Lingua franca 社会语言学
英语语言学概论第九章练习题答案
英语语言学概论第九章练习题答案1.I______ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. [填空题] *空1答案：diolect答案解析：个人语言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了有关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。
2.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, t______ of discourse and mode of discourse. [填空题] *空1答案：enor答案解析：韩礼德进一步明确了决定语域的三个社会变量：语场、语旨、语式。
3.The term d______ describes a situation in which two distinct varieties of a language, a “high” and a “low”, are used, each with separate social functions.8 [填空题] *空1答案：iglossia答案解析：当某一种语言的两种变体同时存在于一个社团，并且每一种语言都有不同的使用目的时，这种现象就叫做双语。
通常情况下，更标准的语言变体被称作高标准语言，用于政府、新闻媒介、教育和宗教活动。
另一种一般是无声望的语言，称低标准语言，用于家庭、朋友之间、购物时等。
4.A p______ is a mixed and limited language used for some practical purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s languages. [填空题] *空1答案：idgin答案解析：洋泾浜语是将几种语言混合或者融合在一起的一种特殊语言变体，它是由操不同语言的人为了有限的目的，如贸易而使用的语言。
现代语言学名词解释之欧阳术创编
现代语言学名词解释现代语言学名词解释现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeperbecame worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatic s.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of thatphoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies theinflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popularand important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Mov e а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.absee管理员UID 5精华 0积分 3990帖子 1111阅读权限200注册 2007-6-4状态离线#8使用道具发表于 2007-7-2621:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.absee管理员UID 5精华 0积分 3990帖子 1111阅读权限200注册 2007-6-4状态离线#9使用道具发表于 2007-7-2621:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regardthought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.absee管理员UID 5精华 0积分 3990帖子 1111阅读权限200注册 2007-6-4状态离线#10使用道具发表于 2007-7-2621:20 资料个人空间短消息加为好友十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creativeconstruction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learn er’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
论高职英语教学中的英语变体问题
论高职英语教学中的英语变体问题早在19世纪末，由于在人口、政治和经济等方面的优势，英语就已经成为一种全球性的语言，享有垄断性的地位。
现在，英语不仅是全世界使用人数最多的一种语言，也是大多数国家教育体系中必不可少的一门学科。
作为一种国际语言的出现，英语的普及也给从事英语教学工作，特别是对从事对外英语教学（tesol）的教育工作者提出了很多问题和挑战。
通常情况下，人们只是宽泛地理解为“英语”，然而实际上英语有着不同的变体（varieties），使用英语的人也都在操着不同的口音、选择着不同的词句，与来自不同国度的人交流着。
那么，英语的变体对于英语语言教学有着怎样的影响？高职的教学究竟应以哪一种英语变体为标准？教师和教材又应如何应对？本文将通过对中国英语教学本质的分析，结合当前英语在全球的使用现状，立足高职英语教育的目标和原则，找到适合中国高职教育的英语语言。
一、英语的变体（一）英语变体的概念。
按照社会语言学的观点，语言变体是由具备相同社会特征的人在相同的社会环境中普遍使用的某种语言表现形式。
语言变体的概念十分宽泛，可以是某一地域的语体，也可以是某一个体的方言。
英语最初起源于英格兰，后来随着英国的殖民扩展被带到了世界各地，甚至在有些国家作为通用语（lingua franca）使用。
因此英语语言在其发展过程中融入了诸如地域、宗教、移民、文化、社会形态等不同因素，形成了变体。
（二）英语变体的数量。
关于英语在全球的使用，最有影响力的学说来自kachu的三个同心圆（three concentric circles of english）理论。
内圈（inner circle）是以英语为第一语言，即母语的国家；外圈（outer circle）是以英语最为第二语言或官方语言的国家和地区；扩展圈（expanding circle）是以英语作为外语使用的国家和地区。
