative formula of religious belief.2.1.3 Loan words from Greek2.1.3.1. On MedicineGreek is the most principal source of English loan words on medicine. About 75% of the English loan words on medicine are from Greek. “Dyspepsia” from Greek in about 1706, from dys- + pepsis digestion, from peptein, pessein to cook, digests, is a constant pain in the stomach. Constant pains include indigestion and heartburn. Another discomfort is nausea. Functional dyspepsia has no visible cause. her forms may be identified by X-ray or endoscopy. “Eupepsia” from Greek means good digestion. Its prefix "eu" means "good," "well," or "advantageous". "Eu" means the opposite of "dys," which means "bad," "ill," or "difficult." Therefore, the opposite of eupepsia is "dyspepsia." Dyspepsia is also known as indigestion.2.1.3.2. On MythologyGreek mythology had a great effect on English, even on the world. So there are many Greek loan words on mythology in the English vocabulary.“Apple of discord” was a golden apple inscribed with the words, to the most Beautiful(or to the fairest), thrown at a wedding banquet for Peleus and Thetis. With it the Olympic goddess Eris sought revenge for not being invited. She threw it amongst Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, all of whom thought they were the most beautiful. Zeus selected Paris of Troy to act as the judge of who was the fairest. He chose Aphrodite, who had offered him in return the most beautiful woman of the world for a wife. The woman was Helen, and his claiming of her began the Trojan War. “The sword of Damocles” from Greek mythology, means the immediate danger. Damocles is a figure featured in a single moral anecdote which was a late addition to classical Greek culture. The figure belongs properly to legend rather than Greek mythology. The anecdote apparently figured in the lost history of Sicily by Timaeus of Tauromenium (c. 356 - 260 BCE). Cicero may have read it in Diodorus Siculus. He made use of it in his Tusculan Disputations V.61 - 62. Damocles it seems was an excessively flattering courtier in the court of Dionysius II of Syracuse, a 4th Century BC tyrant of Syracuse, Italy. He enthused that, as a great man of power and authority, Dionysius was truly fortunate. Dionysius offered to switch places with him for a day, so he could taste first hand that fortune. In the evening a banquet was held, where Damocles very much enjoyed being waited upon like a king. Only at the end of the meal did he look up and notice a sharpened sword hanging by a single piece of horsehair directly above the throne. Immediately, he lost all taste for the fine foods and beautiful boys and asked leave of the tyrant, saying he no longer wanted to be so fortunate.2.1.4. Loan Words from German2.1.4.1 On Military AffairsGerman military policies especially during the Second World War are very powerful and influential. So many English loan words on military affairs appeared in the English vocabulary. The following words show the point.“Nazi”, German, by shortening &alteration, from Nationalsozialist, from national + Sozialist in1930, often not capitalized, has two meaning: a: one who espouses the beliefs and policies of the German Nazis Fascist b: one who is likened to a German Nazi: a harshly domineering, dictatorial, or intolerant person. “Gestspo” German, from Geheime Staatspolizei in1934, is a secret-police organizationemploying underhanded and terrorist methods against persons suspected of disloyalty.2.1.4.2. On Food“Hamburger”from German in 1884, is a sandwich consisting of a patty of hamburger in a split typically round bun. “Sauerkraut” German, from sauer + Kraut in 1617, is finely sliced white cabbage fermented by Lactobacillus bacteria. It has good keeping qualities and a distinctive sour flavor that both result from lactic acid, which forms when the bacteria ferment sugars in the fresh cabbage. The word comes from the German Sauerkraut, which literally translates to sour cabbage. Sauerkraut is a prominent feature of cuisin es from all the cold regions of Europe. “Frankrurter”, German Frankfurt, from Frankfurt am Main, Germany in 1887, is a cured cooked sausage (as of beef or beef and pork) that may be skinless or stuffed in a casing. “Lager” German Lagerbier beer made for storage, from Lager + Bier in1852, is the term used in English to describe bottom-fermented beers of German and sometimes of Czech styles, though in the latter case the term Pilsener is more common. The word comes from the German lagern ("to store"), and refers to the practice of storing these (and other) beers at near-freezing temperatures for periods of several months before drinking. The term is not used to describe beer in German.2.1.4.3. On Proper Noun“V olkswagen” [literally: "people's car"] (also known as VW) is an automobile manufacturer based in Wolfsburg, Germany. It forms the core of V olkswagen AG (V AG), one of the world's four largest car producers. “Hilter”, German, under Hitler's charismatic leadership Germany emerged