motivation 课程大纲

Dimensions of Motivation in Language LearningJeff TennantWEFLA 2004Universidad de Holguín“Oscar Lucero Moya”Course Overview IDefining motivationMotivation as an individual difference variable in second language acquisition (SLA)Some theories of motivation in psychologyCourse Overview IIRobert Gardner’s socio-educational modelDebates on the expansion of the modelEmpirical research studiesApproaches to motivating our studentsWhat is motivation?Brainstorming activity:What does the word “motivation” mean to you?Describe a situation in which you feel very motivated.Describe a situation in which you do not feel motivated.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” ISet a personal example with your own behavior.Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.Present the tasks properly.Develop a good relationship with the learners.Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” IIMake the language classes interestingPromote learner autonomyPersonalise the learning processIncrease learners’ goal-orientednessFamiliarize learners with the target language cultureWHICH OF THESE ARE MOST IMPORTANT TO YOU AND WHY?Defining MotivationVast and complex concept referring to what makes people do what they doNot an easy concept to defineWays of defining it have evolved along with theories of human behavior and mindDefinition from Madsen (1959):“By motivation, psychologists mean that which gives impetus to behavior byarousing, sustaining, and directing it toward the attainment of goals.”Earlier theories of motivation IDrive theory (Hull, 1952):physiological needs which create drives; people are motivated to satisfythose drivesReinforcement theory (Skinner, 1953):behaviorist psychology: stimulus-response, behavior controlled byreinforcementsLocke & Latham (1994: 13): “based on the premise that human action could be understood without reference to consciousness. The premise iswrong…”Earlier theories of motivation IIHumanistic psychology (Maslow): satisfaction of basic needs:PhysiologicalSafetyLoveEsteemself-actualizationCurrent dominant paradigmsCognitive revolution:Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior contributed to a declineof behaviorist theories and the development of cognitive theories Cognitive and social theories:People viewed as autonomous, thinking beings with minds, who are opento influences from their environment and social context, but are not fullydetermined by those influences.Language Learning MotivationThe most influential approach to motivation in language learning: R.C. Gardner Individual difference variable reflecting affective dimension of learningMotivation:Desire + Effort + Attitude, directed toward a GoalOrientations:Integrative orientationLearning an L2 to communicate with the people who speak it, discovertheir culture, etc.Instrumental orientationLearning a language for a practical purpose, such as to obtainemployment or get by while travelingMotivation and orientationsClément & Kruidenier (1983) also add:Travel orientationFriendship orientationOxford and Shearin (1994): many examples of orientations that they confuse with motivations:Do businessMake friendsIntellectual stimulationPersonal challengeShowing off to friendsAiding world peaceLearn a private code that parents wouldn’t knowTheories in Motivational PsychologyExpectancy-value theoryGoal theorySelf-determination theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IA dominant cognitive approach in recent research on motivational psychology Focus on motivation as:A person’s expectancy of success in a taskThe value the person attributes to success in the taskThree theories of expectancy of successAttribution theorySelf-efficacy theorySef-worth theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IIAttribution theory (Bernard Weiner)Causal attributions of past successes and failures, which will affect future effortsPeople can attribute success to:AbilityEffortTask difficultyLuckOther factors.Attribution of failure to lack of effort can be less demotivating thanattributing it to lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory IIISelf-efficacy theory“people’s judgement of their capabilities to carry out certain specific tasks”(Dörnyei, 2001a: 22)Four factors in self-efficacy according to Bandura (1993)Previous performanceVicarious learning (by observing models)Verbal encouragement by othersPhysiological reactionsExpectancy-Value Theory IVSelf-worth theory (Covington)People are motivated to maintain a sense of self-worth (i.e. to feel goodabout themselves)This can lead them to avoid making an effort so that unsatisfactoryperformance can be attributed to lack of effort rather than lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory VValue (or valence) component of expectancy-value theories:“Does a person want to do the task?Elements that define the intensity of the motivation4 componentsAttainment value: importance to the person of mastering the skill or task Intrinsic value: interest, esthetic appreciation, enjoymentExtrinsic utility value: relation to goals, how it improves the person’squality of lifeCost: negative component: expended effort and time, anxiety, fear offailureGoal Theories IGoals replace the notion of needs of earlier theoriesVariables in goal setting theory:Specificity of goalDifficulty of goalGoal commitmentGoal Theories IIMain findings of goal theory research (Locke, 1996), quoted in Dörnyei (20001a: 26):The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievementThe more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance isregulatedGoals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult High commitment to goals is attained when (a) the individual is convinced that the goal is important; and (b) the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable.Goal Theories IIIGoal orientation theoryMastery orientationFocus on learning, mastering content: “task-involvement goals”Performance orientationDemonstrate ability, get good grades, do better than others: “ego-involvement goals”Self-determination theory IDistinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of motivationIntrinsic:To experience pleasure, satisfy