内圈国家也就是将英语作为国家性语言使用的国家共有5个，分别是英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰。
社会语言学外来词
外来词在跨文化交流中的地位和作用
跨文化交流的必然产物
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外来词是跨文化交流的必然产物，反映了不同文化之间的相互
影响和交融。
跨文化理解的关键
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外来词对于跨文化理解至关重要，能够帮助人们更好地理解和
沟通不同文化之间的差异和特点。
跨文化交流的推动力
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外来词在跨文化交流中扮演着重要的角色，能够促进不同文化
总结词
日语外来词是指从日语中借用的词汇。
详细描述
这些外来词通常与现代科技和文化相关，如“karaoke”（卡拉OK）和“manga”（ 漫画）等。在社会科学和商业领域，日语外来词也经常出现，如“sankei”（社会）和
“baachan”（老板）等。
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外来词的传播途径
文化交流
语言接触
不同语言社团在交流中会互相学习对 方的语言，导致外来词的传播。例如 ，英语中的“Kung Fu”来自汉语， 表示中国武术。
法语外来词
总结词
法语外来词主要是指从法语中借用的词汇。
详细描述
这些外来词通常与高级文化、时尚和餐饮相关，如“chic”（时尚）和“croissant”（牛角面包）等 。在文学和艺术领域，法语外来词也经常出现，如“le mot juste”（恰如其分的词）和“tableau” （画）等。
日语外来词
创新词汇
一些外来词可能会引发新的词汇创新。这些新的词汇可能是由本土语言的词汇和外来词组 合而成的，或者是由外来词所启发而新创造的词汇。
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外来词的翻译原则和方法
音译法
1
直接用发音相似的汉字来翻译外语词汇，如“沙 发”译为“sofa”。
2
优点：保留了原词的音韵之美，易于记忆和传播 。
社会语言学简介
社会语言学社会语言学（Sociolinguistics ）是在 20 世纪 60 年代在美国首先兴起的一门边缘科学。
它主要是指运用语言学和社会学等学科的理论和方法，从不同的社会科学的角度去研究语言的社会本质和差异的一门学科。
对这个定义，有一些不同的理解。
有的学者认为，此研究应以语言为重点，联系社会因素的作用研究语言的变异；有的学者认为是语言的社会学，研究语言和社会的各种关系，使用语言学的材料来描写和解释社会行为，并将语言当做社会现象考察。
[1]中文名索绪尔外文名Saussure概况听语音在当前中国，“社会语言学”与“文化语言学”、“语言文化学”等有相混的地方，应该把它们区分开来为好，给“社会语言学”一个较为固定的内涵、一个较为稳定的外延，不能作为一个“漫无边际”的“糊里糊涂”的概念。
社会语言学在当前中国，主要是一些研究方言学的学者在做，或者说是一些学者从方言学的领域中转移过来的。
这有一定的原因，方言与文化、方言与民俗之间，等等，本来就关系较为紧密，这也是促成中国社会语言学形成的一个原因。
社会语言学将从以下两个领域进行探索：第一，是社会生活的变化将引起语言（诸因素）的变化，其中包括社会语境的变化对语言要素的影响。
第二，从语言（诸因素）的变化探究社会（诸因素）的变化。
在第一个领域中，社会是第一性，社会有了变化，才引起语言的变化。
在第二个领域中社会仍是第一性，但未会有像语言相对论者所认为，有什么模式的语言就会产生什么样的社会模式或者社会文化。
社会语言学的任务是在于描述“语言和社会结构的共变”。
“共变”是现代语言学常用的新术语。
该命题说的“共变”是现代语言学常用的新术语。
该命题说的“共变”似乎指语言是一个变数。
这两个变数互相影响，互相作用，互相制约，互相接触而引起的互相变化。
[2]代表人物听语音索绪尔索绪尔（Saussure，1857-1913）首先提出社会语言学的研究方向。
他认为Language分为两个方面：一是语言（Langue）即平时人们研究的语言系统或是总结语言的使用，例如语法，句法，词法等；另一个方面便是言语（Parole），即社会语言学，语言的当代的使用偏好，与当代社会相关联的研究方向。
Linguafranca社会语言学PPT培训课件
Lingua franca
3.Origions of Lingua franca
• The term lingua franca(Italian for Frankish tongue) originated in the Mediterranean region in the Middle Ages among crusaders and traders of different language backgrounds in Western Africa , India , Kenya.
• Examples of lingua francas remain numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example as of the early 21st century is English.
• There are many other lingua francas centralized on particular regions, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.
• It appeared in the Holy Land around the 13th Century. Piracy and naval warfare brought it in the 16th century to the Barbary Coast, where it came to be used in official records, on account of trade contacts. By the 19th century, European settlers and the opening of regular schools threatened this once widespread informal jargon.