from the depths of post-World War I defeat to rebuild its economy and decimated military. At the height of their power during World War II, the armies of Nazi Germany and its Axis Powers dominated much of Europe. The racial policies that Hitler directed culminated in a massive number of deaths, commonly cited as at least 11 million people – including about 6 million Jews –in a genocide now known as the Holocaust. “Friedrich Nietzsche” (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a German philosopher, whose critiques of contemporary culture, religion, and philosophy centered around a basic question regarding the foundation of values and morality. Beyond the unique themes dealt with in his works,Nietzsche's powerful style and subtle approach are distinguishing features of his writings. Although largely overlooked during his short working life, which ended with a mental collapse at the age of 44, and frequently misunderstood and misrepresented thereafter, Nietzsche received recognition during the second half of the 20th century as a highly significant figure in modern philosophy. His influence was particularly noted by many existentialist and postmodern philosophers.All above the loan words are the main ones borrowed from the language of the western countries. Different language and culture made different influences on English. Some aspects in some languages may have a lot, while maybe other aspects have a few or even nothing. Many modern English words have been assimilated by many other loan words and they have confused harmoniously and we cannot distinguish which language is its origin. But it doesn’t matter, only if we can use it appropriately.2.2. Oriental CountriesIn modern world, Asian countries develop quickly in their politics, economy and foreign trade with Europe countries, so that English was gradually affected by language and culture of language of Asian countries. Now many orient countries’words were borrowed in English, so that in English there are many loan words from oriental countries. The loan words are mainly Chinese and Japanese.2.2.1. Loan Words from ChineseEnglish and Chinese has been to really exchange words in recent two or hundred years. When China stepped into the new period of reformation and put new policy into practice in 1978, various conditions about communication between Chinese and foreign culture made an opportunity of exchanging words. With the development of China, Britain gradually recognized the strength of China so that they want to learn about more aspects of China. But Chinese words have strong native colors, so these words can’t be described in English. The cultural absence leads to a lack of English vocabularies. Then in order to compensate for his lack of Chinese words, a number of Chinese words are added into English vocabulary. That is the development of Chinese words in English vocabulary.2.2.1.1 On Food“Tea” is from Chinese in 17th and it was stolen from Hokkien by Portugal. According to Xiao Qian’s book, Tea in the United Kingdom, the bo ok introduce that the tea seem to be first borrowed by Portugal in early 17th,…,English impose tea from Xiamen. In 1640s, English began to plate tea and tea became popular in England.’’ Now, tea becomes important for English people.And “tofu’’ is also fro m Chinese in 1804s,and translated by the Chinese word “豆腐’’.Tofu was invented Liu An. He once was the King of Huainan and also interested in alchemy. He was eager to get a medicine that can make human living endlessly. But he got the tofu in an experiment coincidently. Liu An discovered tofu by using yellow beans and plaster. He put plaster into yellow bean juice, and the spectacular things came up. Tofu has more than 2,000 years history. And there is a tofu culture festival in Liu An’s hometown on every Sep.15th. With the communicating of culture between China and overseas, the fame of tofu spreads all over the world. Just like china, tea, and silk. The most is food words: oolong(乌龙茶-wu long cha), soucchong(红茶-hong cha), maotai(茅台-mao tai), jiaoze(饺子-jiao zi ), mango(芒果-mang guo), litchi(荔枝-li zhi), bok choy(白菜-bai cai), and so on.2.2.1.2. On Chinese Distinctive ObjectsWith a long history of Chinese culture, Chinese characteristics is admired and respected by people all over the world. In the modern world, because of the elevation of national strength and enlargement of international influence of China, more and more Chinese distinctive words are added into English vocabulary.