FeynmanLectures
著名数学家弗里曼（doc）
著名数学家弗里曼·戴森的演讲译文：鸟和青蛙作者：弗里曼·戴森翻译：王丹红编辑按：弗里曼•戴森（Freeman Dyson）1923年12月15日出生，美籍英裔数学物理学家，普林斯顿高等研究院自然科学学院荣誉退休教授。
戴森早年在剑桥大学追随著名的数学家G.H.哈代研究数学，二战结束后来到美国康奈尔大学，跟随汉斯•贝特教授。
他证明了施温格和朝永振一郎发展的变分法方法和费曼的路径积分法的等价性，为量子电动力学的建立做出了决定性的贡献。
1951年他任康奈尔大学教授，1953年后一直任普林斯顿高等研究院教授。
《鸟和青蛙》(Birds and Frogs)是戴森应邀为美国数学会爱因斯坦讲座所起草的一篇演讲稿，该演讲计划于2008年10月举行，但因故被取消。
这篇文章全文发表于2009年2月出版的《美国数学会志》（NOTICES OF THE AMS, VOLUME56, Number 2）。
经美国数学会和戴森授权，科学时报记者王丹红全文翻译并在科学网上发布这篇文章。
有些数学家是鸟，其他的则是青蛙。
鸟翱翔在高高的天空，俯瞰延伸至遥远地平线的广袤的数学远景。
他们喜欢那些统一我们思想、并将不同领域的诸多问题整合起来的概念。
青蛙生活在天空下的泥地里，只看到周围生长的花儿。
他们乐于探索特定问题的细节，一次只解决一个问题。
我碰巧是一只青蛙，但我的许多最好朋友都是鸟。
这就是我今晚演讲的主题。
数学既需要鸟也需要青蛙。
数学丰富又美丽，因为鸟赋予它辽阔壮观的远景，青蛙则澄清了它错综复杂的细节。
数学既是伟大的艺术，也是重要的科学，因为它将普遍的概念与深邃的结构融合在一起。
如果声称鸟比青蛙更好，因为它们看得更遥远，或者青蛙比鸟更好，因为它们更加深刻，那么这些都是愚蠢的见解。
数学的世界既辽阔又深刻，我们需要鸟们和青蛙们协同努力来探索。
这个演讲被称为爱因斯坦讲座，应美国数学会之邀来这里演讲以纪念阿尔伯特•爱因斯坦，我深感荣幸。
Feynman 费曼物理学讲义英文版 2至5章
2Basic Physics2–1IntroductionIn this chapter, we shall examine the most fundamental ideas that we have about physics—the nature of things as we see them at the present time. We shall not discuss the history of how we know that all these ideas are true; you will learn these details in due time.The things with which we concern ourselves in science appear in myriad forms, and with a multitude of attributes. For example, if we stand on the shore and look at the sea, we see the water, the waves breaking, the foam, the sloshing motion of the water, the sound, the air, the winds and the clouds, the sun and the blue sky, and light; there is sand and there are rocks of various hardness and permanence, color and texture. There are animals and seaweed, hunger and disease, and the observer on the beach; there may be even happiness and thought. Any other spot in nature has a similar variety of things and influences. It is always as complicated as that, no matter where it is. Curiosity demands that we ask questions, that we try to put things together and try to understand this multitude of aspects as perhaps resulting from the action of a relatively small number of elemental things and forces acting in an infinite variety of combinations.For example: Is the sand other than the rocks? That is, is the sand perhaps nothing but a great number of very tiny stones? Is the moon a great rock? If we understood rocks, would we also understand the sand and the moon? Is the wind a sloshing of the air analogous to the sloshing motion of the water in the sea? What common features do different movements have? What is common to different kinds of sound? How many different colors are there? And so on. In this way we try gradually to analyze all things, to put together things which at first sight look different, with the hope that we may be able to reduce the number of different things and thereby understand them better.A few hundred years ago, a method was devised to find partial answers to such questions. Observation, reason, and experiment make up what we call the scientific method. We shall have to limit ourselves to a bare description of our basic view of what is sometimes called fundamental physics, or fundamental ideas which have arisen from the application of the scientific method.What do we mean by ―understanding‖ something? We can imagine that this complicated array of moving things which constitutes ―the world‖ is something like a great chess game being played by the gods, and we are observers of the game. We do not know what the rules of the game are; all we are allowed to do is to watch the playing. Of course, if we watch long enough, we may eventually catch on to a few of the rules. The rules of the game are what we mean by fundamental physics. Even if we knew every rule, however, we might not be able to understand why a particular move is made in the game, merely because it is too complicated and our minds are limited. If you play chess you must know that it is easy to learn all the rules, and yet it is often very hard to select the best move or to understand why a player moves as he does. Soit is in nature, only much more so; but we may be able at least to find all the rules. Actually, we do not have all the rules now. (Every once in a while something like castling is going on that we still do not understand.) Aside from not knowing all of the rules, what we really can explain in terms of those rules is very limited, because almost all situations are so enormously complicated that we cannot follow the plays of the game using the rules, much less tell what is going to happen next. We must, therefore, limit ourselves to the more basic question of the rules of the game. If we know the rules, we consider that we ―understand‖ the world.How can we tell whether the rules which we ―guess‖ at are really right if we cannot analyze the game very well? There are, roughly speaking, three ways. First, there may be situations where nature has arranged, or we arrange nature, to be simple and to have so few parts that we can predict exactly what will happen, and thus we can check how our rules work. (In one corner of the board there may be only a few chess pieces at work, and that we can figure out exactly.)A second good way to check rules is in terms of less specific rules derived from them. For example, the rule on the move of a bishop on a chessboard is that it moves only on the diagonal. One can deduce, no matter how many moves may be made, that a certain bishop will always be on a red square. So, without being able to follow the details, we c an always check our idea about the bishop’s motion by finding out whether it is always on a red square. Of course it will be, for a long time, until all of a sudden we find that it is on a black square (what happened of course, is that in the meantime it was captured, another pawn crossed for queening, and it turned into a bishop on a black square). That is the way it is in physics. For a long time we will have a rule that works excellently in an over-all way, even when we cannot follow the details, and then some time we may discover a new rule. From the point of view of basic physics, the most interesting phenomena are of course in the new places, the places where the rules do not work—not the places where they do work! That is the way in which we discover new rules.The third way to tell whether our ideas are right is relatively crude but probably the most powerful of them all. That is, by rough approximation. While we may not be able to tell why Alekhine moves this particular piece, perhaps we can roughly understand that he is gathering his pieces around the king to protect it, more or less, since that is the sensible thing to do in the circumstances. In the same way, we can often understand nature, more or less, without being able to see what every little piece is doing, in terms of our understanding of the game.At first the phenomena of nature were roughly divided into classes, like heat, electricity, mechanics, magnetism, properties of substances, chemical phenomena, light or optics, x-rays, nuclear physics, gravitation, meson phenomena, etc. However, the aim is to see complete nature as different aspects of one set of phenomena. That is the problem in basic theoretical physics, today—to find the laws behind experiment; to amalgamate these classes. Historically, we have always been able to amalgamate them, but as time goes on new things are found. We were amalgamating very well, when all of a sudden x-rays were found. Then we amalgamated some more, and mesons were found. Therefore, at any stage of the game, it always looks rathermessy. A great deal is amalgamated, but there are always many wires or threads hanging out in all directions. That is the situation today, which we shall try to describe.Some historic examples of amalgamation are the following. First, take heat and mechanics. When atoms are in motion, the more motion, the more heat the system contains, and so heat and all temperature effects can be represented by the laws of mechanics. Another tremendous amalgamation was the discovery of the relation between electricity, magnetism, and light, which were found to be different aspects of the same thing, which we call today the electromagnetic field. Another amalgamation is the unification of chemical phenomena, the various properties of various substances, and the behavior of atomic particles, which is in the quantum mechanics of chemistry.The question is, of course, is it going to be possible to amalgamate everything, and merely discover that this world represents different aspects of one thing? Nobody knows. All we know is that as we go along, we find that we can amalgamate pieces, and then we find some pieces that do not fit, and we keep trying to put the jigsaw puzzle together. Whether there are a finite number of pieces, and whether there is even a border to the puzzle, is of course unknown. It will never be known until we finish the picture, if ever. What we wish to do here is to see to what extent this amalgamation process has gone on, and what the situation is at present, in understanding basic phenomena in terms of the smallest set of principles. To express it in a simple manner, what are things made of and how few elements are there?2–2Physics before 1920It is a little difficult to begin at once with the present view, so we shall first see how things looked in about 1920 and then take a few things out of that picture. Before 1920, our world picture was something like this: The ―stage‖ on which the universe goes is the three-dimensional space of geometry, as described by Euclid, and things change in a medium called time. The elements on the stage are particles, for example the atoms, which have some properties. First, the property of inertia: if a particle is moving it keeps on going in the same direction unless forces act upon it. The second element, then, is forces, which were then thought to be of two varieties: First, an enormously complicated, detailed kind of interaction force which held the various atoms in different combinations in a complicated way, which determined whether salt would dissolve faster or slower when we raise the temperature. The other force that was known was a long-range interaction—a smooth and quiet attraction—which varied inversely as the square of the distance, and was called gravitation. This law was known and was very simple. Why things remain in motion when they are moving, or why there is a law of gravitation was, of course, not known.A description of nature is what we are concerned with here. From this point of view, then, a gas, and indeed all matter, is a myriad of moving particles. Thus many of the things we saw while standing at the seashore can immediately be connected. First the pressure: this comes from the collisions of the atoms with the walls or whatever; the drift of the atoms, if they are all moving in one direction on the average, is wind; the random internal motions are the heat. There are waves of excess density,where too many particles have collected, and so as they rush off they push up piles of particles farther out, and so on. This wave of excess density is sound. It is a tremendous achievement to be able to understand so much. Some of these things were described in the previous chapter.What kinds of particles are there? There were considered to be 92 at thattime: 92 different kinds of atoms were ultimately discovered. They had different names associated with their chemical properties.The next part of the problem was, what are the short-range forces? Why does carbon attract one oxygen or perhaps two oxygens, but not three oxygens? What is the machinery of interaction between atoms? Is it gravitation? The answer is no. Gravity is entirely too weak. But imagine a force analogous to gravity, varying inversely with the square of the distance, but enormously more powerful and having one difference. In gravity everything attracts everything else, but now imagine that there are two kinds of ―things,‖ and that this new force (which is the electrical force, of course) has the property that likes repel but unlikes attract. The ―thing‖ that carries this stron g interaction is called charge.Then what do we have? Suppose that we have two unlikes that attract each other, a plus and a minus, and that they stick very close together. Suppose we have another charge some distance away. Would it feel any attraction? It would feel practically none, because if the first two are equal in size, the attraction for the one and the repulsion for the other balance out. Therefore there is very little force at any appreciable distance. On the other hand, if we get very close with the extra charge, attraction arises, because the repulsion of likes and attraction of unlikes will tend to bring unlikes closer together and push likes farther apart. Then the repulsion will be less than the attraction. This is the reason why the atoms, which are constituted out of plus and minus electric charges, feel very little force when they are separated by appreciable distance (aside from gravity). When they come close together, they can ―see inside‖ each other and rearrange their charges, with the result that they have a very strong interaction. The ultimate basis of an interaction between the atoms is electrical. Since this force is so enormous, all the plusses and all minuses will normally come together in as intimate a combination as they can. All things, even ourselves, are made of fine-grained, enormously strongly interacting plus and minus parts, all neatly balanced out. Once in a while, by accident, we may rub off a few minuses or a few plusses (usually it is easier to rub off minuses), and in those circumstances we find the force of electricity unbalanced, and we can then see the effects of these electrical attractions.To give an idea of how much stronger electricity is than gravitation, consider two grains of sand, a millimeter across, thirty meters apart. If the force between them were not balanced, if everything attracted everything else instead of likes repelling, so that there were no cancellation, how much force would there be? There would be a force of three million tons between the two! You see, there is very, very little excess or deficit of the number of negative or positive charges necessary to produce appreciableelectrical effects. This is, of course, the reason why you cannot see the difference between an electrically charged or uncharged thing—so few particles are involved that they hardly make a difference in the weight or size of an object.With this picture the atoms were easier to understand. They were thought to have a ―nucleus‖ at the center, which is positively electrically charged and very massive, and the nucleus is surrounded by a certain number of ―electrons‖ which are very light and negatively charged. Now we go a little ahead in our story to remark that in the nucleus itself there were found two kinds of particles, protons and neutrons, almost of the same weight and very heavy. The protons are electrically charged and the neutrons are neutral. If we have an atom with six protons inside its nucleus, and this is surrounded by six electrons (the negative particles in the ordinary world of matter are all electrons, and these are very light compared with the protons and neutrons which make nuclei), this would be atom number six in the chemical table, and it is called carbon. Atom number eight is called oxygen, etc., because the chemical properties depend upon the electrons on the outside, and in fact only upon how many electrons there are. So the chemical properties of a substance depend only on a number, the number of electrons. (The whole list of elements of the chemists really could have been called 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Instead of saying ―carbon,‖ we could say ―element six,‖ meaning six electrons, but of course, when the elements were first discovered, it was not known that they could be numbered that way, and secondly, it would make everything look rather complicated. It is better to have names and symbols for these things, rather than to call everything by number.)More was discovered about the electrical force. The natural interpretation of electrical interaction is that two objects simply attract each other: plus against minus. However, this was discovered to be an inadequate idea to represent it. A more adequate representation of the situation is to say that the existence of the positive charge, in some sense, distorts, or creates a ―condition‖ in space, so that when we put the negative charge in, it feels a force. This potentiality for producing a force is called an electric field. When we put an electron in an electric field, we say it is ―pulled.