社会语言学
名词解释l、社会语言学;「社会语言学」是语言学同其他社会科学相交的边缘学科，建立于20世纪60年代。
是运用语言学和社会学等学科的理论和方法，从不同的社会科学的角度去研究语言的社会本质和差异的一门学科。
主要研究言语社区各语言变体、各变体的功能和各变体的使用者及其特点。
2、语言变项与语言变式;语言变项，社会语言学常用术语之一，英文为Linguistic variable，指语言变异的项目。
语音、句法、词汇都可能成为语言变项。
社会语言学奠基人拉波夫所做的纽约语言调查，其中的（r）就是语言变项。
一个语言变项一般包含几个“变式”，比如（r）变项包括两个变式，一个是（r）变式，第二个是零变式。
又如北京话中零声母(w)，是一个变项，它有两个变式，一个是（w）,第二个是（v）。
语言变体的种类称为“语言变项”3、年龄级差;不同年龄群表现出不同的语言特征，较大的有孩子和成年人的语言差别。
2) 不同年龄的语言习惯和接受外来语言影响的态度都不一样，容易产生语言的年龄变异。
3) 如北京不同年龄阶层w/v的选择差异。
4、语境化提示;是会话策略中的重要组成部分，交际的成败很大程度上取决于双方对语境化提示的利用。
它提示的是过去的交际经验以及根据这些经验而总结出来的知识。
8、语言接触;语言是文化的代码，语言的背后是文化，不同的语言代表不同的文化。
当不同的语言互相接触的时候，不同的文化也就随之产生交流。
所以语言接触就成了非常重要的手段。
语言接触大致的四种结果：一是语言的同化；二是语言的借用；三是语言的融合；四是双语现象的产生。
9、语言（语码）转用,一个言语社区或该社区的一部分人放弃使用母语而转用另一种语言或方言的现象称为语码转用。
10、语码转换; 语码转换是指在同一次对话或交谈中使用两种甚至更多的语言或语言变体的现象。
美国语言学家佐伊基（Zwicky）解释为“在同一会话中，说双语或多语的人可能时而用这种语言或变体，时而使用另一种语言或变体，不断地换来换去……我们称这种现象为语码转换。
现代语言学名词解释（3）
现代语言学名词解释（3）现代语言学名词解释7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix词缀: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix前缀: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix后缀: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 11 derivation派生: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding组合: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence语言能力: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence句子: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules转换法则: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntacticrepresentation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а五语义学1 semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized(语境).3 reference 引用: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy同义 : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy多义 : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy反义词组 : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy一词多义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.8 hyponymy上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis成分分析 : Componential analysis isa way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning语法意义: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning语意: The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called se-le-ctional restrictions.12 predication论断 : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context上下文: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act言内行为: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act语言表达行为: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics历史语言学: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope字尾音消失: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis插入音: A change that involves the insertion ofa consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis复分解: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding词组: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation派生: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending混合: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation逆构词: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening语义化: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing词义缩小: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift语义变化: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage原始母语: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift语音演变: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics社会语言学: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community社区语言: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety语言变体: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning语言规划: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect个人习语: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language标准语言: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language方言: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca混合语: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin混杂语言: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. 