beckhoff资料笔记
(NEW)克鲁格曼《微观经济学》(第2版)笔记和课后习题详解
第10章 理性消费者 10.1 复习笔记 10.2 课后习题详解
第11章 消费者偏好与选择 11.1 复习笔记 11.2 课后习题详解
第6部分 生产决策 第12章 供给曲线的背后：投入与成本 12.1 复习笔记 12.2 课后习题详解 第13章 完全竞争与供给曲线 13.1 复习笔记 13.2 课后习题详解
当试图预测一个人在经济环境中如何行动时，可以断定，他将寻找机会 来使自己的境况变得更好。而且，人们将继续寻找这些机会直到没有机 会可寻。也就是说，人们对机会的寻找会一直延续到所有的机会被充分 利用。
人们寻找机会改善自己福利的原则是经济学家们预测个人所有行为的基 础。当可利用的机会提供给那些改变行为的人的回报发生变化，我们说 人们面临着新的激励（incentives）。
“你下一小时做什么”，“你下一单位支出做什么”等诸如此类的决策就是 边际决策（marginal decisions）。它们涉及在边际上进行权衡取舍：比 较某种行为增加或减少一小部分的成本和得益。对这种决策的研究就是 边际分析（marginal analysis）。
4．人们通常会去寻找机会来改善自己的处境
b．看一场电影的机会成本是不能为应付一场考试而学习，很可能会因 此而获得较低的分数，并且放弃较高分数所能带来的一切。
c．乘公共汽车的机会成本是放弃了驾驶汽车的便利。包括：乘坐公共 汽车可能需要从汽车站步行至目的地，速度较慢；如果时间是非常昂贵 的，那么机会成本也将会非常高。
3 莉莎需要为下一门经济学课购买一本教科书。学校书店的价格是65 美元，一家网上书店的价格是55美元，还有一家为57美元，所有价格中 都包含销售税。下表中是在线订购典型的邮寄方式和收费：
2．经济的总支出有时不等于经济的生产能力
(完整版)克鲁格曼国际经济学第十版重点笔记
《国际经济学》（第10版）保罗·R·克鲁格曼重点笔记第三章劳动生产率与比较优势：李嘉图模型1.机会成本：利用一定资源或时间生产一种商品时，而失去的利用这些资源生产其他最佳替代品的机会。
2.比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本（用其他产品来衡量）低于在其他国家生产该种产品的机会成本，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就具有比较优势。
比较优势和国际贸易的基本原理：如果每个国家都出口本国具有比较优势的商品，则两国之间的贸易能使两国都受益。
英国经济学家大卫·李嘉图提出的国际贸易模型。
他指出，国际劳动生产率的不同是国际贸易的唯一决定因素。
该理论被称为李嘉图模型。
3.单一要素经济单位产品劳动投入（a L）：生产率的倒数，用来表示劳动生产率。
生产可能性边界（PPF）：一个国家的资源是有限的，它所能生产的产品也是有限的，因此就存在着产品替代的问题：多生产一种产品就意味着要牺牲另一种产品的产量。
一个经济体的生产可能性边界（PPF）显示了其固定数量资源所能生产的商品的最大数量。
本国资源对产出的限制：a LC Q C + a LW Q W≤ L（斜率的绝对值等于横轴商品的机会成本）Q W = L/a LW– (a LC /a LW )Q C，k= - a LC /a LW =奶酪的机会成本相对价格与供给简化模型中，劳动是唯一的生产要素，奶酪和葡萄酒的供给是由劳动力的流向决定的，而劳动力总会流向工资比较高的部门。
单一要素模型中不存在利润，奶酪部门每小时的工资率等于一个工人在1小时内创造的价值P C/a LC，葡萄酒部门每小时的工资率等于P W/a LW。
当P C /P W > a LC /a LW时，奶酪部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产奶酪；当P C /P W < a LC /a LW时，葡萄酒部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产葡萄酒；当P C /P W = a LC /a LW 时，该国会生产奶酪和葡萄酒两种产品。
西方心理学史郭本禹第三版重点笔记
西方心理学史郭本禹第三版重点笔记西方心理学史可谓是一部充满传奇色彩的故事，从古老的哲学思考，到现代心理学的飞速发展，真是让人目不暇接。
要说西方心理学的开端，那得追溯到古希腊，那个时候哲学家们就像今天的网红一样，讨论着人的思想、行为，还有灵魂。
苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德，他们的理论就像是心理学的种子，埋在历史的土壤里，等待着后来的学者去发掘、去灌溉。
苏格拉底的“认识你自己”就像是一剂强心针，让人们开始关注内心的声音，想要更深刻地了解自己。
再说到中世纪，那可是个奇妙的时期，宗教的影子笼罩着一切。
教会的力量大得不得了，心理学几乎被压制得无处可去。
可即便如此，有些思想家还是在暗流中奋发图强，试图把人的理智和情感从宗教的束缚中解放出来。
到了文艺复兴，真是天翻地覆，艺术、科学全面复苏，人们对人的思维、情感又开始重新审视，心理学也趁势而上，走向了更宽广的天地。