‖ We then have two rules: (a) charges make a field, and (b) charges in fields have forces on them and move. The reason for this will become clear when we discuss the following phenomena: If we were to charge a body, say a comb, electrically, and then place a charged piece of paper at a distance and move the comb back and forth, the paper will respond by always pointing to the comb. If we shake it faster, it will be discovered that the paper is a little behind, there is a delay in the action. (At the first stage, when we move the comb rather slowly, we find a complication which is magnetism. Magnetic influences have to do with charges in relative motion, so magnetic forces and electric forces can really be attributed to one field, as two different aspects of exactly the same thing. A changing electric field cannot exist without magnetism.) If we move the charged paper farther out, the delay is greater. Then an interesting thing is observed. Although the forces between two charged objects should go inversely as the square of the distance, it is found, when we shake acharge, that the influence extends very much farther out than we would guess at first sight. That is, the effect falls off more slowly than the inverse square.Here is an analogy: If we are in a pool of water and there is a floating cork very close by, we can move it ―directly‖ by pushing the water with another cork. If you looked only at the two corks, all you would see would be that one moved immediately in response to the motion of the other—there is some kind of ―interaction‖ between them. Of course, what we really do is to disturb the water; the water then disturbs the other cork. We could make up a ―law‖ that if you pushed the water a little bit, an object close by in the water would move. If it were farther away, of course, the second cork would scarcely move, for we move the water locally. On the other hand, if we jiggle the cork a new phenomenon is involved, in which the motion of the water moves the water there, etc., and waves travel away, so that by jiggling, there is an influence very much farther out, an oscillatory influence, that cannot be understood from the direct interaction. Therefore the idea of direct interaction must be replaced with the existence of the water, or in the electrical case, with what we call the electromagnetic field.The electromagnetic field can carry waves; some of these waves are light, others are used in radio broadcasts, but the general name is electromagnetic waves. These oscillatory waves can have various frequencies. The only thing that is really different from one wave to another is the frequency of oscillation. If we shake a charge back and forth more and more rapidly, and look at the effects, we get a whole series of different kinds of effects, which are all unified by specifying but one number, the number of oscillations per second. The usual ―pickup‖ that we get from electric currents in the circuits in the walls of a building have a frequency of about onehundred cycles per second. If we increase the frequency to 500 or 1000 kilocycles (1 kilocycle=1000cycles) per second, we are ―on the air,‖ for this is the frequency range which is used for radio broadcasts. (Of course it has nothing to do with the air! We can have radio broadcasts without any air.) If we again increase the frequency, we come into the range that is used for FM and TV. Going still further, we use certain short waves, for example for radar. Still higher, and we do not need an instrument to ―see‖ the stuff, we can see it with the human eye. In the range offrequency from 5×1014 to 1015 cycles per second our eyes would see the oscillation of the charged comb, if we could shake it that fast, as red, blue, or violet light, depending on the frequency. Frequencies below this range are called infrared, and above it, ultraviolet. The fact that we can see in a particular frequency range makes that part of the electromagnetic spectrum no more impressive than the other parts from a physicist’s standpoint, but from a human standpoint, of course, it is more interesting. If we go up even higher in frequency, we get x-rays. X-rays are nothing but very high-frequency light. If we go still higher, we get gamma rays. These two terms, x-rays and gamma rays, are used almost synonymously. Usually electromagnetic rays coming from nuclei are called gamma rays, while those of high102 Electrical disturbanceField 5×105 – 106 Radio broadcastWaves 108 FM —TV 1010 Radar5×1014 – 1015 Light1018X-rays Particle 1021γ-rays, nuclear 1024γ-rays, ―artificial‖ 1027 γ-rays, in cosmic rays2–3Quantum physicsHaving described the idea of the electromagnetic field, and that this field cancarry waves, we soon learn that these waves actually behave in a strange way whichseems very unwavelike. At higher frequencies they behave much morelike particles! It is quantum mechanics , discovered just after 1920, which explainsthis strange behavior. In the years before 1920, the picture of space as athree-dimensional space, and of time as a separate thing, was changed by Einstein,first into a combination which we call space-time, and then still further intoa curved space-time to represent gravitation. So the ―stage‖ is changed intospace-time, and gravitation is presumably a modification of space-time. Then it wasalso found that the rules for the motions of particles were incorrect. The mechanicalrules of ―inertia‖ and ―forces‖ are wrong —Newton’s laws are wrong —in the world ofatoms. Instead, it was discovered that things on a small scale behave nothinglike things on a large scale. That is what makes physics difficult —and very interesting.It is hard because the way things behave on a small scale is so ―unnatural‖; we haveno direct experience with it. Here things behave like nothing we know of, so that it isimpossible to describe this behavior in any other than analytic ways. It is difficult, andtakes a lot of imagination.Quantum mechanics has many aspects. In the first place, the idea that a particlehas a definite location and a definite speed is no longer allowed; that is wrong. Togive an example of how wrong classical physics is, there is a rule in quantummechanics that says that one cannot know both where something is and how fast it ismoving. The uncertainty of the momentum and the uncertainty of the position are complementary, and the product of the two is bounded by a small constant. We canwrite the law like this: ΔxΔp≥ℏ/2, but we shall explain it in more detail later. This rule is the explanation of a very mysterious paradox: if the atoms are made out of plus and minus charges, why don’t the minus charges simply sit on top of the plus charges (they attract each other) and get so close as to completely cancel them out? Why are atoms so big? Why is the nucleus at the center with the electrons around it? It was first thought that this was because the nucleus was so big; but no, the nucleus is verysmall. An atom has a diameter of about 10−8 cm. The nucleus has a diameter ofabout 10−13 cm. If we had an atom and wished to see the nucleus, we would have to magnify it until the whole atom was the size of a large room, and then the nucleus would be a bare speck which you could just about make out with the eye, but very nearly all the weight of the atom is in that infinitesimal nucleus. What keeps the electrons from simply falling in? This principle: If they were in the nucleus, we would know their position precisely, and the uncertainty principle would then require that they have a very large (but uncertain) momentum, i.e., a very large kinetic energy. With this energy they would break away from the nucleus. They make a compromise: they leave themselves a little room for this uncertainty and then jiggle with a certain amount of minimum motion in accordance with this rule. (Remember that when a crystal is cooled to absolute zero, we said that the atoms do not stop moving, they still jiggle. Why? If they stopped moving, we would know where they were and that they had zero motion, and that is against the uncertainty principle. We cannot know where they are and how fast they are moving, so they must be continually wiggling in there!) Another most interesting change in the ideas and philosophy of science brought about by quantum mechanics is this: it is not possible to predict exactly what will happen in any circumstance. For example, it is possible to arrange an atom which is ready to emit light, and we can measure when it has emitted light by picking up a photon particle, which we shall describe shortly. We cannot, however, predict when it is going to emit the light or, with several atoms, which one is going to. You may say that this is because there are some internal ―wheels‖ which we have not looked at closely enough. No, there are no internal wheels; nature, as we understand it today, behaves in such a way that it is fundamentally impossible to make a precise prediction of exactly what will happen in a given experiment. This is a horrible thing; in fact, philosophers have said before that one of the fundamental requisites of science is that whenever you set up the same conditions, the same thing must happen. This is simply not true, it is not a fundamental condition of science. The fact is that the same thing does not happen, that we can find only an average, statistically, as to what happens. Nevertheless, science has not completely collapsed. Philosophers, incidentally, say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and probably wrong. For example, some philosopher or other said it is fundamental to the scientific effort that if an experimentis performed in, say, Stockholm, and then the same experiment is done in, say, Quito, the same results must occur. That is quite false. It is not necessary that science do that; it may be a fact of experience, but it is not necessary. For example, if one of the experiments is to look out at the sky and see the aurora borealis in Stockholm, you do not see it in Quito; that is a different phenomenon. ―But,‖ you say, ―that is something that has to do with the outside; can you close yourself up in a box in Stockholm and pull down the shade and get any difference?‖ Surely. If we take a pendulum on a universal joint, and pull it out and let go, then the pendulum will swing almost in a plane, but not quite. Slowly the plane keeps changing in Stockholm, but not in Quito. The blinds are down, too. The fact that this happened does not bring on the destruction of science. What is the fundamental hypothesis of science, the fundamental philosophy? We stated it in the first chapter: the sole test of the validity of any idea is experiment. If it turns out that most experiments work out the same in Quito as they do in Stockholm, then those ―most experiments‖ will be used to formulate some general law, and those experiments which do not come out the same we will say were a result of the environment near Stockholm. We will invent some way to summarize the results of the experiment, and we do not have to be told ahead of time what this way will look like. If we are told that the same experiment will always produce the same result, that is all very well, but if when we try it, it does not, then it does not. We just have to take what we see, and then formulate all the rest of our ideas in terms of our actual experience.Returning again to quantum mechanics and fundamental physics, we cannot go into details of the quantum-mechanical principles at this time, of course, because these are rather difficult to understand. We shall assume that they are there, and go on to describe what some of the consequences are. One of the consequences is that things which we used to consider as waves also behave like particles, and particles behave like waves; in fact everything behaves the same way. There is no distinction between a wave and a particle. So quantum mechanics unifies the idea of the field and its waves, and the particles, all into one. Now it is true that when the frequency is low, the field aspect of the phenomenon is more evident, or more useful as an approximate description in terms of everyday experiences. But as the frequency increases, the particle aspects of the phenomenon become more evident with the equipment with which we usually make the measurements. In fact, although we mentioned many frequencies, no phenomenon directly involving a frequency has yet been detected above approximately 1012 cycles per second. We only deduce the higher frequencies from the energy of the particles, by a rule which assumes that the particle-wave idea of quantum mechanics is valid.Thus we have a new view of electromagnetic interaction. We have a new kind of particle to add to the electron, the proton, and the neutron. That new particle is called a photon. The new view of the interaction of electrons and photons that is electromagnetic theory, but with everything quantum-mechanically correct, is called quantum electrodynamics. This fundamental theory of the interaction of light and matter, or electric field and charges, is our greatest success so far in physics. In。
费曼物理学讲义 英文版
费曼物理学讲义英文版Feynman Lectures on PhysicsPhysics is a fascinating and complex field of study that has captivated the minds of countless individuals throughout history. One of the most renowned and influential figures in the world of physics is Richard Feynman, whose legendary lectures on the subject have become a cornerstone of scientific education. The Feynman Lectures on Physics, originally published in the 1960s, are a testament to Feynman's extraordinary ability to explain complex concepts in a clear and engaging manner.Feynman's approach to teaching physics was unique and groundbreaking. Rather than simply reciting facts and formulas, he emphasized the importance of understanding the underlying principles and the interconnectedness of various physical phenomena. His lectures were not merely a collection of dry, theoretical discussions, but rather a dynamic exploration of the natural world, where he encouraged his students to question, experiment, and discover.One of the key strengths of the Feynman Lectures on Physics isFeynman's ability to simplify complex ideas without sacrificing their depth or accuracy. He had a remarkable talent for breaking down seemingly daunting concepts into their most fundamental components, making them accessible to a wide range of audiences, from seasoned physicists to curious laypeople.Throughout the lectures, Feynman's infectious enthusiasm and genuine love for the subject matter shine through. He was not content to merely transmit information; instead, he sought to ignite a passion for learning and discovery in his students. His lectures were peppered with thought-provoking analogies, engaging demonstrations, and a keen sense of humor, all of which served to make the study of physics more engaging and enjoyable.One of the most notable aspects of the Feynman Lectures on Physics is the breadth and depth of the topics covered. From the fundamental laws of mechanics and thermodynamics to the intricacies of quantum mechanics and the mysteries of the universe, Feynman's lectures provide a comprehensive and authoritative exploration of the physical world. Each lecture is meticulously crafted, with Feynman guiding the reader through complex ideas step by step, building a solid foundation of understanding.Perhaps one of the most striking features of Feynman's teaching style is his ability to make the seemingly abstract and theoreticalconcepts of physics come alive. He often used practical examples and thought experiments to illustrate the principles he was discussing, helping his students to visualize and internalize the material. This approach not only made the lectures more engaging but also reinforced the relevance and applicability of physics in the real world.Another remarkable aspect of the Feynman Lectures on Physics is the way in which Feynman challenged his students to think critically and independently. He did not simply present information as a set of immutable facts; instead, he encouraged his students to question assumptions, to explore alternative perspectives, and to develop their own analytical and problem-solving skills. This emphasis on active learning and critical thinking has been a hallmark of Feynman's legacy, inspiring generations of physicists and scientists to approach their work with a similar sense of curiosity and intellectual rigor.The Feynman Lectures on Physics have become a revered and influential work in the field of physics education. They have been translated into numerous languages and are widely used as a reference and teaching resource around the world. The lectures have not only shaped the understanding and appreciation of physics for countless individuals, but they have also served as a model for effective and engaging scientific communication.In conclusion, the Feynman Lectures on Physics are a testament to the genius and pedagogical prowess of Richard Feynman. Through his innovative teaching methods, his deep understanding of physical principles, and his unwavering dedication to inspiring curiosity and discovery, Feynman has left an indelible mark on the field of physics and the way it is taught and learned. The lectures continue to be a source of inspiration and enlightenment for students and scholars alike, and their enduring legacy is a testament to the transformative power of knowledge and the joy of scientific exploration.。
Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume 1 Cha
Feynman's PrefaceThese are the lectures in physics that I gave last year and the year before to the freshman and sophomore classes at Caltech. The lectures are, of course, not verbatim—they have been edited, sometimes extensively and sometimes less so. The lectures form only part of the complete course. The whole group of 180 students gathered in a big lecture room twice a week to hear these lectures and then they broke up into small groups of 15 to 20 students in recitation sections under the guidance of a teaching assistant. In addition, there was a laboratory session once a week.The special problem we tried to get at with these lectures was to maintain the interest of the very enthusiastic and rather smart students coming out of the high schools and into Caltech. They have heard a lot about how interesting and excit-ing physics is—the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, and other modern ideas. By the end of two years of our previous course, many would be very dis-couraged because there were really very few grand, new, modern ideas presented to them. They were made to study inclined planes, electrostatics, and so forth, and after two years it was quite stultifying. The problem was whether or not we could make a course which would save the more advanced and excited student by maintaining his enthusiasm.The lectures here are not in any way meant to be a survey course, but are very serious. I thought to address them to the most intelligent in the class and to make sure, if possible, that even the most intelligent student was unable to completely encompass everything that was in the lectures—by putting in suggestions of appli-cations of the ideas and concepts in various directions outside the main line of attack. For this reason, though, I tried very hard to make all the statements as accurate as possible, to point out in every case where the equations and ideas fitted into the body of physics, and how—when they learned more—things would be modified. I also felt that for such students it is important to indicate what it is that they should—if they are sufficiently clever—be able to understand by deduc-tion from what has been said before, and what is being put in as something new. When new ideas came in, I would try either to deduce them if they were deducible, or to explain that it was a new idea which hadn't any basis in terms of things they had already learned and which was not supposed to be provable—but was just added in.At the start of these lectures, I assumed that the students knew something when they came out of high school—such things as geometrical optics, simple chemistry ideas, and so on. I also didn't see that there was any reason to make the lectures3in a definite order, in the sense that I would not be allowed to mention something until I was ready to discuss it in detail. There was a great deal of mention of things to come, without complete discussions. These more complete discussions would come later when the preparation became more advanced. Examples are the dis-cussions of inductance, and of energy levels, which are at first brought in in a very qualitative way and are later developed more completely.At the same time that I was aiming at the more active student, I also wanted to take care of the fellow for whom the extra fireworks and side applications are merely disquieting and who cannot be expected to learn most of the material in the lecture at all. For such students I wanted there to be at least a central core or backbone of material which he could get. Even if he didn't understand everything in a lecture, I hoped he wouldn't get nervous. I didn't expect him to understand everything, but only the central and most direct features. It takes, of course, a certain intelligence on his part to see which are the central theorems and central ideas, and which are the more advanced side issues and applications which he may understand only in later years.In giving these lectures there was one serious difficulty: in the way the course was given, there wasn't any feedback from the students to the lecturer to indicate how well the lectures were going over. This is indeed a very serious difficulty, and I don't know how good the lectures really are. The whole thing was essentially an experiment. And if I did it again I wouldn't do it the same way—I hope I have to do it again! I think, though, that things worked out—so far as the physics is concerned—quite satisfactorily in the first year.In the second year I was not so satisfied. In the first part of the course, dealing with electricity and magnetism, I couldn't think of any really unique or different way of doing it—of any way that would be particularly more exciting than the usual way of presenting it. So I don't think I did very much in the lectures on electricity and magnetism. At the end of the second year I had originally intended to go on, after the electricity and magnetism, by giving some more lectures on the properties of materials, but mainly to take up things like fundamental modes, solutions of the diffusion equation, vibrating systems, orthogonal functions,... developing the first stages of what are usually called "the mathematical methods of physics." In retrospect, I think that if I were doing it again I would go back to that original idea. But since it was not planned that I would be giving these lec-tures again, it was suggested that it might be a good idea to try to give an introduc-tion to the quantum mechanics—what you will find in Volume III.It is perfectly clear that students who will major in physics can wait until their third year for quantum mechanics. On the other hand, the argument was made that many of the students in our course study physics as a background for their primary interest in other fields. And the usual way of dealing with quantum mechanics makes that subject almost unavailable for the great majority of students because they have to take so long to learn it. Yet, in its real applications—espe-cially in its more complex applications, such as in electrical engineering and chem-istry—the full machinery of the differential equation approach is not actually used. So I tried to describe the principles of quantum mechanics in a way which wouldn't require that one first know the mathematics of partial differential equa-tions. Even for a physicist I think that is an interesting thing to try to do—to present quantum mechanics in this reverse fashion—for several reasons which may be apparent in the lectures themselves. However, I think that the experiment in the quantum mechanics part was not completely successful—in large part because I really did not have enough time at the end (I should, for instance, have had three or four more lectures in order to deal more completely with such matters as energy bands and the spatial dependence of amplitudes). Also, I had never presented the subject this way before, so the lack of feedback was particularly serious. I now believe the quantum mechanics should be given at a later time. Maybe I'll have a chance to do it again someday. Then I'll do it right.The reason there are no lectures on how to solve problems is because there were recitation sections. Although I did put in three lectures in the first year on how to solve problems, they are not included here. Also there was a lecture on inertial 4guidance which certainly belongs after the lecture on rotating systems, but which was, unfortunately, omitted. The fifth and sixth lectures are actually due to Matthew Sands, as I was out of town.The question, of course, is how well this experiment has succeeded. My own point of view—which, however, does not seem to be shared by most of the people who worked with the students—is pessimistic. I don't think I did very well by the students. When I look at the way the majority of the students handled the problems on the examinations, I think that the system is a failure. Of course, my friends point out to me that there were one or two dozen students who—very surprisingly —understood almost everything in all of the lectures, and who were quite active in working with the material and worrying about the many points in an excited and interested way. These people have now, I believe, a first-rate background in physics—and they are, after all, the ones I was trying to get at. But then, "The power of instruction is seldom of much efficacy except in those happy dispositions where it is almost superfluous." (Gibbon)Still, I didn't want to leave any student completely behind, as perhaps I did.I think one way we could help the students more would be by putting more hard work into developing a set of problems which would elucidate some of the ideas in the lectures. Problems give a good opportunity to fill out the material of the lectures and make more realistic, more complete, and more settled in the mind the ideas that have been exposed.I think, however, that there isn't any solution to this problem of education other than to realize that the best teaching can be done only when there is a direct individual relationship between a student and a good teacher—a situation in which the student discusses the ideas, thinks about the things, and talks about the things. It's impossible to learn very much by simply sitting in a lecture, or even by simply doing problems that are assigned. But in our modern times we have so many students to teach that we have to try to find some substitute for the ideal. Perhaps my lectures can make some contribution. Perhaps in some small place where there are individual teachers and students, they may get some inspiration or some ideas from the lectures. Perhaps they will have fun thinking them through—or going on to develop some of the ideas further.RICHARD P. FEYNMAN June, 1963ForewordThis book is based upon a course of lectures in introductory physics given by Prof. R. P. Feynman at the California Institute of Technology during the academic year 1961-62; it covers the first year of the two-year introductory course taken by all Caltech freshmen and sophomores, and was followed in 1962-63 by a similar series covering the second year. The lectures constitute a major part of a funda-mental revision of the introductory course, carried out over a four-year period. The need for a basic revision arose both from the rapid development of physics in recent decades and from the fact that entering freshmen have shown a steady increase in mathematical ability as a result of improvements in high school mathe-matics course content. We hoped to take advantage of this improved mathematical background, and also to introduce enough modern subject matter to make the course challenging, interesting, and more representative of present-day physics. In order to generate a variety of ideas on what material to include and how to present it, a substantial number of the physics faculty were encouraged to offer their ideas in the form of topical outlines for a revised course. Several of these were presented and were thoroughly and critically discussed. It was agreed almost at once that a basic revision of the course could not be accomplished either by merely adopting a different textbook, or even by writing one ab initio, but that the new course should be centered about a set of lectures, to be presented at the rate of two or three per week; the appropriate text material would then be produced as a secondary operation as the course developed, and suitable laboratory experi-ments would also be arranged to fit the lecture material. Accordingly, a rough outline of the course was established, but this was recognized as being incomplete, tentative, and subject to considerable modification by whoever was to bear the responsibility for actually preparing the lectures.Concerning the mechanism by which the course would finally be brought to life, several plans were considered. These plans were mostly rather similar, involv-ing a cooperative effort by N staff members who would share the total burden symmetrically and equally: each man would take responsibility for 1/N of the material, deliver the lectures, and write text material for his part. However, the unavailability of sufficient staff, and the difficulty of maintaining a uniform point of view because of differences in personality and philosophy of individual partici-pants, made such plans seem unworkable.The realization that we actually possessed the means to create not just a new and different physics course, but possibly a unique one, came as a happy inspira-tion to Professor Sands. He suggested that Professor R. P. Feynman prepare and deliver the lectures, and that these be tape-recorded. When transcribed and edited, they would then become the textbook for the new course. This is essentially the plan that was adopted.It was expected that the necessary editing would be minor, mainly consisting of supplying figures, and checking punctuation and grammar; it was to be done by one or two graduate students on a part-time basis. Unfortunately, this expectation was short-lived. It was, in fact, a major editorial operation to transform the ver-batim transcript into readable form, even without the reorganization or revision of The subject matter that was sometimes required. Furthermore, it was not a job for a technical editor or for a graduate student, but one that required the close attention of a professional physicist for from ten to twenty hours per lecture!7The difficulty of the editorial task, together with the need to place the material in the hands of the students as soon as possible, set a strict limit upon the amount of "polishing" of the material that could be accomplished, and thus we were forced to aim toward a preliminary but technically correct product that could be used immediately, rather than one that might be considered final or finished. Because