“Kung fu” is from Chinese words ,功夫-gong fu,in19th.This word was borrowed in English vocabularies because of Li Xiaolong. Li Xiaolong, who is also called Bruce Lee, is the first Chinese kung fu star that is famous all over the world and he is respected by a large of people. In 1959,Li Xiaolong went to San Francisco and then established JUN FAN KUNG FU INSTITUTION(振番国书馆) and invented JEEF KUNE DO(截拳道) based on variety of Kung fu. It is Li Xiaolong who introduces Chinese martial arts to people all around the world. Lately, Europebegan to know it. The most is Chinese instinctive objects words : cheongsam(旗袍-qi pao), mahjong(麻将-ma jiang), weichi(围棋-wei qi), Pingju(评剧-ping ju), Yueju(越剧-yue ju), Erhuang(二黄-er huang), dan(段-duan), Sheng（笙-sheng）, yin-yang(阴阳-yin yang), zhen-jiu (针灸-zhen jiu), Confucius(孔夫子-kong fu zi), and so on.2.2.1.3From Dialect of ChinaIn English vocabulary most loan words is from dialect of China ，because at first most Southern Fujian of Chinese people went to Europe or American who spoken in Hokkien .So in English vocabulary many Ho kkien’s words are translated in to English words. “Cumshaw” is from Hokkien in 1839, which means “grateful thanks”in Hokkien. , but it means “tip” in English. Cum shaw is from Xiamen’s dialect. In the 19th, kam-sia often was heard in Chinese southeastern coastal area, which pronunciatio n sounds like “gold card”. Lately, it spread in Europe. Dim sum is also from Chinese dialect. Dim sum is usually linked with the older tradition from yum cha (tea tasting), which has its roots in travelers on the ancient Silk Road needing a place to rest. Thus teahouses were established along the roadside. Rural farmers, exhausted after working hard in the fields, would go to teahouses for a relaxing afternoon of tea .At first, it was considered inappropriate to combine tea with food, because people believed it would lead to excessive weight gain. People later discovered that tea can aid in digestion, so teahouse owners began adding various snack. This is its origin.Chinese is apparently dissimilar to Europe and Chinese language has bigger difference with English. Because language is dynamic and development consistently, so a number of Chinese words are used in English directly. English borrows words from Chinese including art, dressing, food, sports, amusement etc. with the boom of mass media, different and plentiful values of culture emerge, for instance culture gap, generation gap, call girl, bachelor mother and so on. While there are many new words which was added into English vocabulary, for example pink collar, grey collar, and iron collar, English is enriched greatly.2.2.2. Loan Words from JapaneseJapanese is spoken mainly in Japan, but also spoken in some Japanese immigrated areas in the world. It is an agglutinative language and the sound is。

2020年7月全国自考英语词汇学试题及答案解析

全国自考2018年7月英语词汇学试题课程代码：00832I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30%)1. Which of the following words does NOT belong to terminology? ( )A. Penicillin.B. Algebra.C. Symphony.D. Knife.2. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words. ( )A.2B.3C.4D.53. Of the characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is ________. ( )A. all national characterB. productivityC. polysemyD. collocability4. Social, economic and political changes bring about such new words as the following EXCEPT ________. ( )A. fast foodB. TV dinnerC. tahiniD. Watergate5. The prehistoric ________ parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language, which English originated from. ( )A. PrussianB. Indo-EuropeanC. CzechD. Russian6. The surviving languages accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped1into the ________ set and the Western set. ( )A. EasternB. AfricanC. AmericanD. Northern7. The plural morpheme “-s” is realized by /z/ after the following sounds EXCE PT ________. ( )A./z/B./g/C./d/D./b/8. The word “recollection” comprises ________ morphemes. ( )A.1B.2C.3D.49. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT ________. ( )A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked10. “Dis-” in the word “disloyal” is a ________ prefix. ( )A. negativeB. reversativeC. pejorativeD. locative11. The word “AIDS” is a(n) ________. ( )A. initialismB. acronymC. derivativeD. compound12. The word “smog” is created b y blending, with the structure of ________. ( )A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail13. So far as stylistic meaning is concerned, “residence” is ________. ( )A. neutralB. informalC. colloquialD. formal14. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________. ( )2A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. connotativeD. collocative15. “Pavement” in British English and “sidewalk” in American English have the same ________.( )A. motivationB. collocationC. senseD. connotation16. A common feature peculiar to all natural languages is ________. ( )A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. monosemyD. polysemy17. In both CCELD and LDCE, the most frequently used meaning of the word “gay” is ________.( )A. joyous and lively, merry, happyB. homosexualC. given to social life and pleasureD. bright, brilliant18. All the following words can be used as an antonym to the word “clear” EXCEPT ________.( )A. dirtyB. fussyC. guiltyD. ambiguous19. The change of word meaning is brought about by the following internal factors EXCEPT ________. ( )A. influx of borrowingB. analogyC. psychological factorsD. shortening20. A good example of ________ is the word “manuscript”, which now means “writing by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processor”, but its original meaning was3“handwriting” only.