10 Creole克里奥耳语: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia使用两种语言: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism双语: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect社会方言: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register语域: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang俚语: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo 禁语: A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism委婉语: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. -----九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics语言心理学: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex大脑皮层: The most important part of the brain is the outside surf-ace of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization大脑侧化: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization语言侧化: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening双听技术: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage右耳优势: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is know as theright ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis关键假期说: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism语言决定论: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism语言相对论: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech无声语言: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech” of linguistic relativism.十语言习得1 language acquisition语言习得: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech电报式语言: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence独词句: Children’s one-wordutterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition获得: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning学习：Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer语言迁移: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer正迁移: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer负迁移: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. 9 contrastive analysis对比分析: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage人工辅助语言: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction正规教学: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation工具性动机: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation综合性动机: Integrative motivationoccurs when the learner’s goal i s social.14 acculturation文化互渗: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
“世界英语”“作为通用语的英语”与“作为国际语的英语”术语辨析
“世界英语”“作为通用语的英语”与“作为国际语的英语”术语辨析作者：胡兰西来源：《中国科技术语》2020年第02期摘要：“世界英语”“作为通用语的英语”“作为国际语的英语”虽然都可以用来谈论英语在世界范围内的使用和地位，但它们是不同的概念，不能混淆。
文章依据社会语言学理论探究这三个语言学汉译术语背后的概念并阐述其联系和区别，令术语使用更加规范。
关键词：英语语言学术语;世界英语;作为通用语的英语;作为国际语的英语Abstract：Although “World English” “English as a Lingua Franca” and “ English as an International Language” can be all used to talk about the use and status of English in the world， they have different concepts and can not be confused. This paper explores the three linguistics terms on the basis of sociolinguistic theory， and then analyses their connections and differences in order to make the use of terms more standardized.Keywords：terms in English linguistics; World English; English as a Lingua Franca; English as an International language引言在全球化背景下，英語无疑拥有着庞大的使用和学习人群，它的广泛使用让英语已经成为全球最重要的语言。
语言学家Crystal在其2008年发表的文章中估计，全球大约有20亿名非英语母语使用者[1]。
《语言学纲要(修订版)学习指导书》练习与思考参考答案(第七至九章)
第七章语言的演变与分化一、名词解释社会方言：是同一语言内部由于社会因素不同而造成的各种变异，有多少种社会因素造成了语言在某些方面的不同，就能区分出多少种社会方言。
地域方言：是某一语言在不同地域上的变体，常简称为方言。
亲属语言：是指从同一语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系。
谱系分类：根据语言是否来自同一语言的分化及分化的辈分等级而对语言做出的分类。
二、填空1.语言演变的两大特点是渐变性和不平衡性。
2.汉语的七大方言是指：北方方言（官话）、吴方言、湘方言、赣方言、客家方言、粤方言、闽方言。
3.黑话是一种特殊的社会方言，它有强烈的排他性。
4.语言谱系结构的层次一般有语系、语族、语支、语言。
5.从语言谱系来看，彝语属于汉藏语系藏缅语族；法语属于印欧语系拉丁语族；阿拉伯语属于闪—含语系。
三、简答题1.举例说明为什么社会、人际交流是语言演变的基本条件。
语言是人类交际最重要的工具。
人的因素和社会因素构成了语言演变最基本的动力。
语音变化。
例如，在人际交往过程中，如，一些高频词语在使用中常常磨损，造成语音的弱化，常见的虚词在语流中通常都是以混元音ə为韵母。
在社会交际中，英语中的good bye 在不影响交际的情况下缩短了，只说bye。
又如词汇变化，偏好不同，说法也不同。
一些年轻人不说“很多”，而说“N 多”还有语法变化，正因为是约定俗成的，也就可以改变。
比如，现在很多人把“请发短信给我”说成“请短信我”，虽然语法改变，但意义没有改变。
运用中的活语言是人类组成社会的条件之一,是社会成员之间最重要的联系纽带。
同一个社会由低级到高级,由简单到复杂,由落后到先进的发展,必然会带来语言的发展；社会的分化、接触或统一必然会造成语言相应的变化；人与人交流时的创新要求、省力要求也必然会使得语言变化和调整。
2.举例说明语言发展过程中各种因素的相互影响。
语言是符号系统，它内部的各种要素处于对立统一的关系之中，相互间呈现一种平衡的状态。
第八章 社会语言学
第八章社会语言学1．语言变异语言的使用属于社会现象,语言的使用会因言语社区、地域、社会团体、甚至个人的不同而不同。
社会语言学(sociolinguistics)是把语言置于社会环境中来研究语言,从而揭示在不同的社会语境中语言变化的本质特征和社会意义。
1．1言语社区(speech community)言语社区可以定义为构成一个社团的一群人，他们具有相同的语言或具有同一语言中某一特定的变体。
言语社区的一个重要特点是同一言语社区的人使用同一语言或同一语言中的不同的变体进行交际，而且他们对他们所使用的语言的规范具有类似的态度。
社会地位、经济地位、受教育程度、职业、年龄等因素不同的人所使用的语言往往带有他们各自言语社区的烙印。
1．2言语变体(speech variety)言语变体（speech variety），有称之为语言变体，是语言使用者所使用的具有一定区别性特征的变体。
这些不同的特征主要反映在发音、句法规则或词汇上。
言语变体作为一种中性词语可以指标准语(standard language)、方言(dialect)、洋径浜语(pidgin)、克里奥尔语(creole)等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体等。
社会语言学家尤其是对地域变体（又称地域方言）、社会变体（又称社会方言）和功能变体（又称语域）感兴趣。
言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之别,因为它们都是体系的。
1．3地域变异（regional variation）地理障碍如高山，海洋，空间的距离等是造成语言地域变异的主要原因，除此之外，对自己地方语的“忠诚”以及对语言变化的抵触情绪也是形成地域方言的原因。
虽然语言的地域变异反映在发音、词汇和句法上，但是语言地域性变异的最显著的特征是地域口音(accent)。
由于地域变体的存在给跨地区的交际造成障碍，语言规划(language planning)应运而生。
社会语言学
社会语言学社会语言学是一种重要的社会学科，其研究重点在于语言使用与社会环境之间的关系。
通过对语言使用者的社会背景、语境、语言交际目的等方面的研究，社会语言学可以揭示出语言在社会交往中起到的作用以及社会文化背景对语言的影响。
本文将从社会语言学的定义、研究范围以及社会语言学的实践等方面进行阐述。
一、社会语言学的定义社会语言学是指研究语言使用与社会环境之间的关系，揭示语言在社会交往中起到的作用以及社会文化背景对语言的影响的学科。