of an urgent need for more copies for our students, and a heartening inter-est on the part of instructors and students at several other institutions, we decided to publish the material in its preliminary form rather than wait for a further major revision which might never occur. We have no illusions as to the completeness, smoothness, or logical organization of the material; in fact, we plan several minor modifications in the course in the immediate future, and we hope that it will not become static in form or content.In addition to the lectures, which constitute a centrally important part of the course, it was necessary also to provide suitable exercises to develop the students' experience and ability, and suitable experiments to provide first-hand contact with the lecture material in the laboratory. Neither of these aspects is in as ad-vanced a state as the lecture material, but considerable progress has been made. Some exercises were made up as the lectures progressed, and these were expanded and amplified for use in the following year. However, because we are not yet satisfied that the exercises provide sufficient variety and depth of application of the lecture material to make the student fully aware of the tremendous power being placed at his disposal, the exercises are published separately in a less perma-nent form in order to encourage frequent revision.A number of new experiments for the new course have been devised by Professor H. V. Neher. Among these are several which utilize the extremely low friction exhibited by a gas bearing: a novel linear air trough, with which quantitative measurements of one-dimensional motion, impacts, and harmonic motion can be made, and an air-supported, air-driven Maxwell top, with which accelerated rota-tional motion and gyroscopic precession and nutation can be studied. The develop-ment of new laboratory experiments is expected to continue for a considerable period of time.The revision program was under the direction of Professors R. B. Leighton, H. V. Neher, and M. Sands. Officially participating in the program were Professors R. P. Feynman, G. Neugebauer, R. M. Sutton, H. P. Stabler,* F. Strong, and R. Vogt, from the division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, and Professors T. Caughey, M. Plesset, and C. H. Wilts from the division of Engineering Science. The valuable assistance of all those contributing to the revision program is grate-fully acknowledged. We are particularly indebted to the Ford Foundation, without whose financial assistance this program could not have been carried out.ROBERT B. LEIGHTON July, 1963* 1961-62, while on leave from Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.ContentsCHAPTER 1. ATOMS IN MOTION1-1 Introduction 1-11-2 Matter is made of atoms 1-21-3 Atomic processes 1-51-4 Chemical reactions 1-6CHAPTER 2. BASIC PHYSICS2-1 Introduction 2-12-2 Physics before 1920 2-32-3 Quantum physics 2-62-4 Nuclei and particles 2-8CHAPTER 3. THE RELATION OF PHYSICS TO OTHER SCIENCES 3-1 Introduction 3-13-2 Chemistry 3-13-3 Biology 3-23-4 Astronomy 3-63-5 Geology 3-73-6 Psychology 3-83-7 How did it get that way? 3-9CHAPTER 4. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY4-1 What is energy? 4-14-2 Gravitational potential energy 4-24-3 Kinetic energy 4-5CHAPTER 5. TIME AND DISTANCE5-1 Motion 5-15-2 Time 5-15-3 Short times 5-25-4 Long times 5-35-5 Units and standards of time 5-55-6 Large distances 5-55-7 Short distances 5-8CHAPTER 6. PROBABILITY6-1 Chance and likelihood 6-16-2 Fluctuations 6-36-3 The random walk 6-56-4 A probability distribution 6-76-5 The uncertainty principle 6-10CHAPTER 7. THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION7-1 Planetary motions 7-17-2 Kepler's laws 7-17-3 Development of dynamics 7-27-5 Universal gravitation 7-57-6 Cavendish's experiment 7-97-7 What is gravity? 7-97-8 Gravity and relativity 7-11CHAPTER 8. MOTION8-1 Description of motion 8-18-2 Speed 8-28-3 Speed as a derivative 8-58-4 Distance as an integral 8-78-5 Acceleration 8-8CHAPTER 9. NEWTON'S LAWS OF DYNAMICS9-1 Momentum and force 9-19-2 Speed and velocity 9-29-3 Components of velocity, acceleration, and force 9-3 9-4 What is the force? 9-39-5 Meaning of the dynamical equations 9-49-6 Numerical solution of the equations 9-59-7 Planetary motions 9-6CHAPTER 10. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM10-1 Newton's Third Law 10-110-2 Conservation of momentum 10-210-3 Momentum is conserved! 10-510-4 Momentum and energy 10-710-5 Relativistic momentum 10-8VECTORSCHAPTER 11.11-111-211-311-411-511-611-7Symmetry in physics 11-1Translations 11-1Rotations 11-3Vectors 11-5Vector algebra 11-6Newton's laws in vector notation 11-7Scalar product of vectors 11-8CHAPTER 12. CHARACTERISTICS OF FORCE12-1 What is a force? 12-112-2 Friction 12-312-3 Molecular forces 12-612-4 Fundamental forces. Fields 12-712-5 Pseudo forces 12-1012-6 Nuclear forces 12-12CHAPTER 13. WORK AND POTENTIAL ENERGY (A)13-1 Energy of a falling body 13-113-2 Work done by gravity 13-313-3 Summation of energy 13-613-4 Gravitational field of large objects 13-8 CHAPTER 14. WORK AND POTENTIAL ENERGY (conclusion) 14-1 Work 14-114-2 Constrained motion 14-314-3 Conservative forces 14-314-4 Nonconservative forces 14-614-5 Potentials and fields 14-7CHAPTER 15. THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 15-1 The principle of relativity 15-115-2 The Lorentz transformation 15-315-3 The Michelson-Morley experiment 15-315-4 Transformation of time 15-515-5 The Lorentz contraction 15-715-6 Simultaneity 15-715-7 Four-vectors 15-815-8 Relativistic dynamics 15-915-9 Equivalence of mass and energy 15-10CHAPTER 16. RELATIVISTIC ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 16-1 Relativity and the philosophers 16-116-2 The twin paradox 16-316-3 Transformation of velocities 16-416-4 Relativistic mass 16-616-5 Relativistic energy 16-8CHAPTER 17. SPACE-TIME17-1 The geometry of space-time 17-117-2 Space-time intervals 17-217-3 Past, present, and future 17-417-4 More about four-vectors 17-517-5 Four-vector algebra 17-7.CHAPTER 18. ROTATION IN Two DIMENSIONS18-1 The center of mass 18-118-2 Rotation of a rigid body 18-218-3 Angular momentum 18-518-4 Conservation of angular momentum 18-6CHAPTER 19. CENTER OF MASS; MOMENT OF INERTIA 19-1 Properties of the center of mass 19-119-2 Locating the center of mass 19-419-3 Finding the moment of inertia 19-5CHAPTER 20. ROTATION IN SPACE20-1 Torques in three dimensions 20-120-2 The rotation equations using cross products 20-3 The gyroscope 20-520-4 Angular momentum of a solid body 20-8CHAPTER 21. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR21-1 Linear differential equations 21-121-2 The harmonic oscillator 21-121-3 Harmonic motion and circular motion 21-4 21-4 Initial conditions 21-421-5 Forced oscillations 21-5ALGEBRACHAPTER 22.22-1 22-2 22-3 22-4 22-5 22-6Addition and multiplication 22-1The inverse operations 22-2 Abstraction and generalization 22-3 Approximating irrational numbers 22-4 Complex numbers 22-7Imaginary exponents 22-9CHAPTER 23. RESONANCE23-1 Complex numbers and harmonic motion 23-1 23-2 The forced oscillator with damping 23-323-3 Electrical resonance 23-523-4 Resonance in nature 23-7CHAPTER 24. TRANSIENTS24-1 The energy of an oscillator 24-124-2 Damped oscillations 24-224-3 Electrical transients 24-5CHAPTER 25. LINEAR SYSTEMS AND REVIEW25-1 Linear differential equations 25-125-2 Superposition of solutions 25-225-3 Oscillations in linear systems 25-525-4 Analogs in physics 25-625-5 Series and parallel impedances 25-8CHAPTER 26. OPTICS: THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST TIME26-1 Light 26-126-2 Reflection and refraction 26-226-3 Fermat's principle of least time 26-326-4 Applications of Fermat's principle 26-526-5 A more precise statement of Fermat's principle 26-7 26-6 How it works 26-8CHAPTER 27. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS27-1 Introduction 27-127-2 The focal length of a spherical surface 27-127-3 The focal length of a lens 27-427-4 Magnification 27-527-5 Compound lenses 27-627-6 Aberrations 27-727-7 Resolving power 27-7CHAPTER 28. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION28-1 Electromagnetism 28-128-2 Radiation 28-328-3 The dipole radiator 28-528-4 Interference 28-6CHAPTER 29. INTERFERENCE29-1 Electromagnetic waves 29-129-2 Energy of radiation 29-229-3 Sinusoidal waves 29-229-4 Two dipole radiators 29-329-5 The mathematics of interference 29-5CHAPTER 30. DIFFRACTION30-1 The resultant amplitude due to n equal oscillators 30-1 30-2 The diffraction grating 30-330-3 Resolving power of a grating 30-530-4 The parabolic antenna 30-630-5 Colored films; crystals 30-730-6 Diffraction by opaque screens 30-830-7 The field of a plane of oscillating charges 30-10CHAPTER 31. THE ORIGIN OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX31-1 The index of refraction 31-131-2 The field due to the material 31-431-3 Dispersion 31-631-4 Absorption 31-831-5 The energy carried by an electric wave 31-931-6 Diffraction of light by a screen 31-1010CHAPTER 32. RADIATION DAMPING. LIGHT SCATTERING 32-1 Radiation resistance 32-132-2 The rate of radiation of energy 3.2-232-3 Radiation damping 32-332-4 Independent sources 32-532-5 Scattering of light 32-6CHAPTER 33. POLARIZATION33-1 The electric vector of light 33-133-2 Polarization of scattered light 33-333-3 Birefringence 33-333-4 Polarizers 33-533-5 Optical activity 33-633-6 The intensity of reflected light 33-733-7 Anomalous refraction 33-9CHAPTER 34. RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS IN RADIATION34-1 Moving sources 34-134-2 Finding the "apparent" motion 34-234-3 Synchrotron radiation 34-334-4 Cosmic synchrotron radiation 34-634-5 Bremsstrahlung 34-634-6 The Doppler effect 34-734-7 The four-vector 34-934-8 Aberration 34-1034-9 The momentum of light 34-10CHAPTER 35. COLOR VISION35-1 The human eye 35-135-2 Color depends on intensity 35-235-3 Measuring the color sensation 35-335-4 The chromaticity diagram 35-6 /35-5 The mechanism of color vision 35-735-6 Physiochemistry of color vision 35-9CHAPTER 36. MECHANISMS OF SEEING36-1 The sensation of color 36-136-2 The physiology of the eye 36-336-3 The rod cells 36-636-4 The compound (insect) eye 36-636-5 Other eyes 36-936-6 Neurology of vision 36-9CHAPTER 37. QUANTUM BEHAVIOR37-1 Atomic mechanics 37-137-2 An experiment with bullets 37-237-3 An experiment with waves 37-337-4 An experiment with electrons 37-437-5 The interference of electron waves 37-537-6 Watching the electrons 37-737-7 First principles of quantum mechanics 37-1037-8 The uncertainty principle 37-1138-5 Energy levels 38-738-6 Philosophical implications 38-8CHAPTER 39. THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES39-1 Properties of matter 39-139-2 The pressure of a gas 39-239-3 Compressibility of radiation 39-639-4 Temperature and kinetic energy 39-639-5 The ideal gas law 39-10CHAPTER 40. THE PRINCIPLES OF STATISTICAL MECHANICS 40-1 The exponential atmosphere 40-140-2 The Boltzmann law 40-240-3 Evaporation of a liquid 40-340-4 The distribution of molecular speeds 40-440-5 The specific heats of gases 40-740-6 The failure of classical physics 40-8CHAPTER 41. THE BROWNIAN MOVEMENT41-1 Equipartition of energy 41-141-2 Thermal equilibrium of radiation 41-341-3 Equipartition and the quantum oscillator 41-6CHAPTER 42. APPLICATIONS OP KINETIC THEORY42-1 Evaporation 42-142-2 Thermionic emission 42-442-3 Thermal ionization 42-542-5 Einstein's laws of radiation 42-8CHAPTER 43. DIFFUSION43-1 Collisions between molecules 43-143-2 The mean free path 43-343-3 The drift speed 43-443-4 Ionic conductivity 43-643-5 Molecular diffusion 43-743-6 Thermal conductivity 43-9CHAPTER 44. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS44-1 Heat engines; the first law 44-144-2 The second law 44-344-3 Reversible engines 44-444-4 The efficiency of an ideal engine 44-744-5 The thermodynamic temperature 44-944-6 Entropy 44-10CHAPTER 45. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS45-1 Internal energy 45-145-2 Applications 45-445-3 The Clausius-Clapeyron equation 45-6CHAPTER 38. THE RELATION OF WAVE AND PARTICLEVIEWPOINTS38-1 Probability wave amplitudes 38-138-2 Measurement of position and momentum 38-2 38-3 Crystal diffraction 38-438-4 The size of an atom 38-5CHAPTER 46. RATCHET AND PAWL46-1 How a ratchet works 46-146-2 The ratchet as an engine 46-2 46-3 Reversibility in mechanics 46-4 46-4 Irreversibility 46-546-5 Order and entropy 46-7CHAPTER 47. SOUND. THE WAVE EQUATION47-1 Waves 47-147-2 The propagation of sound 47-347-3 The wave equation 47-447-4 Solutions of the wave equation 47-647-5 The speed of sound 47-7CHAPTER 48. BEATS48-1 Adding two waves 48-148-2 Beat notes and modulation 48-348-3 Side bands 48-448-4 Localized wave trains 48-548-5 Probability amplitudes for particles 48-748-6 Waves in three dimensions 48-948-7 Normal modes 48-10CHAPTER 49. MODES49-1 The reflection of waves 49-149-2 Confined waves, with natural frequencies 49-2 49-3 Modes in two dimensions 49-349-4 Coupled pendulums 49-649-5 Linear systems 49-7INDEX CHAPTER 50. HARMONICS50-1 Musical tones 50-150-2 The Fourier series 50-250-3 Quality and consonance 50-350-4 The Fourier coefficients 50-550-5 The energy theorem 50-750-6 Nonlinear responses 50-8CHAPTER 51. WAVES51-1 Bow waves 51-151-2 Shock waves 51-251-3 Waves in solids 51-451-4 Surface waves 51-7CHAPTER 52. SYMMETRY IN PHYSICAL LAWS 52-1 Symmetry operations 52-152-2 Symmetry in space and time 52-152-3 Symmetry and conservation laws 52-3 52-4 Mirror reflections 52-452-5 Polar and axial vectors 52-652-6 Which hand is right? 52-852-7 Parity is not conserved! 52-852-8 Antimatter 52-1052-9 Broken symmetries 52-1112。
高一英语试卷下学期及答案整理
高一英语试卷下学期及答案整理谁在装束和发型上用尽心思，谁就没有精力用于学习;谁只注意修饰外表的美丽，谁就无法得到内在的美丽。
下面给大家分享一些关于高一英语试卷下学期及答案整理，希望对大家有所帮助。
第一卷(选择题，共105分)第一部分听力(共两节，满分30分)第一节(共5小题;每小题1.5分，共7.5分)听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A.B.C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听每段对话后你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题，每段对话仅读一遍。
1. Where did the man put his wallet?A. At home.B. In his back pocket.C. In his breast pocket.2. Why does the man look happy?A. He has bought a new book.B. He has finished his new book.C. His poem is being published.3. Where are the speakers?A. In a classroom.B. In a library.C. In a book shop.4. How did the woman know her husband?A. On the Internet.B. By newspaper.C. By a friend.5. What are the speakers talking about?A. Rainforests.B. Animals.C. Weather.第二节:(共15小题; 每题1.5分 ,共22.5分)听下面5段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听每段对话或独白前，你将有时间阅读各个小题，每小题5秒钟;听完后，各个小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。
大学物理双语教学的探讨
大学物理双语教学的探讨摘要：本文介绍了作者几年来进行大学物理双语课程教学积累的经验与体会。
从大学物理双语课程教学的意义、面临的困难、教材选择、课程体系设计、英语运用，以及与科研结合等几方面，探讨了在高校开展大学物理双语课程教学可行的措施与方案。
关键词：打学物理双语课程；双语教学；课程设计北京邮电大学从2005年面向国际学院04级开始开设大学物理双语课程，迄今3年，对2004级——2006级学生的教学中，取得了一些成功的经验。
在2007年3月，我们申请获得北京邮电大学教学研究与改革项目“大学物理双语课程教学的探索与实践”，面向2006届学生开设大学物理双语课程试点A班，研究在各个专业中基础课程取语教学的模式。
本文介绍我们在理工科大学生的主要基础课——大学物理课程双语教学的实践中的研究思路、具体做法和改革实践，就大学物理双语教学提出一些抛砖引玉的看法和建议。
一、大学物理双语教学的意义和面临的困难物理学是一门自然科学，研究自然界物质的运动形式和运动规律。
有一套完整的研究认识规律，和使用的语言无关，语言只是研究物理和描述自然的工具，不能替代科学的思维。
但是由于社会和历史的原因，近几百年来科学技术的成果大多是用英语发表的。
不论是科学技术专业杂志，还是各种国际学术会议，大都将英语作为交流语言。
从这个意义上可以说“现代科学技术的研究主要是用英语思考”。
从一个狭义的层面看，我国理工科硕士生、博士生的培养中，英语是必不可少的获取课题背景的重要工具。
然而国内大学的英语教学与专业课程脱钩的现状，造成我们多数硕士生和少量博士生还不能熟练运用英语开展科学研究。
比如论文开题阶段，学生宁愿去看国内杂志上有关课题“再加工”的综述文章，也不愿去查阅国外杂志上有关本课题的最原始的和最新近的相关文章，他们实际掌握的是第二手而不是第一手研究背景资料。
另外学生们运用英语表述困难，使他们的研究成果很难在国际知名杂志或国际会议上发表，以至使研究水平的展现大打折扣。
大学英语作业 费曼的一生
費曼生平年表
/ Richard Feynman ’Life
• 1965年因量子电动力学方面的贡献获得诺贝尔物理奖。 • In 1965, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics. • 1986年调查美国挑战者号航天飞机一事, 用一杯冰水及一 只橡皮环证明出事原因。 • In 1986, proved an accident of the United States investigation about the challenger shuttle, with a glass of ice water and a rubber ring.
Family backgroud
Lucille ，a homemaker, and Melville Arthur Feynman, a sales manager. His family originated from Russia and Poland; both of his parents were Ashkenazi Jewish. They were not religious.