( )A. degradationB. elevationC. narrowingD. extension21. In the sentence “Never run towards a dangerous animal.”, the word “dangerous” is used in the ________ sense of transfer. ( )A. subjectiveB. objectiveC. sensationalD. physical22. The sentence “They saw her duck.” is ambiguous due to ________. ( )A. grammatical contextB. lexical contextC. antonymyD. hyponymy23. The following are types of context EXCEPT ________. ( )A. linguistic contextB. non-linguistic contextC. syntactical contextD. extra-linguistic context24. In the sentence “The village had most of the usual ameniti es: a pub, a library, a post office,a village hall, a medical centre, and a school.” The meaning of amenity can be inferred from the clue of ________. ( )A. relevant detailsB. word structureC. antonymyD. hyponymy25. The idiom “hustle and bustle” is a ________ as far as rhetorical features of idioms are concerned. ( )A. simileB. repetitionC. reiterationD. personification26. Sentence idioms embrace the following sentence types EXCEPT ________. ( )A. declarative sentenceB. interrogative sentenceC. imperative sentenceD. simple sentence27. “Beyond the pale” is an idiom ________ in nature. ( )4A. verbalB. nominalC. adjectivalD. adverbial28. The following are the types of dictionary EXCEPT ________. ( )A. monolingual dictionaries and bilingual dictionariesB. linguistic and encyclopedic dictionariesC. specialized dictionariesD. Chinese and English dictionaries29. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 3rd Edition (1980) is a(n) ________ dictionary. ( )A. specializedB. deskC. pocketD. encyclopedic30. Usage notes of the dictionary explain the following aspects EXCEPT ________. ( )A. literal meanings of the wordsB. difficult points of grammar and styleC. important British and American differencesD. slight differences between words of similar meaningsII. Match the words in Column A with the words in Column B according to 1) types of vocabulary by notion; 2) sources of synonyms; 3) types of motivation; and 4) types of transfer. (10%)A B( ) 31. morphological motivation A. laconic meaning “brief” or “short”( ) 32. associated transfer B. the foot of the mountain( ) 33. borrowing C. squeak/hiss( ) 34. etymological motivation D. You should address your remarks to the chair. ( ) 35. notional words E. charm/glamour( ) 36. abstract to concrete F. black market/greenhorn5( ) 37. semantic motivation G. occupation/walk of life( ) 38. figurative use H. fire/flame/conflagration( ) 39. regional English I. This teaching assistant is an efficient help.( ) 40. onomatopoeic motivation J. cloud/yellowIII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)41. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or ________ of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment.42. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, ________ and borrowing.43. The ________ is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.44. Suffixation generally changes the grammatical function or word ________ of stems of words.45. ________ indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.46. Relative synonyms or ________ are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.47. There are generally ________ major factors that cause changes in meaning.48. Physical situation or environment relating to the use of words is called ________ or non-linguistic context.49. Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent ________.50. Three good general dictionaries are LDCE, CCELD and ________.IV. Define the following terms. (10%)51. bound root52. prefixation53. pejoration34. homophone655. grammatical contextV. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below. (20%)56. What are the types of morphemes?57. What is conceptual meaning of a word? Give an example to illustrate your point.58. Decide whether the following statement is true or false, based on your understanding of the changes in word meaning. State your reason with one example.Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.59. What is semantic unity of idioms? Explain it with one example.VI. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below. (20%)60. Comment on the following 2 groups of words or sentences to illustrate the semantic features and grammatical features of compounds.Group 1: “red meat/hot dog”Group 2: “He bad-mouthed me. / major generals”61. Analyze and comment on the following two pairs of sentences in terms of superordinates and subordinates:[a]Trees surround the water near our summer place.[b]Old elms surround the lake near our summer cabin.[a]I met a writer who is the relation of a politician.[b]I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.7。

onlineloan英文作文