其中，语言使用者的社会背景、语境、语言交际目的等因素都是社会语言学关注的重点。
二、社会语言学的研究范围社会语言学的研究范围非常广泛，涉及了社会语言学的多个领域，如语言学、社会学、人类学、心理学等。
社会语言学的具体研究领域包括：1、语言变异与社会因素语言变异是指同一语言系统中语音、语法、词汇等方面的不同表现。
社会语言学的研究显示，语言变异与社会因素密切相关，不同社会背景的人们在语音、词汇使用等方面会存在差异。
如同一词汇的不同语音发音，可以反映出不同地区、不同社会群体之间的差异。
2、社会语言学与文化文化是一个不可或缺的元素，它决定了人们的价值观、信仰、生活方式等方面。
语言与文化密不可分，通过语言，人们传递着文化信息。
社会语言学和文化密切相关，通过对语言的潜在意义、语言交际中的歧义等方面的研究，可以深入探究语言与文化之间的关系。
3、语言与社会身份语言是人们社会身份的重要标志。
社会语言学的研究表明，人们在语音、衣着、身体语言等方面的使用，往往会受到社会身份的影响。
不同的社会身份，不同的群体，会在语言上体现出不同的特点，从而反映出其所处的社会位置。
4、语言与社会互动语言在人际交往中起着非常重要的作用。
在语言交际中，人们不仅表达信息，还通过语言来建立社会关系。
社会语言学的研究表明，语言在社会互动中具有巨大的力量，可以促进社会合作、数据交流、实现社会目标等。
三、社会语言学的实践社会语言学的研究成果可以应用于多个领域，如语言教学、语言规划、语音识别等。
语言学十套题名词解释
A lingua franca:A lingua franca is a language or way of communicating which is used between people who do not speak one another's native language. (讲不同母语的人之间的)通用语Argument论元:In logic,an argument is a stem which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made.Applied linguistics应用语言学:Applied linguistics is the research associated with language teaching in its narrow sense.In its broad sense it refers to the research regarding means of application of linguistics in other disciplines.Bound root:Bound root are those which cannot occur alone.They must appear with at least another morpheme.Such as -ceive in receive,perceive,and conceive.Connotation内涵: Philosophers use connotation,opposite to denotation,to mean the properties of entity a word denotes.and is acquired by the children of that community as their native language.Cooperative Principle:Cooperative Principle(CP for short )was proposed by Paul Grice.It suggests that in making conversation the participants must be willing to co-operate,otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the conversation.To specify the CP further,Grice introduced four Maxims:Maxim of Quality,Maxim of Quantity,Maxim of relevance,Maxim of Manner.The significance of Grice’s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for speaker to convey more than what is literally said.Context语境:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.Converse antonymy is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute positive-negative opposition.They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.Co-hyponym:several members of the same superordinate.Complementary distribution互补分布:The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary antonymy互补反义词:Means the members of a pair in this type are complemtary to each other. That is they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely.Displacement:Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Dialect方言：a form of a language that is spoken in a particular area.Diacritics变音符: a mark, point, or sign added or attached to a letter or character todistinguish it from another of similar form, to give it a particular phonetic value, to indicate stress,etc., as a cedilla, tilde, circumflex, or macron.Diachronic linguistics:Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history;therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.Derivational affixes派生词缀:refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.Descriptive study描述性研究:is a linguistic approach which studies what language ought to be and it tries to find the rules that the members of a language community actually conform instead of imposition on other rules,norms.is the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language. Equivalence对等:refers to the extent which the source language is similar to the target language in terms of form and meaning or stylistic features.Entailment衍推:i s a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of second necessarily follows from the truth of the first,while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.Inflectional affixes屈折前缀:such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.Grimm's law格林法则: (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's-Grimm's rule), named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European(PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic(PGmc, the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family) in the 1st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). As it is presently formulated.structural and logical function relation of constituents are called grammatical relation.The grammatical relation of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentences relates to the verb.In many cases,grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.Gradable language:qualitative