費曼生平年表
/ Richard Feynman ’Life
• 1942年6月获得理论物理学博士学 位。同年与阿琳· 格林鲍姆结婚。
• In 1942, Feynman held an appointment at the University of Wisconsin–Madisonas an assistant professor of physics and married with Arlene
美国与英国“四大力学”课程的比较及启示
美国与英国“四大力学”课程的比较及启示张立彬（教育部南开大学外国教材中心，天津300071）刘学文（南开大学物理科学学院，天津300071）[内容摘要]根据英美高校物理学排名，笔者搜集了几所著名大学的四大力学课程及其教参等信息，在此基础上，比较了英美著名大学四大力学课程的培养目标、教学内容、教材及参考书、教学方式、课程学时、考核方式、师资力量等。
通过比较发现两个物理学教育强国的四大力学教学的特点和国内教学的不足，本文可为国内四大力学课程教学的改善提供一定的启示与借鉴。
[关键词]：四大力学课程；英国大学、美国大学；教学方式；课程比较理论物理中的“四大力学”由《理论力学》、《热力学与统计物理》、《电动力学》和《量子力学》组成，它是本科生在普通物理的基础上，为了进一步将对物理的感性认知提高到理性认知而必须学习的基础理论课程，在物理学专业本科生的基础课教学中占有核心的地位[1]。
理论物理本身具有概念抽象、数学工具覆盖范围广的特点，其中理论力学以分析力学为核心，以系统的理论体系描述了粒子的机械运动，同时它引入了全新的物理概念（如作用量、拉氏量等），这为学习其它理论课程提供了铺好了道路。
在热力学与统计物理中，热力学总结了物质的宏观热现象（如压强、温度、体积的变化，系统间能量的转换等），而统计物理则从微观粒子的角度对宏观热现象作出了解释（微观粒子的统计表现）。
电动力学以麦克斯韦方程为核心，以完美的理论形式，高度概括了与电和磁相关的物理现象（如电磁波的传播）。
而量子力学则讲述了支配微观世界的规律，由于在21世纪人类对自然界的探索将更多、更深入地在微观的层次进行，量子力学是至关重要的。
本文通过讨论和比较英美两国著名大学的四大力学课程教学情况，分析它们的课程培养目标、教学内容、教材及参考书、教学方式、课程学时、考核方式、师资力量等因素，旨在发现其教学特色，为国内四大力学课程教学的改善提供启示及思路。
一、英美两国四大力学课程的比较与分析1.培养目标——基础知识的积累我们知道，四大力学是大学本科物理学习的核心内容，课程的讲授便成了本科物理教育的重中之重。
费曼物理学讲义中文版
费曼物理学讲义中文版篇一:费曼物理学讲义中文版费曼物理学讲义费曼物理学讲义(The Feynman s Lectures on Physics) 被誉为本世纪最经典的物理导引. >是根据诺贝尔物理学奖获得者-理查德·菲利普·费曼（Richard Phillips Feynman,又译作费恩曼）,在_61年9月至_63年5月在加利福尼亚工学院讲课录音整理编辑的.删除了原录音中费曼教授对惯性导航的精彩解说（可以到网上找录音）和应对做题的解决思路（单独成书）. >成书几十年,导引了千千万万物理学工作者进入物理殿堂.我国自82年开始引进并翻译,并由上海科学技术出版社刊印.近年来上海科学技术出版社与上海世纪出版股份有限公司合作出版.发行该书,_年6月推出第一版,截至_年已经是第八次印刷.世界图书出版公司北京公司也出版了该书的影印版,译名为>. 这部书虽然基础,理解时,仍需反复研读. 简介_世纪60年代初,美国一些理工科大学鉴于当时的大学基础物理教学与现代科学技术的发展不相适应,纷纷试行教学改革,加利福尼亚理工学院就是其中之一.该校于_61年9月至 _63年5月特请著名物理学家费恩曼主讲一二年级的基础物理课,事后又根据讲课录音编辑出版了>.本讲义共分三卷,第1卷包括力学.相对论.光学.气体分子动理论.热力学.波等,第2卷主要是电磁学,第3卷是量子力学.全书内容十分丰富,在深度和广度上都超过了传统的普通物理教材. 引申当时美国大学物理教学改革试图解决的一个主要问题是基础物理教学应尽可能反映近代物理的巨大成就.>在基础物理的水平上对_世纪物理学的两大重要成就——相对论和量子力学——作了系统的介绍,对于量子力学,费恩曼教授还特地准备了一套适合大学二年级水平的讲法.教学改革试图解决的另一个问题是按照当前物理学工作者在各个前沿研究领域所使用的方式来介绍物理学的内容.在>一书中对一些问题的分析和处理方法反映了费恩曼自己以及其他在前沿研究领域工作的物理学家所通常采用的分析和处理方法.全书对基本概念.定理和定律的讲解不仅生动清晰,通俗易懂,而且特别注重从物理上作出深刻的叙述.为了扩大学生的知识面,全书还列举了许多基本物理原理在各个方面(诸如天体物理.地球物理.生物物理等)的应用,以及物理学的一些最新成就.由于全书是根据课堂讲授的录音整理编辑的,它在一定程度保留了费恩曼讲课的生动活泼.引人入胜的独特风格.>从普通物理水平出发,注重物理分析,深入浅出,避免运用高深烦琐的数学方程,因此具有高中以上物理水平和初等微积分知识的读者阅读起来不会感到十分困难.至于大学物理系的师生物理工作者更能从此书中获得教益._89年,为纪念费恩曼逝世一周年,原书编者重新出版本书,并增加了介绍费恩曼生平的短文和新的序言.我们按照新版的原本进行了翻译.费恩曼（R．P．Feynman）__年生于布鲁克林区,_42年在普林斯顿获得博士学位.第二次世界大战期间在洛斯阿拉莫斯,尽管当时他还很年轻,但已在曼哈顿计划中发挥了重要作用.以后,他在康奈尔大学和加利福尼亚理工学院任教._65年,因他在量子电动力学方面的工作和朝永振一郎及施温格（J．Schwinger）同获诺贝尔物理学奖.费恩曼博士获得诺贝尔奖是由于成功地解决了量子电动力学理论问题,他也创立了说是液氦中超流动性现象的数学理论.此后,他和盖尔曼（M.Gell- Mann）在β衰变等弱相互作用领域内做出了奠基性的工作.在以后的几年里,他在夸克理论的发展中起了关键性的作用,提出了他的高能质子碰撞过程的部分子模型.除了这些成就之外,费恩曼博士将新的基本计算技术及记号法引时物理学,首先是无处不在的费恩曼图,在近代科学历史中,它比任何其他数学形式描述都更大地改变了对基本物理过程形成概念及进行计算的方法.费恩曼是一位卓越的教育家.在他区得的许多奖项中,他对_72年获得的奥斯特教学奖章特别感到自豪.在_63年第一次出版的>被>杂志的一位评论员描写为〝咬不动但富于营养并且津津有味.25年后它仍是教师和最好的初学学生的指导书〞.为了使外行的公众增加对物理学的了解,费恩曼博士写了>.他还是许多高级出版物的作者,这些都成为研究人员和学生的经典参考书和教科书.下载1:下载2:下载3:下载4:http://kuai._/d/BTASMLHUTNCD篇二:>笔记费曼物理学讲义第一章原子的运动引言:两学年的物理课,_年以来空前蓬勃发展的知识领域.1.我们还不知道所有的基本定律:未知领域的边界在不断地扩展2.涉及一些陌生的概念,需要高数.大量的预备性的训练实验是一切知识的试金石.理论.实验物理学家1.正确的.陌生的定律以及有关的奇特而困难的定律,例如相对论,四维空间等等之.2.简单的质量守恒定律,虽然只是近似,但并不包含那种困难的观念的定律那我们世界的总体图像是怎样的呢?原子的假设（一言以蔽之）,证明原子的存在,布朗运动从原子的观点来描写固体.液体和气体.假设有一滴水,贴近观察,光滑连续的水,没有任何其它东西.用最好的光学显微镜放大_倍,相当于一个大房间,可以看到草履虫摆动的纤毛与卷曲的身体.再放大_倍,像从远处看挤在足球场上的人群.再放大250倍,放大_亿倍后的水的图像.蒸发.溶解与淀积化学反应.化学物质从原子角度考虑这个世界最基本的物质,那么首先想到的自然是太阳,这个由氢氦元素组成的巨大熔炉,源源不断地发生着核聚变;以至于地球的组分.人的化学组分第二章基本物理引言:我们在科学上所关心的事物具有无数的形式和许多属性:或许是由较少量的基本事物和相互作用以无穷多的方式组合后所产生的结果.沙粒与月亮,岩石;风与水流,流动;不同的运动有什么共同特征;究竟有多少颜色?我们就是试图这样地逐步分析所有的事情,把那些乍看起来似乎不相同的东西联系起来,希望有可能减少不同类事物的数目,从而能更好地理解它们.世界是一盘伟大的象棋,我们不知道弈棋的规则,所有能做的事就是观看这场棋赛.（张志豪的三维弹球;lol里的小细节也是一步一步探索出来的）人们首先把自然界中的现象大致分为几类,如热.电.力学.磁.物性.化学.光.核物理等等现象,这样做的目的是将整个自然界看作是一系列现象的不同侧面.基础理论物理:发现隐匿在实验后的定律;把各类现象综合起来.1.热与力学的综合,当原子运动时,运动得越是剧烈,系统包含的热量就越多,这样热和所有的温度效应可以用力学定律来说明2.电.磁.光,同一件事物的不同方面,电磁场3.量子化学.这场游戏是否有底__年以前的物理学（一开始就从现在的观点讲起是有点困难）__年以前,我们的世界图像:宇宙活动的舞台是欧几里得所描绘的三维几何空间,一切事物在称为时间的一种媒介里变化,舞台上的基本元素是粒子,例如原子,他们具有某些特性,首先一个是惯性,动则同方向一直动下去,除非有力;第二个基本元素就是力,第一类力是分子间原子间作用力,确定温度升高食盐溶解变快,另一为长程相互作用,是与距离平方成反比的变化平缓的作用力,称为万有引力.这些为我们所知,它是简单的,但为什么物体运动一旦开始就能保持,或者为什么存在一条万有引力定律,我们就不清楚了.粒子有哪些种类?在当时92种,按照各自的化学性质被赋予不同的名称.其次短程力是什么?为什么一个碳吸引一个而不是三个氧,相互作用的机制是万有引力吗,不,太弱了.关于电的两条规则 1.电荷产生电场 2.电荷在电场中会受到里的作用,例木塞于水.电磁波,频率越快,由场（电扰动）到波（无线电.FM.雷达.光）到粒子（_射线）第三章物理学与其他科学的关系（如果说某件事不是科学,这并不意味着其中有什么错误的地方,这只是意味着它不是科学而已.数学不是科学,它的正确性不是用实验来检验的;爱好不是科学）我们知道,精确预言某个化学反应中出现什么情况是十分困难的,然而,理论化学最深刻部分必定会归结到量子力学.与生物学.所有的物质都是由原子组成的,并且生命体所做的每一件事都可以从原子摆动和晃动中来理解.与天文学是的,此刻我是世界上唯一知道为什么她们会发光的人.孤独真理远比以往任何艺术家的想象更为奇妙!物理学的历史问题:这些定律是怎么变化而来的〝整个宇宙就存在一杯葡萄酒中.〞第四章能量守恒有一个事实,如果你愿意的话,也可以说一条定律,支配着至今我们所知道的一切自然现象,没有什么例外,这条定律称为能量守恒定律.淘气的丹尼斯只有当我们的公式包含了所有形式的能量时才能理解能量守恒.我想在这里讨论一下地球表面附近的重力势能的公式,与历史无关,这种推导方式只是为这堂课想出来的,也就是说一种推理思路.为的是要向你们说明一个值得注意的情况,从几个事实和严密的推理出发可以推断出很多有关大自然的知识.虚功原理,为了运用能量守恒的原理,我们用了很小的假想运动为了说明另一种形式的能量,我们来考虑一个单摆.E=mc2守恒定律,能量守恒定律,线动量守恒,角动量守恒;微妙的,与空间和时间有关电荷守恒定律,重子的守恒,轻子守恒定律;进行计数的意义上是简单的第五章时间与距离运动.很多人都喜欢把伽利略在350年前所做的工作看作是物理学的开端,在此之前对运动的研究是哲学上的事情,大部分的论据是由亚里士多德和其他希腊哲学家提出的,伽利略做实验,球沿着斜面滚下,对于时间的测量用脉搏.时间.时间的定义建立在某种明显是周期性的事件的重复性上.短的时间,伽利略断定只要一个摆的摆幅很小,则以相等的时间间隔来回摆动,即可划分出一个小时的几分之一.假如我们利用一个机械装置计点摆动次数,并且保持摆动进行下去,那么就得到我们祖先一代所用的那种摆钟.电学摆第六章几率〝我们这个世界的真正逻辑寓于几率的计算之中.〞 JG麦克斯韦,活到1_岁,明天下雨,明年发生地震,下一个_秒盖革计数器,下一个十年核战.这个世界是现实的,可逆过程只是最理想的状态绝对不可能实现,而唯有判断.几率的计算才是真正的生活;在理论物理无处可走的现在,实验就是判断选择了.信息information又是能够计算几率的最基础的条件,正如福尔摩斯小脑袋只是对信息的整理和判断,不过他有自己的独特而高效的思路.Head-Tail 帕斯卡三角形无规行走距离的平方来表示这种量度的进度第七章万有引力理论开普勒定律,基于第谷的星表.每个行星沿着一条称为椭圆的曲线绕太阳运行,而太阳处于椭圆的一个焦点.椭圆不仅仅是一个呈现为一个卵形的东西,而是一条非常独特的精确的曲线,两只平头钉,一束线和铅笔.开普勒三定律1.太阳,椭圆焦点2.等时等面卡文迪许称地球引力与相对论.依照牛顿的观点,引力效应是瞬间发生的,爱因斯坦证明我们不能发送比光更快的信号第八章运动人龟赛跑;速率第九章牛顿的动力学定律直线运动行星运动第十章动量守恒线性气垫相对论性动量,质量随速度而改变.在量子力学中,动量是另一回事,它不再是mv了.物体的速度的含义已难于确切定义,但是动量仍然存在.在量子力学中,差别在于当粒子表现为波时,动量就用每厘米的波数来量度,波数越大,动量就越大.第十一章矢量使用物理学中的所有概念需要具备一定的常识,它们不纯粹是数学的或抽象的概念. 物理定律的对称性,物理定律对于平移是对称的.人造卫星上摆钟根本不走第十二章力的特性任何简单的概念都是近似的.作为例子,考虑一个客体;什么是客体,哲学家这样说,嗯,就拿一张椅子来作为例子吧.那么椅子是什么.哪些原子属于油漆,哪些原子属于灰尘摩擦.从原子情况来看,相互接触的两个表面是不平整的,它们有很多接触点,在这些接触点上,原子好像粘接在一起,于是当我们拉动一个正在滑动的物体时,原子啪的忽然打开,随即发生振动.动力损耗的机理是当滑动体撞击突起部分时,突出部分发生形变,接着在两个物体之间产生波和原子运动,过了一会儿产生热.摩擦系数,公式分子力.这些力是原子之间的力,也是摩擦的根本起因.图中将两个原子之间的力作为两个原子之间的距离的函数.同时,还存在着不同的情况:例如在水分子中氧带有较多负电荷,所以负电荷在正电荷的平均位置不在同一点上,结果附近的另一个分子感受到比较大的力,这个力称为偶极-偶极力.然而,对许多系统来说,电荷平衡得非常好,特别是氧气,它是完全对称的.对于所有非极性分子（其中所有的电力被中和）,在较大距离上的作用力仍然是引力,而且与距离的7次方成反比,正是这个力使得我们不会落到地板下面去. 在一定距离形成固体.胡克定律基本力,场下面我们来讨论唯一剩下的基本力.我们把他们称作基本力是由于他们遵从的定律从根本上说是简单的.我们首先讨论电力.在分析比较基本的一类力时形成了一种有趣的.非常重要的概念.因为乍看起来,力比反平方定律所指出的要复杂得多,而这些定律仅当相互作用物体处于静止时才成立,所以就需要一种改进的方法来处理当物体开始以一种复杂的方式运动时所产生的非常复杂的力.经验表明,用所谓〝场〞的概念这种方法,对于分析这种类型的力是非常有用的.第十三章功与势能（上）能量守恒最简单的例子是一个垂直下落的物体,动能加势能总和为恒量,如何证明?动能的变化率拓展到更一般的情况首先讨论三维情况下一般的动能变化率现在我们来讲一讲单位第十四章（下）在学习任何一个与数学有关的技术性课题中,人们面临着弄懂并记住大量事实和概念的任务.可以〝证明〞存在着某些关系将这些事实和概念联系起来,人们容易把证明本身与它们之间所建立起来的关系混淆起来.很清楚,要学习和记住的要点是事实和概念之间的关系,而不是证明本身.在任何特定情况下,我们可以或者说〝能够证明〞某某是正确的,或者直接来证明它.几乎在所有情况中,我们所采用的那种特殊证明首先是为了能将它很快地和容易地写在黑板上或纸上,并且使它尽可能地清楚,结果看上去似乎这个证明很简单.当看到一个证明时,要记住的并不是证明本身,而是那些能够证明是正确的东西.一个作者在一门课程中所作的全部论证,并不是他从学习大学一年级物理时就记住的.完全相反,他只记得某某是正确的,而在说明如何去证明的时候,需要的话,他就自己想出一个证明方法.无论哪个真正学过一门课程的人,都应遵循类似的步骤去做,而死记证明是无用的.约束运动.固定的无摩擦约束运动保守力势和场第十五章狭义相对论第一次看出牛顿所阐明的运动方程存在一个谬误.并找到修正它的方法是在__年,这两件事都是爱因斯坦.牛顿第二定律如右:即使速度大到像绕地球运转的卫星,约5英里/秒,对质量修正只是_亿到30亿分之一.相对性原理是牛顿在他的运动定律的一个推论中首先提出的:〝封闭在一个给定空间中的物体,它们的运动彼此之间是同一的,无论这个空间是处于静止状态还是均匀地沿一直线向前运动.〞相对性原理在力学中已应用了很长一段时间,惠更斯应用它来求出弹子球碰撞的规则.在上一世纪中,由于对电.磁以及光等现象的研究,人们对于这条定理的兴趣更加浓厚了.许多人对这些现象所作的一系列精心研究,其结晶就是麦克斯韦方程组似乎并不遵循相对性原理.这就是说,如果我们用上式代入麦克斯韦方程组并对它进行变换,那么它们的形式不再保持相同;因此,在飞行的宇宙飞船中,光与电的现象应当与飞船静止时不同.这样我们就可以利用这些光现象来确定飞船的速度.麦克斯韦方程组的结论之一是,如果在电场中产生扰动,以至有光发射出来,那么这些电磁波在所有方向上均等地而且以相同的速度传播.声波的速度也与声源的运动无关.当物理方程在上述情况下的失效暴露出来时,第一个想法就是认为这个麻烦的根源必定在于当时只有_年之久的新的麦克斯韦方程组,于是作修正.洛伦兹变换.迈克尔孙-莫雷实验,以确定地球通过一种假设的〝以太〞时的绝对速度,而以太是被想象为充满整个空间的.发现空间收缩.篇三:>笔记加州理工学院费曼物理学讲义加州理工学院（California Institute of Technology, 缩写为Caltech） Physics is to math what se_ is to masturbation.（〝物理之于数学好比性爱之于手淫.〞）Physics is like se_: sure, it may give some practical results, but that s not why we do it.（〝物理跟性爱有相似之处:是的,它可能会产生某些实在的结果,但这并不是我们做它的初衷.〞）理查·费曼与〝草包族科学〞理查·费曼曾经在_74年,于加州理工学院的一场毕业典礼演说中叙述〝草包族科学〞（Cargo cult science）时提到:从过往的经验,我们学到了如何应付一些自我欺骗的情况.举个例子,密立根做了个油滴实验,量出了电子的带电量,得到一个今天我们知道是不大对的答案.他的资料有点偏差,因为他用了个不准确的空气粘滞系数数值.于是,如果你把在密立根之后.进行测量电子带电量所得到的资料整理一下,就会发现一些很有趣的现象:把这些资料跟时间画成坐标图,你会发现这个人得到的数值比密立根的数值大一点点,下一个人得到的资料又再大一点点,下一个又再大上一点点,最后,到了一个更大的数值才稳定下来.为什么他们没有在一开始就发现新数值应该较高?——这件事令许多相关的科学家惭愧脸红——因为显然很多人的做事方式是:当他们获得一个比密立根数值更高的结果时,他们以为一定哪里出了错,他们会拼命寻找,并且找到了实验有错误的原因.另一方面,当他们获得的结果跟密立根的相仿时,便不会那么用心去检讨.因此,他们排除了所谓相差太大的资料,不予考虑.我们现在已经很清楚那些伎俩了,因此再也不会犯同样的毛病.目录第1章原子的运动 .................................................................. (5)1-1引言 .................................................................. . (5)1-2物质是原子构成的 .................................................................. . (5)1-3原子过程 .................................................................. .. (5)1-3化学反应 .................................................................. .. (6)第2章基本物理 .................................................................. . (6)2-1引言 .................................................................. . (6)2-2 __年以前的物理学 .................................................................. .. (6)附录 .................................................................. ..................................................................... .. (7)理查德.费曼 .................................................................. (7)目录 .................................................................. .. (9)[编辑] 生平简介 .................................................................. (9)[编辑] 费曼的著作 .................................................................. ...................................... _[编辑] 传记 .................................................................. .................................................. _[编辑] 参考资料 .................................................................. .......................................... _[编辑] 外部链接 .................................................................. .......................................... _第1章原子的运动1-1引言问:为什么不能直截了当的列出基本定律,然后再就一切可能的情况说明定律的应用呢?答:第一,我们还不知道所有的基本定律:未知领域的边界在不断地扩展;第二,正确地叙述物理定律要涉及到一些非常陌生的概念,而叙述这些概念有要用到高等数学.因此即使为了知道词的含义,也需要大量的预备性的训练.大自然整体的每一部分始终只不过是对于整个真理——或者说,对于我们至今所了解的整个真理——的逼近.实际上,人们知道的每件事都只是某种近似,因为我们懂得,到目前为止,我们确实还不知道所有的定律,因此,我们之所以需要学习一些东西,正是为了要抛弃以前的谬见,或者更可能的是为了改正以前的谬见.科学的原则——或者简直可以成为科学的定义为:实验是一切知识的试金石.实验是科学〝真理〞的唯一鉴定者.如果一个物体的速率小于1_海里/秒,那么它的质量的变化不超过百万分之一.在这种近似情形下,〝质量是个常数,与速率无关.〞就是一条正确的定律.就哲学上而言,使用近似的定律是完全错误的.纵然质量的变化只是一点点,我们的整个世界图景也得改变.在每个阶段都值得去弄明白:我们现在所知道的是什么,它的正确性如何,它怎样适应其他各种事情,以及当我们进一步学习后它会有怎样的变化.1-2物质是原子构成的所有的物体都是用原子构成的——这些原子是一些小小的粒子,它们一直不停地运动着.当彼此略微离开时相互吸引,当彼此过于挤紧时又相互排斥.原子的半径约为1_2__?8厘米,_?8厘米现在称为1?如果把苹果放大到地球那么大,那么苹果中的原子就差不多有原来的苹果那么大.1-3原子过程。
四川省眉山市彭山区第一中学2024-2025学年高三上学期开学考试英语试题