curiosityExtrinsic:Means to an end, receive awards, avoid punishmentAmotivation:Lack of regulation: “there is no point”; “I don’t know why I’m doing this”feelingSelf-determination theory IIContinuum of different types of extrinsic regulation (Vallerand, Deci & Ryan, Noels et al.)External regulation (or extrinsic): least self-determined: doing somethingdue to external pressuresIntrojected regulation: doing something because you think you should: obeya rule, conform to an external expectationIdentified regulation: doing something because you recognize its personal importance (e.g. hobby)Integrated regulation: doing something because it is considered part ofone’s self-identityMotivation as an individual difference variable in SLASome individual difference variables that have been studied:AgeAptitudeCognitive styleStrategy useAttitudes and MotivationThe role of age in SLAThe Critical Period HypothesisIs there an age after which native-like proficiency in an L2 in no longerattainable?Sometimes called “sensitive period”Research findings mixed: “yes and no”Before age 7, native-like proficiency quite certain7 to 14: more variation in degree of accentednessAfter age 14, native-like proficiency sometimes considered impossible, but some succeedNo biological evidence for critical periodAccess to Universal Grammar (UG) in SLAResearch related to role of age focuses now on learning mechanisms involved:Do L2 learners have access to Universal Grammar (specialized cognitive structures for language)?Issue still the subject of hot debateSome research supports hypothesis of UG accessOther research points to use of general learning mechanisms: e.g. gender in FrenchAptitudeDifferences in natural ability to learn an L2Partly related to general intelligence, partly distinctHas been shown to play an important role in language learning achievement Aptitude is focused on less nowadays in L2 education: preference to think in terms of what can be changedComponents of language learning aptitudePhonemic coding abilityAbility to identify sounds, establish sound-symbol linksGrammatical sensitivityAwareness of grammatical patterns, structuresInductive language learning abilityAbility to infer form-meaning links from contextRote learning abilityAbility to form and remember associations; plays role in vocabulary learningCognitive styleThe way people approach mental tasksOften seen as contrast between field dependence and field independence Field independent learners:Can focus on specific parts of what is being learned, without beingdistracted by overall pictureField dependent learners:More oriented to overall picture with less focus on smaller parts of itRole of cognitive styleIs one cognitive style better than the other for language learning? It depends on what aspects of learning we are considering…Field independent: better at analytical tasks involving grammatical accuracy;stronger on accuracy than fluencyField dependent: better at synthesis, broader picture, general communicative skills, even if not with perfect accuracy; stronger on fluency than accuracyStrategy useLanguage learning strategies: practices that aid language learningRebecca Oxford’s (1990) classification:Direct strategiesCognitive, memory, compensationIndirect strategiesMetacognitive, affective, socialLanguage learning strategiesCognitive strategies: repeating, translating, taking notes, summarizingMemory strategies: associating, using keywords, physical response or sensationCompensation strategies: using clues, switching to L1, using gestureLanguage learning strategiesMetacognitive strategies: organizing, self-monitoring, overviewing and linking already known materialAffective strategies: making positive statements, using relaxation, discussing feelings with other peopleSocial strategies: asking for correction, cooperating with peers, developing cultural understandingA study of strategy useUWO French 021 studentsMemory and cognitive strategies linked to achievement (grades) in the course Memory strategies were least used -- training in them could be helpfulStudents thought strategies could benefit them and should be integrated in curriculumThe “Good language learner” 11.Has an effective personal learning style or positive learning strategies2.Has an active approach to the learning task3.Has a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathywith its speakers4.Has technical know-how about how to tackle a language5.Has strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developingthe language into an ordered system and revising this system progressivelyThe “Good language learner” 21.Is constantly searching for meaning.2.Is willing to practise.3.Is willing to use the language in real communication.4.Has self-monitoring ability and critical sensitivity to language use.5.Is able to develop the target language more and more as a separatereference system and to learn to think in it.Gardner’s socio-educational modelLanguage learning is different from learning another subject matterNot just learning facts, but acquiring behaviour, ways of thinking and expressing oneself, that are those of another groupA central concept contributing to language learning success: the integrativemotiveImportance of attitudes:"an attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object,inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs or opinions about thereferent” (Gardner, 1985: 9)Gardner’s AMTB ISurvey instrument, questionnaire: the Attitudes / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)Validated in dozens of studies, the only one to have such convincing proof of its validity and statistical reliabilitySeveral questions for each trait studied, e.g. for motivational intensity:I actively think about what I have learned in my French class: a) veryfrequently (3); b) hardly ever (1), c) once in a while (2)A shorter version, the mini-AMTB: one question per traitGardner’s AMTB IIMotivation (mini-AMTB items)Desire: My desire to learn French is: Weak <-> StrongMotivational intensity: I would characterize how hard I work at learningFrench as: Very little <-> Very muchAttitudes toward learning the language: My attitude toward learning French is: Unfavourable <-> FavourableGardner’s AMTB IIIIntegrativeness (mini-AMTB items)Integrative orientation: If I were to rate my feelings about learning French in order to interact with Francophones, I would have to say they are: Weak <-> StrongAttitudes toward the target language group: My attitudes towardsFrancophones is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableInterest in foreign languages: My interest in languages other than French and English is: Very Low <-> Very HighGardner’s AMTB IVAttitudes toward the learning situation (mini-AMTB items)Attitudes toward the instructor: My attitude toward my French professor is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableAttitudes toward the course: My attitude toward my French classes is:Favourable <-> UnfavourableInstrumental orientation (mini-AMTB item):If I were to rate my feelings about learning French for practical purposessuch as to improve my occupational opportunities, I would say that theyare: Weak <-> StrongGardner’s AMTB VAnxiety (mini-AMTB items)French course anxiety: My anxiety level in my French classes is: Very Low <-> Very HighFrench use anxiety: My anxiety in speaking French outside of class is: Very Low <-> Very HighIntegrative motiveThe Integrative motive is composed of:IntegrativenessAttitudes toward the learning situationMotivationMotivation affects the success of learningAttitudes have an indirect effect on learning: their effects are mediated by motivationDebates on the expansion of the model ICrookes & Schmidt (1991): “Reopening the research agenda”, Oxford & Shearin (1994), Dörnyei (1994), criticisms of GardnerHis theory has dominated the field too muchHis approach to motivation doesn’t reflect teachers’ concernsHis theory is limited to the affective dimension from a social psychological approach, without considering other perspective from educationalpsychologyDebates on the expansion of the model IIGardner’s position:Some criticisms based on misinterpretations of his theory (e.g. the mistaken belief that the opposition between integrative and instrumental motivation isa central part of his model)Need to carry out empirical investigations to validate expanded theory« On with the challenge! »Empirical research studiesTremblay & Gardner (1995)Gardner, Tremblay Masgoret (1997): full empirical modelGardner at al. (2004): trait, state, changesGardner & Tennant: expanded mini-AMTBTremblay & Gardner (1995)Incorporation of new concepts in a causal model including socio-educational model elements:Goal-setting theory, Expectancy-value theoryStudy of students in French-language secondary schoolSome results:Language attitudes -> motivated behaviourGoal setting -> motivated behaviorAdaptive attributions -> self-efficiency -> motivated behaviourGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) I“Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation” 102 university students in intro FrenchComprehensive questionnaire including AMTB items, aptitude, field dependence/independence, self-confidenceGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) IIResults show links between:Attitudes and motivationAptitude and achievementMotivation and achievementMotivation and self-confidenceAchievement and self-confidenceStrategy use and achievement (negative correlation)Approaches to motivating our studentsWith all we know (and don’t know) about language learning motivation, can we language teachers motivate our students?We saw a number of suggestions in Zoltán Dörnyei’s “10 commandments’While these haven’t been demonstrated empirically to have definite effects on motivation, they are good tips to tryWilliams and Burden’s suggestions1.Recognize the complexity of motivation2.Be aware of both initiating and sustaining motivation3.Discuss with learners why they are carrying out activities4.Involve learners in decisions related to learning the language5.Involve learners in setting language learning goals6.Recognise people as individualsWilliams and Burden’s suggestions 21.Build up individuals’ beliefs in themselves2.Develop internal beliefs3.Help to move towards a mastery-oriented style4.Enhance intrinsic motivation5.Build up a supportive learning environment6.Give feedback that is informationalDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies ICreating the basic motivational conditions:Demonstrate and talk about your own enthusiasm for the course material, and how it affects you personallyTake the students’ learning very seriouslyDevelop a personal relationship with your studentsCreate a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroomPromote the development of group cohesivenessDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIGenerating initial motivation:Raise the learners’ intrinsic interest in the L2 learning processPromote ‘integrative’ values by encouraging a positive and open-mindeddisposition towards the L2 and its speakers, and towards foreignness ingeneralPromote the students’ awareness of the instrumental values associatedwith the knowledge of an L2Increase the students’ expectancy of success in particular tasks and inlearning in generalIncrease your students’ goal-orientedness by formulating explicit classgoals accepted by themDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIIMaintaining and protecting motivation:Make learning more stimulating and enjoyable by breaking the monotony of classroom eventsPresent and administer tasks in a motivating wayUse goal-setting methods in your classroomBuild your learners’ confidence by providing regular encouragementHelp diminish language anxiety by removing or reducing the anxiety-producing elements in the learning environmentBuild your learners’ confidence in their learning abilities by teaching them various learner strategiesDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IVEncouraging positive self-evaluation:Promote effort attributions in your studentsProvide students with positive information feedbackIncrease learner satisfactionOffer rewards in a motivational mannerUse grades in a motivating manner, reducing as much as possible theirdemotivating impactConclusionHave our ideas about motivation changed since the brainstorming at the beginning?。