adjectives that vary the adjective's grade or intensity.General linguistics普通语言学:The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.Langue 语言& parole 言语:langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Locutionary act,illocutionary act,and perlocutionary act:Locutionary act发话行为:When we speak we move our vocal organs and produces a number of sounds,organized in a certain way with a certain meaning.The act performed in this sense is called locutionary act.Illocutionary act行事行为: Illocutionary act refers to the action of making clear the purpose of speaking by producing utterances.That is,to say sth.is to do sth.For example,when we make utterance”Hello”,we perform the action of greeting.perlocutionary act取消行为:perlocutionary act refers to the act that the speakers perform through a locutionary act,and brings about effects upon hearers.LAN:Language transfer语言转化:refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language.Narrow transcription严式标音:diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.Negative transfer负迁移:is the obstruction of or interference with new learning because of previous learning, and relates to the experience with one set of events could hurt performance on related tasks.Prescriptive规定性and descriptive描述性:A prescriptive approach to something involvestelling people what they should do, rather than simply giving suggestions or describing what is done. Descriptive language or writing indicates what someone or something is like. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Polysemy多义词: refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.Pragmatics语用学:is the study of meaning in context,is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.Reference指称:Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world;it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.For example,if we say, “The dog is barking,”we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation.The actual dog the word “dog”refers to in this particular situation in the reference of the word “dog” . Synchronic and diachronic共时与历时：The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study .The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Semantic broadening语义扩展:is the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.Selectional restrictions:In order to block the generation of odd sentences like Colorful green ideas sleep furiously,some linguists introduce some selection restrictions as constraints on the combination process.选择限制，为了防止Colorful green ideas sleep furiously这样怪异的句子，语言学家提出了一些选择限制以制约意义组合过程。
社会语言学_图文
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社会/阶级/环境/性别/种族集团
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讨论各种社会因素对语言变异的影响。
语言变异是指语言因各种社会因素影响而产生的种种 差异，它既包括某个特定语言项目在共时分布上的差 异，也包括该语言项目在历时流程中的变化。 语言项目指的是各种语言成分或规则 。 语言变体是社会语言学研究的对象单位，是指具有共 同的社会分布的一组语言项目。
宏观社会语言学主要研究语 言中的整体性、全局性的问题。 微观社会语言学主要研究个 体性、局部性的问题。
赫兹勒提出要研究语 言结构和社会结构的相互 影响，研究语言行为和社 会行为的相互关系。这个 主张是社会语言学的基本 构想。
1952
社会语言学作为一门 独立的学科在20世纪 60年代诞生于美国。
1964
郭熙《中国社会语言学》，南京大学出版社，1999。
邹嘉彦、游汝杰《汉语与华人社会》，复旦大学出版社、香港城市 大学出版社，2001。
七. 主要问题
1.对学科地位的认识
社会语言学的轮廓 模糊不清，和各种 各样的分学科混杂 在一起
2.研究成果不平衡
重宏观研究， 轻微观分析
理论建设不断加强，理论体系的构建逐步完善，与
语音 差异
词汇 差异
语法 差异
孙维张《汉语社会语言学》，贵州人民出版社，1991。 王得杏《社会语言学导论》，北京语言学院出版社，1992（英文）。 祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》，湖南教育出版社，1992
戴庆厦《社会语言学教程》，中央民族学院出版社，1993。
徐大明、陶红印、谢天蔚《当代社会语言学》，中国社会科学出版 社，1997。
抽样调查法 I. 随机抽样：简单随机抽样、系统抽样、分层 抽样、阶段抽样或分组分段抽样
社会语言学 sociolinguistique
(3)社会对语言的影响：
这里讲的社会是广义的社会，可以分为三个部分，第一个是自然环境，这一部分对于语言的影响很明显，它深刻影响语言的构成（比如爱斯基摩人由于生活环境跟雪密不可分，因此用于描述雪的词汇的数量就很大；丹麦瑞典荷兰这些国家由于经常使用驯鹿，因此这些语言里就有丰富的关于鹿的词汇；阿拉伯人由于生活在沙漠中，骆驼与他们的生活息息相关，因此就有很多骆驼的词汇；中国以及很多亚洲国家习惯以米饭为主食，因此在这些国家的语言里，关于米饭的词汇就要比欧洲国家丰富）。
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社会方言和地区方言相互之间的关系：社会上层它的地区方言的差别就比较小，社会下层它的地区方言的差别就比较大。这一点其实很好理解，因为社会上层普遍知识文化水平较高，其方言的标准化程度就越高；而越到底层，其口语化或地方色彩就越浓。
区分语言与方言
传统语言学把语言看成是具有划一的语音、语法、词汇规则的符号系统，而方言则是语言的分支。其实在许多地方，语言与方言之间的界限并非依据语言系统的结构来划分的。
可是世界上的语言现象和使用语言的人干差万别、纷繁以极。如果不抽象出一些特征，不勾划出一个范围来，研究者简直无从下手去对观察到的情况进行描述和分析。本章第一节所讨论的语言变体就是分析语言现象时所采用的基本单位，而对群体的语言使用者进行分析所采用的基本单位就是言语共同体。
社会语言学原理
社会语言学的基本概念
4)持久性(vitality)，指具有稳定的操该种语言的言语共同
语言与性别
调查方法
社会语言学与普通语言学的区别和联系
社会语言学与普通语言学最大的区别在于两者的语言观的差异，
在社会语言学之前无论是历史比较语言学，还是结构主义语言学，都更专注于语言内部结构的探索和研究，忽视语言在整个社会中所处的地位，忽视社会因素对于语言的巨大影响）
社会语言学Sociolinguistics(7)
Isogloss and Dialect boundary Isogloss: a line drawn on a map to show the geographical boundaries of the distribution of a particular linguistic feature. Dialect boundary: several isoglosses coincide on the dialect atlas.