四川省眉山市彭山区第一中学2024-2025学年高三上学期开学考试英语试题一、阅读理解There are tons of physics textbooks available around the world. Based on our web research, here are our top four picks with the introduction of physics in simple, practical language.Mechanics, Relativity, and ThermodynamicsThis book is a collection of online teachings by Professor R. Shankar. Shankar is one of the first to be involved in the innovative Open Yale Courses program. It is a perfect introduction to college-level physics. Students of chemistry, engineering, and AP Physics will find this book helpful.Physics for Students of Science and EngineeringThis book helps students to read scientific data, answer scientific questions, and identify fundamental concepts. The new and improved 10th edition features multi-media resources, and questions to test students’ understanding of each concept.The Feynman Lectures on PhysicsRichard Feynman is regarded as one of the greatest teachers of physics to walk the face of the earth. This book is a collection of Feynman’s lectures. In his words, these lectures all began as an experiment, which, in turn, formed the basis of this book.University Physics with Modern PhysicsThe book is recognized for teaching and applying principles of physics through a narrative (叙事的) method. To ensure a better understanding and ability to apply these concepts, worked examples are provided, giving students tools to develop problem-solving skills and conceptual understanding.1．What do the first two books have in common?A．They are improved editions.B．They are written by professors.C．They favor students of engineering.D．They feature multi-media resources.2．Which book best suits students who enjoy learning physics through practical examples?A．Mechanics, Relativity, and Thermodynamics.B．Physics for Students of Science and Engineering.C．The Feynman Lectures on Physics.D．University Physics with Modern Physics.3．Where is this text probably taken from?A．An online article.B．A research paper.C．A physics textbook.D．A science journal.Tech businessman Jared Isaacman, who made a fortune in tech and fighter jets, bought an entire flight and took three “everyday” people with him to space. He aimed to use the private trip to raise $200 million for St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, half coming from his own pocket.His crew included a St. Jude worker with direct ties to the activity, representing the activity’s pillar (核心) of Hope, a professor, and another person, representing the pillar of Generosity, chosen as part of a $200 million St. Jude fundraising program. All were invited to join in donating to reach the ambitious overall campaign goal in support of St. Jude’s current multi-billion dollar expansion to speed up research advances and save more children worldwide. Anyone donating to St. Jude would be entered into a random drawing for the “Generosity” seat.Isaacman has been “really interested in space” since he was in kindergarten. He dropped out of high school when he was 16, got a GED certificate and started a business in his parents’ basement that became the beginning of Shift4 Payments, a credit card processing company. He set a speed record flying around the world in 2009 while raising money for the Make-A-Wish program, and later established Draken International, the world’s largest private fleet (舰队) of fighter jets.Now he has realized his childhood dream-boarding a spaceship, launched in Florida and orbiting the Earth for three days in the history-making event. He called it an “epic (史诗般的) adventure”. “I truly want us to live in a world 50 or 100 years from now where people are jumping their rockets,” Isaacman said. “And if we’re going to live in that world, we’d better deal withchildhood cancer successfully along the way.”4．Why did Isaacman raise funds for St. Jude?A．To expand a fundraising programme.B．To perform an act of great generosity.C．To make his childhood dream come true.D．To encourage St. Jude’s life-saving work. 5．What is mainly talked about in paragraph 3?A．The commercial skills of Isaacman.B．The growth experience of Isaacman.C．The reason for Isaacman’s good deeds.D．The beginning of Isaacman’s business. 6．What can be learned about the “epic adventure”?A．It was a multi-day journey.B．It will be common in the future.C．It involved three civilians in total.D．It is a symbol of hope for a better life. 7．What message is conveyed in Isaacman’s story?A．No sweet without sweat.B．Many hands make light work.C．Nothing is impossible to a willing heart.D．A penny saved is a penny earned.Is diet soda safe? If you’re concerned about sugar, diet products seem a better option, sweet and not so bad for you. Wrong! Drinking diet soda regularly can increase your risk of diseases. Despite the fact that we call these drinks “diet”, the artificial sweeteners they contain are linked to weight gain, not loss.There’s the latest evidence that they increase the risk of depression, which comes from a new analysis by researchers at Harvard Medical School. The team drew upon a data set of nearly 32,000 female nurses, ages 42 to 62 when the study began. It turned out that the nurses who consumed the most diet drinks had a 37 percent higher chance of depression, compared to those who drank the least or none.Diet soda also increases your risk of stroke (中风), according to a separate meta-analysis that included 72 studies. Looking for the causes behind the stroke, researchers took various blood measurements when 12 healthy volunteers in their 20s drank water, soda, or diet soda. The result showed that both sodas slowed the flow of blood within the brain. Though the effect didn’t seem sufficient to cause stroke, slower blood flow could have accumulating effects.Other researchers have found that diet soda increases the risk of dementia (痴呆), from data from nearly 178,000 volunteers tracked over an average of nine years. That’s not a big surprise.An earlier study of about 4,300 volunteers concluded that drinking diet soda every day was tied to three times the risk of dementia over the following decade. The researchers looked at brain scans and the results of mental function assessments. A daily diet soda was linked to smaller brains and aggravates long-term memory, two risk factors for dementia.Avoiding depression, stroke, and dementia is an obvious goal for whoever desires to age healthily. So you know what to do.8．How does the author present his point of view?A．By analyzing causes.B．By giving opinions.C．By quoting specialists.D．By presenting research.9．What effect might diet soda have on people?A．Slight weight loss.B．Increased blood flow.C．Raised depression risk.D．Severe mental decline.10．Which can best replace the underlined word “aggravates” in paragraph 4?A．Deletes.B．Worsens.C．Motivates.D．Stimulates. 11．What might the author advise us to do?A．Quit consuming diet sodas.B．Limit the daily sugar intake.C．Set achievable health goals.D．Follow fixed aging process.Recent developments in robotics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning have brought us in the eye of the storm of a new automation age. About half of the work carried out by people was likely to be automated by 2055 with adaption to technology, a McKinsey Global Institute report predicted.Automation can enable businesses to improve performance by reducing errors and improving quality and speed, and in some cases achieving outcomes that go beyond human capabilities. At a time of weak productivity growth worldwide, automation technologies can provide the much-needed promotion of economic growth, according to the report. Automation could raise productivity growth globally by 0.8 percent to 1.4 percent. At a global level, technically automated activities involved 1.1 billion employees and 11.9 trillion U.S. dollars in wages, the report said.The report also showed that activities most influenced by automation were physical ones inhighly structured and predictable environments, as well as data collection and processing. In the United States, these activities make up 51 percent of activities in the economy, accounting for almost 2.7 trillion dollars in wages. They are most common in production, accommodation and food service, and the retail (零售) trade. And it’s not just low-skill, low-wage work that is likely to be influenced by automation; middle-skill and high-paying, high-skill occupations, too, have a degree of automation potential.The robots and computers not only can perform a range of routine physical work activities better and more cheaply than humans, but are also increasingly capable of accomplishing activities that require cognitive (认知的) capabilities, such as feeling emotions or driving.While much of the current debate about automation has focused on the potential that many people may be replaced and therefore lose their financial resources, the analysis shows that humans will still be needed: The total productivity gains will only come about if people work alongside machines.12．What is the report mainly about?A．Comparisons of robots with humans.B．Analysis of automation’s potential in economy.C．Prediction of the unemployment problem.D．Explanations of the concept of the automation age.13．What might happen in 2055 according to the text?A．Automation will cause weak productivity growth.B．Automation will reduce employees’ wages.C．Activities like data collection and processing will disappear.D．Activities involve feeling emotions can be performed by robots.14．How does the author feel about human workers?A．Worried.B．Mixed.C．Optimistic.D．Doubtful.15．Which can be a suitable title for the text?A．Automation: A challenge to all?B．Automation: Where to go from here?C．Automation: Who is the eventual winner?D．Automation: A future replacement for humans?Sustainable travel is now one of the fastest-growing movements. Its goal is to meet the needs of the tourism industry without harming natural and cultural environments. 16 Here are some concrete ways to reduce your environmental impact as a traveler.17 Travel doesn’t have to be about going somewhere far away. It’s the art of exploration, discovery and getting out of your comfort zone, all of which can just as well be nearby. Find somewhere nearby you haven’t been, get in your car, and go for a visit. You never know what you’ll come across.Make greener transportation choices. After walking, public transportation is the next best way to explore new destinations. 