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文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!I needed some extra cash, so I decided to apply for an online loan. I found a website that offered quick and easy loans with no credit check. I filled out the application and within minutes, I was approved for the loan. It was so convenient to be able to do everything online without having to go into a bank or fill out a bunch of paperwork.The best part about getting an online loan is that the money is deposited directly into your bank account. Ididn't have to wait for a check to arrive in the mail or go pick it up from a physical location. It was so fast and hassle-free.The interest rate on the online loan was a bit higher than I would have liked, but I needed the money right away, so I didn't have much of a choice. It's definitely something to consider before taking out an online loan –make sure you're comfortable with the terms and interest rates.I was able to pay back the loan on time, and it really helped me out of a tough spot. Overall, I had a positive experience with getting an online loan, but I would definitely be more careful about the terms and interest rates next time.。

On Loanwords in Chinese Language

On Loanwords in Chinese Language--------About the science fieldHuang Shiying Abstract: New loanwords about science and technology emerge in endlessly in China. It’s necessary f or us to learn it more so that we can catch up the science boom and the pace of society. In all, the methods of translation of Chinese loanwords mainly divide into following five kinds. As long we absorb loanwords the reasonable and useful, good composition parts, taking the best, doing self-renewing, Chinese will keep creativity and energy Keywords:loanwords,science,technology,Transliteration,Liberal translation, Form translation,Sound mind andtranslation, attitudeLanguage is the carrier of culture. Th ere’ll be a big influence in language when the cultural clash to each other. No doubt that loanwords can explain this completely. Loanwords, namely alien words , which borrow language from other nations. As we see the development of Chinese, the role of loanwords has been more and more noticeable, covering all aspects of the social life. Now I prefer to introduce you the loanwords in science field and talk about how we can deal with the loanwords properly.1) The importance of loanwords of science and technologyHuman history has been in a new stage, and someone puts this period as postmodern society while somebody named it information society. It’s not hard to find out that the rapid development and achievements ofcomputer, aerospace, biomedicine, environmental protection and other high-tech areas. New loanwords about science and technology emerge in endlessly in China. It’s necessary for us to learn it more so that we can catch up the science boom and the pace of society.2) Loanwords of science and technologyWhen we translate foreign words into Chinese, we need to consider the Chinese grammar and pronunciation rules and various aspects. To sum up, the methods of translation of Chinese loanwords mainly divide into following five kinds:a)TransliterationMany science new words are just coined. As a result, in China there are no corresponding translation, no counterparts. Quite frequently we come across this kind of situation, then we can use transliteration which translates words into approximate pronunciation Chinese characters. This kind of Chinese characters no longer has its own original intention, and they only keep their voice and written form. This simple and direct translation has exotic emotional appeal, what’s more, they rich Chinese vocabulary. We can figure out that many transliteration words have been widely spread in Chinese. Especially in mathematics, sine cosine logarithm, and all kinds of chemical elements and various chemical equations; Biological science of DNA technology; The CT and electronic medical products in the CD DVD, and so on. Now I can list some transliteration words for you, such as, hertz赫兹(频率单位) bit比特(度量信息的单位，二进制位)lux勒克司(照明单位) joule焦耳(功或能的单位) celluloid赛璐珞(硝纤象牙) nylon尼龙(酰胺纤维) sonar声纳(声波导航和测距设备) vaseline凡士林(石油冻) morphine吗啡黑客（hacker）,克隆（clone）,镭射( laser) 拷贝(copy), 马赛克(mosaic) ,伊妹儿(e- mail) , 麦克风(microphone) 因特网（Internet）纳米（nanometer）、基因（gene）、荷尔蒙（hormone）、b)Liberal translationPeople who live in the different culture backgrounds have different language cultural thoughts. Most new loanwords can not find corresponding term to express in Chinese The loanwords in the science field need to be expressed in the specific and elaborate way. So we need use the liberal translation to explain accurate science concept. Such as,holography全息摄影术astrionics宇航电子学guided missile 导弹aircraft carrier航空母舰videophone可视电话walkie-talkie步话机power roller健腹轮E-mail电子邮件skylab太空实验室moonwalk月球漫步friction factor摩擦系数drone雄蜂→无人驾驶飞机bug臭虫→窃听器computer计算者→计算机thermocouple热电偶voltmeter电压表c）Form translationWe commonly used the shape of English letters of the image to name the object which is similar to the English letters. Such as, T square丁字尺I-column工字柱U-bend 马蹄弯头V-slot三角形槽A-bedplate A形底座D-valve