Sociolinguistics(7)
Instructor: Hua Xianfa
Chapter V Language and Geography
5.1 Regional Variation Language varies in a number of ways. One way of characterizing certain variations is to say that speakers of a particular language sometimes speak different dialects of that language. As discussed before, dialect is hard to define, but has to be used in studies of regional variation.
Linguistic features of Lingua Franca
a)borrowing words; b)variation in sound system; c)reduced grammar. Social factors have helped the growth and spread of lingua francas.
社会语言学练习题及答案（final）
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. F2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers. F3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. T4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. T5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. T6. From the sociolinguistic per spective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. F7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.F8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. F9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. F10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. F11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. F12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. T13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. F14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. F15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. F16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. T17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn’t. F18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. F19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. T20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. FII. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community.22. Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language planning.25. Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or official language of a country.28. The standard language is a superposed , socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in inflectional morphemes.31. Linguistic taboo reflects social taboo.32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no linguistic basis.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:33. Sociolinguistics is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent .35. Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.36. Geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language.37. Language planning means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.38. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.39. A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds .40. Although pidgins are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.41. In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same social background.42. A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.IV. Define the following terms:43. sociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.44. speech communityThe social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms. 45. speech varietySpeech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.46. language planninglanguage standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.47. idiolectAn idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what ma kes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech. 48. standard languageThe standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by thegovernment and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, in cluding school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.49. nonstandard languageLanguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages50. lingua francaA lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.51. pidginA pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.52. CreoleA Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.53. diglossiaDiglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.54. BilingualismBilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.55. ethnic dialectWithin a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.56. SociolectSocial dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.57. registerRegisters are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are als o known as situational dialects.58. slangSlang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.59. tabootaboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.60. euphemismA euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn' t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness. Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory. This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like "lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Females have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:a. Close the door when you leave.b. Please close the door when you leave.c. Would you please close the door when you leave?d. Could you close the door when you leave?Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selec ted by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative statements in comparison with males.62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass."Another salient characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed." Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing “side” like “sigh” and “borrowed” like “borrow.”One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard English:(1) Black English Standard EnglishThey mine. They' re mine.Y ou crazy. Y ou re crazy.Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is " in the sense of “there exists” :Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions. Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular social customs andviews of a particular culture.As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related to sex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less of-fensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be hars h, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyone fears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people do not “die”, but “pass away”. Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting. Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized in its euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.64. 众所周知，所谓"魔力之词"，如"thank you"和"please"等，普遍存在。
教师资格证-(高中)英语-章节练习题-第一章--语言知识与能力-第二节--英语语言能力
教师资格证-（高中）英语-章节练习题-第一章语言知识与能力-第二节英语语言能力[单选题]pound w（江南博哥）ords consist of__________ morphemes.A.boundB.fleeC.both bound and freeD.derivational参考答案：B参考解析：考查形态学。
复合词又称多语素词，其构成成分都是自由语素，因此正确答案为B。
[单选题]3.According to Chomsky,__________ refers to the actual realization of user´s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.petenceB.performanceC.parolengue参考答案：B参考解析：考查语言学中的一些重要区别。
A和B选项是乔姆斯基提出的语言能力(competence)和语言运用(performance)，语言能力指的是一个理想语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识.语言运用指的是在语言交际中关于语言规则的语言知识的实际使用；C和D选项是语言学之父索绪尔提出的言语(parole)和语言(langue)，言语指的是语言在实际使用中的实现，语言指的是一个言语集团的所有成员共享的抽象语言系统.语言是抽象的，而言语是具体的。
题干表达的是对语言规则的语言知识的实际使用.因此正确答案为B。
[单选题]4.__________refers to the use of word which is thought to be less offensive or unpleasant than another word.A.DiglossiaB.EuphemismC.TabooD.Dialect参考答案：B参考解析：考查社会语言学。
Diglossia“双言”，指同一语言内部产生的两种变体，“高级”变体社会地位较高，通常用于正式场合，而“低级”变体社会地位较低，通常适合诸如朋友、家人闲聊等场合；Euphemism“委婉语”，是指人们为避免使用引起双方不快或损坏双方关系的语言.而采用的一种迂回曲折的语言形式：Taboo“禁忌语”，指由于宗教、政治或性别等原因而避免使用的词汇：Dialect“方言”.是语言的一种变体，在一个国家的某个地区或特定社会阶级的人使用。
Lingua franca 社会语言学
Creole
• A language that developed historically from a Pidgin. Sometimes the pidgin becomes stable and established and comes to be spoken as a mother tongue by children: the language has then become a creole , which quickly develops in complexity and is used in all functional settings.