18 When it comes to longer distances, buses and trains are your best way of getting around, both of which can be quite an experience in and of itself.Avoid over-visited destinations. If you can, avoid places with over-tourism. You’ll find fewer crowds and lower prices, and you also won’t be putting as much pressure on local communities struggling to keep up. And, from a personal-enjoyment point of view, who wants to deal with crowds or long lines? No one. 19Take a nature-related trip. If you want to better understand and appreciate the natural world, try taking a trip with the single purpose of connecting with nature. 20 I promise that when you come home, you’ll have a new viewpoint on why we’re all so focused on being environmentally friendly these days.A．Stay close to home.B．Find an ideal place to explore.C．Sustainable travel can be useful to support communities.D．Not only is it better for the environment, but it’s cheaper as well.E．Get in touch with the world in a way that sitting at home doesn’t.F．If not managed properly, tourism can have incredibly negative impacts.G．Visiting less-visited destinations can be much more enjoyable and rewarding.二、完形填空Last Friday, I headed to work on a crowded subway. Eyes glued to my 21 , I surfed the Internet. As the doors closed, I heard the overhead voice. I generally 22 the repeated announcements. But this one was 23 .“Good morning,” said an energetic voice. It was such a nice voice, with such a nice 24 , that I looked up, catching the eye of a fellow 25 . “Paddington Station will be your next stop, your first opportunity to change for the two or three trains. It’s a new day, a new year, and a time for second chances. Please 26 your steps as you leave the train!”I smiled, and the woman whose eyes I’d caught smiled, too. We 27 . Then we did the thing that nobody ever does on a subway — we 28 to each other. Other passengers smiled, too. Our smiles lasted as the train reached Paddington Station. Together, we 29 to the very train that we might have the opportunity to 30 in limited time. On this train, I felt relieved and smiled. Then I got off at my stop and started my day. I felt so good in the office. That nice feeling 31 all day.What happened? Could it be that an unusually 32 announcement and small talks with a 33 changed my mood? Yes, I believed so. Maybe I enjoyed the smile, the laugh, and the 34 philosophy. I realized that just saying “hello” might make you feel unexpectedly good. It’s the 35 , though, that makes me feel most important.21．A．seat B．phone C．book D．exit 22．A．forget B．doubt C．mistake D．ignore 23．A．different B．similar C．terrible D．funny 24．A．greet B．sense C．tone D．note 25．A．director B．passenger C．worker D．guide 26．A．take out B．speed up C．arrange for D．watch out for 27．A．laughed B．stopped C．refused D．wondered 28．A．referred B．objected C．spoke D．turned 29．A．walked B．rushed C．moved D．headed 30．A．miss B．repair C．control D．catch 31．A．ended B．began C．lasted D．changed 32．A．optimistic B．meaningful C．amusing D．powerful33．A．friend B．colleague C．stranger D．broadcaster 34．A．irregular B．improper C．illogical D．unexpected 35．A．transportation B．connection C．direction D．invitation三、语法填空阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。
费恩曼物理学讲义第二卷 英文版
费恩曼物理学讲义第二卷英文版全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume 2, English version, provides a comprehensive overview of advanced topics in physics. Richard Feynman, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, delivers a series of lectures that cover a wide range of subjects, including electrostatics, magnetism, optics, and quantum mechanics.In the second volume of this iconic series, Feynman delves into the fascinating world of electromagnetism. He starts by exploring the basics of electrostatics, discussing concepts such as electric charge, Coulomb's law, and electric field. He then moves on to magnetism, detailing the relationship between magnetic fields and electric currents.One of the highlights of Volume 2 is Feynman's explanation of Maxwell's equations, which describe the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. Feynman breaks down these equations in a clear and accessible manner, making them easier to understand for readers with varying levels of expertise.In addition to electromagnetism, Feynman also covers topics such as optics and quantum mechanics in Volume 2. He discusses the principles of light, reflection, refraction, and interference, providing insight into the nature of electromagnetic waves.Furthermore, Feynman delves into the revolutionary field of quantum mechanics, exploring concepts such as wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and quantum entanglement. His explanations are both informative and engaging, shedding light on the complex and often puzzling world of quantum physics.Overall, the Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume 2, English version, offers a comprehensive and insightful exploration of advanced physics topics. Richard Feynman's clear and engaging teaching style makes complex concepts more accessible, providing readers with a deeper understanding of the fundamental principles that govern the universe. Whether you are a student, a scientist, or a physics enthusiast, this volume is sure to inspire and enlighten.篇2Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume 2: The New Millennium EditionThe Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume 2, part of the celebrated series by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard P. Feynman, continues to be a cornerstone of physics education. Originally published in the 1960s, the series has been continuously revised and updated to reflect advances in physics and technology. The New Millennium Edition of Volume 2 is the latest update, offering readers a comprehensive and accessible introduction to key concepts in electromagnetism and matter.The second volume of the Feynman Lectures covers a wide range of topics, from electrostatics and magnetism to electromagnetic waves and optics. Feynman's unique teaching style, characterized by his clarity, humor, and enthusiasm, makes complex concepts easy to understand and engaging to learn. The New Millennium Edition features updated content, enhanced illustrations, and new exercises to help readers deepen their understanding and apply their knowledge.One of the highlights of Volume 2 is Feynman's discussion of the nature of electricity and magnetism, as well as the electromagnetic interaction between charged particles. Through thought experiments and visual aids, Feynman guides readersthrough the fundamental principles of electromagnetism, showing how these forces govern the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic levels. The book also delves into the properties of light and the wave-particle duality of electromagnetic radiation, shedding light on the mysteries of optics and quantum mechanics.In addition to its scientific content, Volume 2 of the Feynman Lectures also offers insight into Feynman's own life and experiences as a physicist. His anecdotes, anecdotes, and personal reflections bring a human touch to the subject, making physics more relatable and inspiring to students and scholars alike. Furthermore, the book includes exercises and problems that challenge readers to think critically and apply their knowledge in practical contexts, fostering a deeper appreciation for the beauty and complexity of physics.Overall, the New Millennium Edition of Volume 2 of the Feynman Lectures on Physics is a must-read for anyone interested in delving into the wonders of electromagnetism and matter. Whether you are a student, a teacher, or a curious mind seeking to explore the mysteries of the physical world, this book will spark your imagination and deepen your understanding of the fundamental laws that govern the universe. Feynman'stimeless wisdom and insight continue to inspire and educate generations of physicists, making his lectures a timeless classic in the field of physics.篇3The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume II: Advanced Topics in Physics is the second volume in a series of textbooks based on the lectures given by physicist Richard Feynman at the California Institute of Technology in the early 1960s. This volume covers more advanced topics in physics and is considered to be a classic in the field.In Volume II, Feynman delves into topics such as electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, relativity, and statistical mechanics. He presents these topics in a clear and engaging manner, making them accessible to students at all levels. The book is filled with Feynman's unique insights and humor, making it a pleasure to read.One of the key themes of Volume II is the unification of physical theories. Feynman emphasizes the importance of understanding the connections between seemingly disparate areas of physics, such as how electromagnetism and quantummechanics are related. He also discusses the role of symmetry in physics and how it can be used to simplify complex problems.Another important aspect of Volume II is Feynman's emphasis on the importance of experimental evidence in physics. He often discusses how experimental results have shaped our understanding of the physical world, and how theories must be tested against experimental data.Overall, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume II is a must-read for anyone interested in physics. It is a masterful presentation of advanced topics in physics by one of the greatest physics teachers of all time. Whether you are a student, a teacher, or just someone interested in learning more about the beauty and complexity of the physical world, this book is sure to delight and enlighten you.。
费曼物理学讲义pdf英文版