D形阀C-network C形网络M-wing M 形机翼X ray X射线L-electron L层电子(原子核外第二层的电子) N-region N区(电子剩余区，即电子导电区)d）Sound mind and translationTo add another word category after the transliteration , or translate the original words into partly transliteration while partly free translation. Such as,logic逻辑电路covar 科伐合金(铁镍钴合金)megavolt百万伏(特)microampere微安(培)kilowatt千瓦decibel分贝radar-man雷达手valve-guide 阀导Ohm law欧姆定律Curie point居里点Morse code 莫尔斯电码Monel metal蒙乃尔合金Babbit metal 巴氏合金Brinell test布氏试验e) Directly quoted the original letter formIt is kind of copycat. We recon that the original letter form is much convenient when we need to make use some loanwords , especially in the science field .As we know, Science and technology concepts are coined rapidly. Some concepts are not clearly confirmed before they widely spread in the society . And there is a more powerful reason, that is the loanwords using the original letter form are much easier to remember and concise. Such as CD （short for compact disc）、、VCD （short for video compact disc）、DNA （short for deoxyribonucleic acid）、DOS （short for Disk Operating System）、CT（short for Computed Tomography）3) How to deal with the loanwords(especially in the science field) and the attitude towards itThe trend of the development of the world is not a culture stripped another culture, but it is the cultural integration. No doubt translation is the bridge. Although someone claims that loanwords can weaken the national unity and it will never conducive to the healthy development of the national language as well. What is more, they will against the promotion of science and technology and easy to come across misunderstanding. Actually, they havestrong communication function and reduce the word of the ambiguity. At the same time loanwords and chinese complement each other .For Chinese loanwords they provides new made word materials also enrich its expression means, make it more accurate and exquisite. All in all, we need to filter and dismiss the bad loanwords. We will be careful to choose which one is worth to absorb, we just can't regardless of quality for all. In short, the fusion of languages can transcend national borders and national restrictions. As long we absorb loanwords the reasonable and useful, good composition parts, taking the best, doing self-renewing, Chinese will keep creativity and energy. Let alone the science field, using the continuously updated loanwords, we will get much more progress in the high technology and Innovation.。

ABriefStudyoftheLoanWordsinEnglish

校园英语 / 语言文化研究A Brief Study of the Loan Words in English陕西省咸阳师范学院外国语学院/钱晓娟高楠It was reported that some Chinese words such as “guanxi”, “Maotai”, “dim sum” has been taken in The Oxford English Dictionary；the latest report is that the phrase “NO zuo no die”, “you can you up” were also taken in the Urban Dictionary in America. Earlier, those words have been taken in this dictionary, such as “geilivable”、“people mountain people sea”、“long time no see”. The Chinese people believe that more and more Chinese loanwords in English can fully prove that China’s international power has been increasing greatly in these years.It could be seen that Chinese attitudes towards loanwords are totally different from that of English. In this paper, I will explore the differences of loanwords in Chinese and English, because loanwords are common phenomenon in any language, and in the future with the increasing communication between the two countries and the development of the modern communication technology and Internet, more and more loanwords will be used and have to be accepted, therefore, how to treat the loanwords appropriately becomes a problem.PART ONE DEFINATION OF LOANWORDSHalliday argued that loanwords are also called borrowed words. A borrowed word refers to a term that was borrowed from another language. It is fully incorporated into the new language, taking on the new language’s phonology and orthography so that it is interpreted by most speakers as a native language. Language borrowing is a common social phenomenon in the course of language development, and it is also one of the most important methods of acquiring new words and enlarging the vocabulary. English has an inevitable effect on Chinese vocabulary with the contact of the two countries become increasingly closer.Loan words have the elements of “foreign lingual culture”, they more or less remain basic features of the source language. Loan words are the products of melting language. Language consists of three elements：phonetics, lexicon and grammar. Generally speaking, lexicon is the most open part in a language, also the most changeable part. So, in the process of language melting, mutual absorption of lexicons is often be used. The absence of new objects and concepts in a nation language entail borrowing from a foreign language by means of any forms so that they can be understood by the native speakers in the process of cultural communication. Lexicon of another language can be absorbed into the local language