It could be an internationally used language of communication
It could be the native language of one of the groups
It could be a language which is not spoken natively by any of the group but has a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more language.
• It appeared in the Holy Land around the 13th Century. Piracy and naval warfare brought it in the 16th century to the Barbary Coast, where it came to be used in official records, on account of trade contacts. By the 19th century, European settlers and the opening of regular schools threatened this once widespread informal jargon. • As an instinctive adaptation of a basic Italian/Spanish lexicon to a simplified Arabic syntax, Lingua Franca does occasionally appear even today.
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• As an instinctive adaptation of a basic Italian/Spanish lexicon to a simplified Arabic syntax, Lingua Franca does occasionally appear even today.
4.Examples of Lingua Franca
Lingua franca
• "Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term. Though Pidgins and Creoles often function as lingua fracas, many such languages are neither pidgins nor creoles.
5.Similarities and Dissimilarities among Pidgin, Creole and Lingua franca
Pidgin
• is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. A pidgin is not the native language of any speech community, but is instead learned as a second language.
summary
2. Characteristics of Lingua franca
It could be an internationally used language of communication
It could be the native language of one of the groups
It could be a language which is not spoken natively by any of the group but has a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more language.
6.2 Reasons for this situation
The status of a language as a lingua franca in the 21st century is not determined by its linguistic merits , or the number of people who speak the language , or a country's language policy , but the combined effect of political , economic and cultural forces .
Lingua franca
研1302 小胖鼠和小兔兔
Contents
• 1. Brief Introduction • 2. Characteristics of Lingua franca • 3.Origions of Lingua franca • 4.Examples of Lingua Franca • 5.Similarities and Dissimilarities among Pidgin,
Lingua franca
Internationally used language Native language Nonnative and mixed language
3.Origions of Lingua franca
• The term lingua franca(Italian for Frankish tongue) originated in the Mediterranean region in the Middle Ages among crusaders and traders of different language backgrounds in Western Africa , India , Kenya.
• In certain countries the lingua franca is also used as the national language; e.g., Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan as well as the national language
• It appeared in the Holy Land around the 13th Century. Piracy and naval warfare brought it in the 16th century to the Barbary Coast, where it came to be used in official records, on account of trade contacts. By the 19th century, European settlers and the opening of regular schools threatened this once widespread informal jargon.
• Latin and Greek were the lingua francas of the Roman empire;
• Akkadian, and then Aramaic, remained the common languages of a large part of Western Asia through several earlier empires.
• Examples of lingua francas remain numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example as of the early 21st century is English.
• There are many other lingua francas centralized on particular regions, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.
e.g. tofu 豆腐 tea 茶 tai chi 太极 chopstick 筷子
• Reasons for this tendency
Because language is a tool for its users to express their identity, and since they can be indentified when speaking nativized variety of English rather than native English in international communication, the nativized form will be adopted.
• During the twentieth century, numerous technological inventions and developments, such as the telephone, fax, electronic mail, internet, etc have facilitated communication between people from all walks of life and the language that is used most is English, as the following quote proves. ‘Most of the scientific, technological and academic information in the world is expressed in English and over 80% of all the information stored in electronic retrieval systems is in English.
Creole
• A language that developed historically from a Pidgin. Sometimes the pidgin becomes stable and established and comes to be spoken as a mother tongue by children: the language has then become a creole , which quickly develops in complexity and is used in all functional settings.
pidgin
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
6. Current situation of lingua franca
English as Lingua franca
• 6.1 Current situation of English
• English is now the dominant or official language in over 60 countries and is represented in every continent. From this fact, it can be understood that the English language is a vital means of communication for millions of people around the world.