费曼物理学讲义pdf英文版Feynman Lectures on Physics PDF English VersionThe Feynman Lectures on Physics are a series of lectures delivered by the renowned physicist Richard Feynman to undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in the early 1960s. These lectures have become a classic in the field of physics and are widely regarded as one of the most comprehensive and insightful introductions to the subject.The lectures cover a wide range of topics in classical and modern physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, and thermodynamics. Feynman's unique teaching style, characterized by his ability to explain complex concepts in a clear and engaging manner, has made these lectures a favorite among students and physicists alike.One of the key features of the Feynman Lectures on Physics is the way in which Feynman presents the material. Rather than simply reciting formulas and equations, Feynman takes a more conceptual approach, emphasizing the underlying principles and the physical intuition behind the various phenomena. This approach not onlyhelps students understand the material more deeply but also encourages them to think critically and creatively about the subject matter.Another notable aspect of the Feynman Lectures is the way in which Feynman integrates his own research and insights into the lectures. Throughout the series, Feynman shares his personal experiences and perspectives on the development of physics, providing students with a unique and invaluable perspective on the field.The Feynman Lectures on Physics have had a profound impact on the way physics is taught and understood around the world. Many universities and colleges have adopted the lectures as a core part of their undergraduate physics curriculum, and the books have been translated into numerous languages, making them accessible to students and researchers worldwide.One of the key reasons for the enduring popularity of the Feynman Lectures is the way in which Feynman's approach to physics has inspired and influenced generations of scientists. Feynman's emphasis on physical intuition and his ability to make complex concepts accessible have inspired many students to pursue careers in physics and have helped to shape the way in which the field is understood and approached.In addition to the lectures themselves, the Feynman Lectures on Physics have also spawned a number of related resources and materials. These include supplementary textbooks, study guides, and multimedia resources that help students to better understand and engage with the material.Overall, the Feynman Lectures on Physics are a testament to the power of clear and engaging teaching, and to the enduring importance of physics as a field of study. Whether you are a student just starting to explore the world of physics or an experienced researcher looking to deepen your understanding of the subject, the Feynman Lectures on Physics are sure to provide you with a wealth of insight and inspiration.。
国外物理专业教材
国外物理专业教材国外物理专业教材有很多，下面是一些常见的物理专业教材：1. 《Feynman’s Thesis》：Richard Feynman的毕业论文，提出了一个全新的理论，对量子电动力学的发展产生了深远影响。
2. 《The Feynman Lectures on Physics》：Richard Feynman的经典物理课程，包含了他对物理学的深入理解。
3. 《Introduction to Quantum Mechanics》：David Griffiths的量子力学教材，用易于理解的方式解释了量子力学的原理和应用。
4. 《Classical Mechanics: Theoretical, Experimental, and Computational》：Peter R. Cromwell等人的经典力学教材，全面介绍了经典力学的基本理论和应用。
5. 《Quantum Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum》：Leonard Susskind的量子力学教材，为初学者提供了掌握量子力学的必要知识。
6. 《Modern Classical Physics》：David J. Griffiths和Walter E. Schroeder的经典物理学教材，涵盖了经典力学、电磁学、光学和相对论等领域的最新进展。
7. 《Introduction to Special Relativity》：Albert Einstein的特殊相对论的经典论文，是深入理解相对论的基础。
8. 《The Theoretical Minimum for Quantum Mechanics》：该教材是针对初学者的量子力学教程，提供了一个清晰的量子力学框架。
9. 《Introduction to the Theory of Atomic Spectra》：这本教材详细介绍了原子光谱的理论和实验，为深入理解原子光谱提供了基础。
费曼物理学讲义英文
费曼物理学讲义英文
费曼物理学讲义的英文是《The Feynman Lectures on Physics》。
请注意，这些讲义已被翻译成多种语言，包括中文，英文，德文，法文等。
不同语言的版本可能会有不同的封面设计。
理查德·菲利普斯·费曼（Richard Phillips Feynman），美国物理学家。
1939年，费曼毕业于麻省理工学院（MIT），1942年6月获得美国普林斯顿大学理学博士学位，同年与朱迪丝·克里斯蒂结婚。
1942年，到布朗大学任教。
1943年进入普林斯顿大学高级研究所。
1948年，他参与曼哈顿计划，设计原子弹。
1965年，费曼因在量子电动力学方面的贡献获得诺贝尔物理
学奖。
1988年2月15日，费曼在洛杉矶与世长辞，享年69岁。
《费曼物理学讲义》是理查德·费曼主讲的一套物理学入门课程，共分为三
卷（第一卷：物理学的型态；第二卷：量子力学与单电子；第三卷：量子力学与基本粒子），由台湾天下文化出版社分别于1983年、1985年、1987年出版发行。
费恩曼的物理学讲义第一卷
费恩曼的物理学讲义第一卷
费恩曼的物理学讲义是一系列物理学教材，由美国物理学家理
查德·费曼（Richard Feynman）编写。
其中，第一卷是《费恩曼物
理学讲义第一卷，力学》（The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume 1: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat）。
这本书主要涵盖了力学、辐射和热学等内容。
费恩曼以其独特
的教学风格和生动的讲解方式，将复杂的物理概念解释得浅显易懂，深受学生和物理爱好者的喜爱。
在《费恩曼物理学讲义第一卷，力学》中，费恩曼首先介绍了
物理学的基本原理和方法，然后详细探讨了力、运动、动量、能量、引力、静力学、动力学等力学的基本概念和定律。
同时，他还涉及
了流体力学、弹性力学和振动等内容。
费恩曼在书中注重培养读者的物理直觉和思维方式，通过丰富
的例子和实验来帮助读者理解物理学的基本原理。
他还引入了一些
历史背景和趣闻轶事，使得内容更加生动有趣。
这本教材对于物理学学习者来说是一本非常重要的参考书。
它
不仅可以帮助初学者建立坚实的物理基础，还可以帮助高级学习者深入理解和应用物理学的各个领域。
总之，费恩曼的物理学讲义第一卷是一本涵盖力学、辐射和热学等内容的经典物理学教材。
它以其独特的教学风格和深入浅出的讲解，帮助读者全面理解物理学的基本原理和概念。
无论是对于学生还是物理爱好者，这本书都是一本不可或缺的参考书。
费曼的学习技巧（theFeynmantechnique）
费曼的学习技巧（theFeynmantechnique）Richard Feynman 的学习方法：学一样新东西，然后用简单的语言解释给小孩子听。
如果不能解释清楚，回头再学一次，一直到能够简单的解释清楚为止。
费曼学习法分为四个步骤：1.研究/学习一项新的主题2.教别人。
例如小孩子，最主要是要最浅显普通的词汇，不要用任何专业术语。
3.找出别人不懂的地方，然后重新回头学习。
4.精炼简化，确定已经没有任何借来的词汇与行话。
两种知识这个方法的基础，来自于对于知识的理解。
知识有两种，只是通常我们都会学到比较差的那一种。
一种知识只是学到词汇与名称，另一种知识是内化到自己的知识架构中。
在教别人的时候，要让什么基础都没有的人听得懂的时候，必须把学到的知识“内化”成为自己的知识架构，才能用不同的方式教给不同的人。
先不论这个内化的知识架构是对的或错的，至少是真正的知识架构，而不只是在词汇表面上的堆叠。
我自己是非常认同 Michael Polanyi 在个人知识这本书中提出的主张，认为所有的知识都是个人与内隐的。
而外在的只是文字语言符号资讯资料。
如果只记住了外在的部分，而无法内化成为自己的知识，自然没有办法灵活的运用。
所以有时候听到或看到各种热门词汇与术语乱飞的状况，大多都是没有这方面知识的人做出来的事情。
关键在回头“教学相长”是这个学习法的特色。
但要做好的关键不在于教得更多、教得更好。
而在于第三步的“回头搞清楚”。
在第二步教学过程中，所遇到的问题或窒碍，都可能是教的人漏掉了什么重要的东西，或是因为理解不够透彻，才会无法解释清楚，或无法精炼出最重要的概念。
态度上，是抱着“别人学不会听不懂，一定是教的人学艺不精”，然后才能在这个过程中，找出这些问题，再重新学一次。
重新学过之后，盖上书，再模拟一次教学的过程，是否可以解释得更清楚？精炼得更好？。
费恩曼中学物理学
Feynman 讲义211章1. Molecular dipolesJust describe a qualitative analysis:2. Electronic polarization: PS:原子极化率……amplitudeWhen the…….dipole moment p……..Polarization per unit量子力学中进行了一定的修正：由实验给出3. Polar molecules; Orientation Polarization:……..居里定律可知与温度T成反比，而与分子数密度成正比。
其中与的关系可以从极化时，极化产生的分布与有关，极化产生的转矩也与p有关，因此整体与成正比。
注意这是极性分子的取向极化，与电子的位移极化不一样的是分子的惯性大。
在变化的电磁场中，对电介质的贡献较少。
4. Electric fields in cavities of a dielectric liquid此小节提供了一种全新的物理视角，让人们从分割，填补的观点去思考问题。
让我们理解，物理世界是符合叠加原理的进程的。
perpendicular to the dielectricsphere12-1.The same Equation have same solution 相同的数学方程有相同的解个人学习12-2.The flow of heat ;a point source near an infinite plane boundary 热流个人学习12-3.The stretched membrane 绷紧的膜12-4.The diffusion of neutrons ;a uniform spherical source in a homogeneous medium 中子的扩散12-5.Irrotational fluid flow ;the flow past a sphere 无旋的理想流体情形12-6.Illumination ;the uniform lighting of a plane 光通量；平面均匀布光12-7.The “underlying unity ”of nature自然界的统一性费恩曼物理学课堂讨论：(1)极化场的修正，也就是诱导极化的场是空腔的场还是全部空间的场？(2)温度变化引起的介电常数的变化，其效应为何在临界温度处谈论到了铁电与反铁电？基本的统一性，王青老师说，费恩曼站在他们时代的角度看，那时的统一性远没有今天强烈！今天的所有物理方程都可以由微观的一个综合的方程，泊松方程来表达。
国外物理教材
国外物理教材
以下是一些有关国外的物理教材的推荐：
1. "University Physics"作者：Young和Freedman（美国）
这是一本经典的大学物理教材，以其清晰和详细的解释而闻名。
它涵盖了力学，热力学，电磁学和光学等主题。
2. "The Feynman Lectures on Physics"作者：Richard P. Feynman （美国）
这是一套非常受欢迎的物理教材，以其深入浅出的风格著称。
作者通过生动的讲述和有趣的故事来解释复杂的物理概念。
3. "Concepts of Physics" 作者：H.C. Verma（印度）
这是一本广泛被印度大学采用的物理教材，以其简洁而又全
面的内容而受到赞誉。
它涵盖了力学，热力学，电磁学和现代物理学等主题。
4. "Fundamentals of Physics" 作者：Halliday、Resnick和
Walker（美国）
这本教材在物理教育领域有着广泛的影响力。
它以清晰的解
释和广泛的练习问题闻名，适用于初级和高级物理课程。
5. "Introduction to Electrodynamics" 作者：David J. Griffiths
（美国）
这是一本针对电磁学领域的教材，以其简洁而又深入的内容
和注重物理直觉的解释而受到赞誉。
以上是一些国外的物理教材推荐，它们在教学内容和风格上各有特色，读者可以根据自己的学习需求选择适合自己的教材。
hellmann—feynman定理及其应用
hellmann—feynman定理及其应用Hellmann—Feynman定理及其应用
Hellmann—Feynman定理，是一种由美国物理学家Richard Phillips Feynman 提出来的量子力学定理。
它宣称可以用电子的动能来计算分子的绑定能，可以用来求解绑定结构。
Hellmann—Feynman定理主要用于了解在给定大致结构的条件下分子的可用绑定能，以及相应的外力变量，而不必去计算各个分子或原子间交互作用及密度分布。
由于Hellmann—Feynman定理中假设了分子为单一自由张量，因此，在求解分子复杂结构时，往往会在细节上有所缺失或出错。
为了解决这一问题，经典量子化学把Hellmann—Feynman定理作为外力分解的一个特例，这就是所谓的Hellmann—Feynman 外力分解定理，即在求解分子结构时，要将它分解为几部分，再分别使用Hellmann—Feynman定理求解，以及各部分之间的势能。
以此可以更好地求解分子结构。
Hellmann—Feynman定理不仅在物理化学中有广泛应用，同时也在计算机科学和智能技术研究中被广泛应用，被称之为“正则化技巧”。
它能用来降低模型的复杂度，避免性能瓶颈，辅助模型的优化，帮助进行一些简单的反问题求解等等。
Hellmann—Feynman定理也可以被用于串行科学应用程序的并行化(parallelization)，提高计算效率，从而加快量子力学模拟的进展速度。
总之，Hellmann—Feynman定理在物理化学、计算机科学和智能技术等多个领域有着重要应用，能够解决许多实际中遇到的分子结构求解问题，并有助于改善众多应用程序的效率。
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The Feynman: Lectures on Physics Volume I
I.Atoms in Motion
II.Basic Physics
III.The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences
IV.Conservation of Energy
V.Time and Distance
VI.Probability
VII.The Theory of Gravitation
VIII.Motion
IX.Newton’s Laws of Dynamics
X.Conservation of Momentum
XI.Vectors
XII.Characteristics of Force
XIII.Work and Potential Energy
XIV.Work and Potential Energy (Conclusion)
XV.The Special Theory of Relativity
XVI.Relativistic Energy and Momentum
XVII.Space-Time
XVIII.Rotation in Two Dimensions
XIX.Center of Mass; Moment of Inertia
XX.Rotation in Space
XXI.The Harmonic Oscillator
XXII.Algebra
XXIII.Resonance
XXIV.Transients
XXV.Linear Systems and Review
XXVI.Optics: The Principle of Least Time
XXVII.Geometrical Optics
XXVIII.Electromagnetic Radiation
XXIX.Interference
XXX.Diffraction
XXXI.The Origin of the Refractive Index
XXXII.Radiation Damping. Light Scattering
XXXIII.Polarization
XXXIV.Relativistic Effects in Radiation
XXXV.Color Vision
XXXVI.Mechanisms of Seeing
XXXVII.Quantum Behavior
XXXVIII.The Relation of Wave and Particle Viewpoints XXXIX.The Kinetic Theory of Gases
XL.The Principles of Statistical Mechanics
XLI.The Brownian Movement
XLII.Applications of Kinetic Theory
XLIII.Diffusion
XLIV.The Laws of Thermodynamics
XLV.Illustrations of Thermodynamics
XLVI.Ratchet and Pawl
XLVII.Sound. The Wave Equation
XLVIII.Beats
XLIX.Modes
L.Harmonics
LI.Waves
LII.Symmetry in Physical Laws
Volume II
I.Electromagnetism
II.Differential Calculus of Vector Fields
III.Vector Integral Calculus
IV.Electrostatics
V.Application of Gauss’ Law
VI.The Electric Field in Various Circumstances
VII.The Electric Field in Various Circumstances (Continued)
VIII.Electrostatic Energy
IX.Electricity in the Atmosphere
X.Dielectrics
XI.Inside Dielectrics
XII.Electrostatic Analogs
XIII.Magnetostatics
XIV.The Magnetic Field in Various Situations
XV.The Vector Potential
XVI.Induced Currents
XVII.The Laws of Induction
XVIII.The Maxwell Equations
XIX.The Principle of Least Action
XX.Solutions of Maxwell’s Equation in Free Space
XXI.Solutions of Maxwell’s Equations Wi th Currents and Charges XXII.AC Circuits
XXIII.Cavity Resonators
XXIV.Waveguides
XXV.Electrodynamics in Relativistic Notation
XXVI.Lorentz Transformations of the Fields
XXVII.Field Energy and Field Momentum
XXVIII.Electromagnetic Mass
XXIX.The Motion of Charges in Electric and Magnetic Fields
XXX.The Internal Geometry of Crystals
XXXI.Tensors
XXXII.Refractive Index of Dense Materials
XXXIII.Reflection from Surfaces
XXXIV.The Magnetism of Matter
XXXV.Paramagnetism and Magnetic Resonance
XXXVI.Ferromagnetism
XXXVII.Magnetic Materials
XXXVIII.Elasticity
XXXIX.Elastic Materials
XL.The Flow of Dry Water
XLI.The Flow of Wet Water
XLII.Curved Space
Volume III
I.Quantum Behavior
II.The Relation of Wave and Particle Viewpoints
III.Probability Amplitudes
IV.Identical Particles
V.Spin One
VI.Spin One-Half
VII.The Dependence of Amplitudes on Time
VIII.The Hamiltonian Matrix
IX.The Ammonia Maser
X.Other Two-State Systems
XI.More Two-State Systems
XII.The Hyperfine Splitting in Hydrogen
XIII.Propagation in a Crystal Lattice
XIV.Semiconductors
XV.The Independent Particle Approximation
XVI.The Dependence of Amplitudes on Position
XVII.Symmetry and Conservation Laws
XVIII.Angular Momentum
XIX.The Hydrogen Atom and The Periodic Table
XX.Operators
XXI.The Schrödinger Equation in a Classical Context: A Seminar on Superconductivity。