gradually.Loan words are the component of native language’s lexicon. When a language absorbs a word from outside, sometimes the word will be set in the system of grammar, phonetics and lexicon, and modified by the local language’pronunciation custom, grammar rules and lexicon features. Therefore, in terms of origin, borrowing words are foreign, but seen from their position within the native language system, they are also words of the native language.PART TWO CLASSIFICATION OF THE LOANWORDS“Phonetic loanword” is a kind of English borrowed words by translating them according to their original meaning, and it is fully in accordance with the English pronunciation of word translating into Chinese vocabulary. Person’s name, geographic name, foodstuff and inventions from other languages are often translated into Chinese by phonetic loanwords (Hockett 83). Such as coffee(咖啡), soda(苏打), New York(纽约), London(伦敦), Plato(柏拉图), Sandwich(三明治), coca cola(可口可乐), radar (雷达) and so on. In the history of borrowing words from foreign languages, phonetic loanwords have been the primary means for a long period.“Semantic borrowing” is well received, incorporating as they do the advantages of phonetic translation and semantic translation. They echo the sound of the original English word and an indication of its meaning, filling in the semantic blank left by pure translation. When the Chinese use this method to create new loan words in modern Chinese, they usually adopt two basic forms. One is phonetically transliterating the ﬁrst part of an English word and then semantically translating the meaning of the second part.Sound-meaning translation.This kind of borrowing imitates the English sound and conveys the semantic meaning simultaneously (Harris 145). When the Internet came into being, there came the new word “hacker” in English. It means a programmer who breaks into computer system in order to steal or change or destroy information as a form of cyber-terrorism. The Chinese character “黑客” imitates the sound of “hacker”at the same time the word “黑”means a person who does something illegal in Chinese. Therefore, this loanword combines the sound of the English and the meaning of the Chinese.Loanwords composed of both an English part and Chinese Part. For example, “啤酒” (beer) is composed of English word beer and Chinese word “酒”. People use “啤” just because its pronunciation is similar to English sound of beer. In Chinese, “酒” is a noun describing a kind of drink, so “啤酒” in Chinese is used to refer to beer in English.PART THREE THE LOANWORDS IN ENLISH3.1 The existence of numerous loanwords in EnglishIn English, there are a large number of loanwords. “According to statistics, among the 500, 000 modern English words, 80 percent of them are loanwords；and in these loanwords, 40 percent are from French and 10 percent are from- 211 -- 212-校园英语 / 语言文化研究邢台泉城文化的旅游开发和外宣研究邢台学院外国语学院/庞云玲【摘要】本文首先介绍邢台泉水历史沿革，其次剖析邢台泉文化旅游开发和对外宣传的现状和存在问题，最后针对这些问题提出邢台泉文化旅游开发和对外宣传的新思路。

Chinese Loan Words in English

- 202-校园英语 /语言文化Chinese Loan Words in English辽宁大学外国语学院/郜战莹【Abstract 】English language is the most common working language.In the history of its development,English has widened its vocabulary by borrowing.Borrowing plays an important role in the formation of modern English.Chinese loan words are a part in the family of all the loan words.Therefore,the number of loan words which originate from Chinese is not that great,but they hold an important role in contemporary English.【Key words 】borrowing; loan word; important roleIntroductionEnglish has a vocabulary of more than one million which contains two parts,native and loan words.Words which are originated in Anglo-Saxon are native words; while loan words are those which are adopted from different languages.I.Loan WordsModern English is the product of the historical development.Therefore,it is easy to find its clues in the past.The most important historical factors of English vocabulary have been the ease with which it has borrowed words from other languages and then adapted to its own.1.1 Definition of Loan WordsLoan words are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language.A loan word can be called as a borrowing(Zhang Yunfei,2004).1.2 Types of Loan WordsU s u a l l y b o r r o w i n g s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s f o l l o w s : denizen,alien,and translation-loans(Crystal,2008).A denizen is a word borrowed from another language with their pronouncing and spelling assimilated by the language which borrows the words.Such as Tofu,K ’ai shu,Kongfu.Aliens are loans with unchanged pronunciation and spelling such as Pingyin,Mao Zedong,Beijing.A Translation loan is a new word or phrase constructed by taking a foreign word or phrase at the model and translating it morpheme such as “paper tiger ”.II.The Reasons for Chinese Loan Words into English The Chinese loan words influence the English languages deeply,whose history into English has already over hundreds of years.The earliest communication between Britain and China can be dated back to 1637(Wang Rongpei,2002).2.1 Historical and Political ReasonsThe Opium War is the starting that loan words on history and politics entered into English.Finally,the Chinese history changed greatly,and this led to the fact that many Chinese loan words reflecting the changes of Chinese society came into English,suchas:taiping,dazibao and so on.2.2 Cultural ReasonsThe relationship of language and culture is close.The most important character of human culture is its broadness.Therefore,culture is made of not only natural environment,but also living manners,food and living tools(Sapir,1985)III.Features of Chinese Loan words in EnglishChinese and English belong to the different systems of language,so they are quite different in terms of spelling and writing.3.1 Pronunciation FeaturesIn the history,like Guangdong,Fujian,are main areas which began to contacted with western world earlier.Most of the overseas Chinese come from these places,so many words are given about through this way,which is the foundation of the loan words.While Putonghua has been the official language variety,so most of Chinese loan words borrowed in this way.3.2 Writing FeaturesThe way of writing changes a lot with the development of society.At the beginning,there is no any fixed writing way first proposed by Thomas Wade,and writing ways only adjusted itself to adopt to the changing environment.ConclusionTherefore,it ’s concluded that it ’s inevitable to widen the vocabulary one language by borrowing words from other languages.Recently,because of the rapid development of modern mass media and internationally cultural exchange,English has already borrowed many words from other languages.Chinese loan words have appeared in English for a long time through history,politics,and,culture.These loan words possess their own features in pronunciation,spelling to meet the demands of English.References ：[1]Crystal.D.English an a Global Language[M].Cambridge university press.2008.[2]Sapir,Edward.An Introduction to the Study of Speech[M].Beijing.[3]Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.1985.[4]汪榕培.英语词汇中汉语借词的来源[J].四川外语学院学报.2002.[5]张韵斐.现代英语词汇学概论[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社.2004.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.。

北京市顺义区近三年(2021-2023)九年级上学期期末英语试卷分类汇编：阅读表达(含答案)

北京市顺义区近三年（2021-2023）九年级上学期期末英语试卷分类汇编阅读表达北京市顺义区2022-2023学年九年级上学期期末英语试卷四、阅读表达(34至36每题2分，37题4分，共10分)阅读短文，根据短文内容回答问题。

Internet history was made on September 19,1982,when professor Scott Fahlman at Carnegie Mellon University, US, posted “:-)” on the school’s online bulletin board (电子布告栏) .Guinness World Records called this smiley face the “first digital emoticon (数字表情符号)”.In the 40 years since, emoticons, and later emojis, have become central to our conversations online .GIFs and memes(表情包)also appeared . Now there are 3,600 emojis available for us to show our feelings, according to CNN.“They offer things that words aren’t saying. They said that when you say’ okay,’ what kind of okay is that?” Jennifer Daniel, head of the Emoji Subcommittee for the Unicode Consortium, an organization in charge of choosing official emojis, told CNN. She said emojis are like our “body language” online. A 2017 study even found that the use of emoj is helps us get the same satisfaction from talking online that we get from communicating in person.Just as language develops, so do emojis. The Unicode Consortium brings out new emojis every year .And it cares about race, gender(性别)and other aspects in emoji sets .In 2015,it released different skin tones(肤色) .In 2016,different jobs were added, such as teacher and firefighter- along with female versions(版本)of these jobs. In 2019, emojis of disabled people were added, including emojis of blind people and people in wheelchairs.Some argue that we may depend on emojis too much. As people understand an emoji in different ways, misunderstandings often happen. The University of Valencia once studied the “thumbs-up” emoji. It found that when we use it alone, it serves many meanings: acceptance, liking, or closing the discussion.So what is the future of emojis? Will the emoji develop to become an international language? Or will emojis go the way of the emoticon and fade(消失) after the next big thing comes along? It is hard to predict-even technology and language experts are divided on the topic. What do you think?34.What has become central to our conversations online in the 40 years since?____________________________________________________35.What can we know from the study in 2017?____________________________________________________36.Why do misunderstandings often happen when people use emojis?____________________________________________________37. Do you like using emojis when having conversations online? Why or why not?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________北京市顺义区2021-2022学年九年级上学期期末英语试卷四、阅读表达（每题2分, 共10分）阅读短文, 根据短文内容回答问题。

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