进入18世纪，科学的光芒照耀着每个角落，心理学也开始步入正轨。
这个时候，像洛克这样的哲学家，把心理学的研究带到了新的高度。
洛克的“白板理论”告诉我们，人的心灵就像一块空白的画布，后天的经历和环境会在上面留下各种印记。
可见，心理学不仅仅是关于内心的探索，也是与社会和环境息息相关的。
到了19世纪，心理学终于从哲学的怀抱中走了出来，变得更加独立。
这个时候，威廉·詹姆斯和弗洛伊德就像是两位巨星，给心理学注入了新的活力。
詹姆斯的“功能主义”强调人的意识如何帮助我们适应环境，简直是把心理学带到了实用的层面。
而弗洛伊德则是一个充满争议的人物，他的无意识理论和梦的解析就像是打开了潘多拉的盒子，让人们开始关注那些深藏在心底的秘密。
哎，心里那些不堪的往事，真是让人又爱又恨。
再后来，行为主义的崛起则是另一个大转折。
华生和斯金纳的出现让心理学更加“科学化”，他们强调观察行为，而不是内心的想法。
行为主义就像是把人当作一台机器，关注输入和输出，效果如何就如何。
可是，这种方式也被批评为太过冷冰冰，缺少人性。
实验心理学复习笔记
实验心理学复习笔记第六章注意 注意的核心问题是对信息的选择分析第一节、注意的理论和实验三大注意理论：过滤器理论、资源限制理论和特征整合理论一、过滤器理论与双耳分听技术一、过滤器理论与双耳分听技术（一）单通道的过滤器模型（早期选择模型）（一）单通道的过滤器模型（早期选择模型）由英国心理学家布罗德·由英国心理学家布罗德·本特提出，本特提出，且使用双耳分听技术证明了该理论，且使用双耳分听技术证明了该理论，该过滤器模型的核该过滤器模型的核心思想是它到达高级分析水平的通道只有一条。
心思想是它到达高级分析水平的通道只有一条。
（二）衰减模型（中期选择模型）（二）衰减模型（中期选择模型）1. 追随耳实验：要求被试在双耳分听过程中始终复述某一耳听到的信息，并忽略所有来自另一耳的信息。
另一耳的信息。
2. 过滤器并非依“全或无”过滤器并非依“全或无”的原则工作，而是按衰减方式进行，同时允许追随耳和非追随耳的信息通过。
耳的信息通过。
3. 特雷斯曼使用带追随耳的双耳分听技术验证了该理论。
特雷斯曼使用带追随耳的双耳分听技术验证了该理论。
（三）反应选择模型（晚期选择模型）（三）反应选择模型（晚期选择模型）1. 基本假定：由感觉通道输入的所有信息都可进入高级分析水平，得到知觉加工，并加以识别。
即过滤器不在于选择知觉刺激，即过滤器不在于选择知觉刺激，而在于选择对刺激的反应，而在于选择对刺激的反应，而在于选择对刺激的反应，其选择标准是刺激对于人其选择标准是刺激对于人的重要性。
的重要性。
2. 哈德威克和希夫林设计了一个双耳同时分听的追随靶子词实验验证了该模型。
（四）模型比较（四）模型比较1. 衰减模型和过滤器模型的共同点衰减模型和过滤器模型的共同点① 两者都认为高级分析水平的容量有限，必须由过滤器加以调节两者都认为高级分析水平的容量有限，必须由过滤器加以调节② 两者都认为这种过滤器的位置处在初级分析和高级的意义分析之间两者都认为这种过滤器的位置处在初级分析和高级的意义分析之间③ 这种注意选择都具有知觉性质，因而被称为过滤器--衰减模型，并将之看做注意的知觉选择模型。
暑假实践之读书笔记伟大的博弈
暑假实践之读书笔记《伟大的博弈》暑假读书笔记《伟大的博弈》（THE GREAT GAmE）暑假读书心得，暑假实践心得荷兰人发明了最早的操作股市的技术，如1、卖空（Short-selling）：卖出自己并不拥有的股票，希翼在在股价下跌后购回，一赚取差价。
2、卖空袭击（Bear raid）：内部人合谋卖空股票，直到其他股票拥有者恐慌并全部卖出自己的股票，导致股价下跌，内部人得以低价购回股票以平仓来获利。
3、对敲（Syndicate）又叫“辛迪加”？：一群合谋者在他们之间对倒股票来操作股价在书上还看到一种说法叫做：matched sale，两个或更多的经纪人在他们自己之间进行交易，以给人造成价格波动的假象。
4、逼空股票（corner）：杀空或坐庄某一支股票，或囤积某一种商品，指个人或集体秘密买断某种股票或商品的全部流通供应量，逼迫任何需要购买这种股票或商品的其他买家不得不再被操纵的价格上购买荷兰的“郁金香泡沫”昭示着以后人类社会的一切投机活动，但却带来了荷兰人可贵的商业精神和商业文化。
（看到这里，突然让我想到了小时候有段时间在民间流行倒卖兰花，以赚取差价牟利，为此我外公邻居家的好几盆兰花也被盗了，不知道是不是跟这个“郁金香泡沫”是一个道理）亚历山大.汉密尔顿（Alexander Hamilton）这个人物是要好好记上一笔的。
在美国的开国元勋中，汉密尔顿在许多方面都是独一无二的。
只有他一人不在美国出生（在英属西印度群岛），除了富兰克林外，他是另一位平民出生的重要人物。
用约翰亚当斯的话：“一个苏格兰小贩的私生子”。
美国成立后，他任财政部长，试图作三件事：一，建立一个完善的联邦税收体制；二，以政府信用为担保，发行新的债券，以偿还旧的国债和战争债务；三，按照英格兰银行的模式建立中央银行，代理政府管理财政和监督货币的供应。
另一方面，他的追随者与美国另一位开国元勋杰斐逊的追随者，不同的理念和他们之间的斗争对美国这个当时还处于襁褓中的新生国家的法则路径起到了决定性的作用，也影响了华尔街的未来。
认知心理学中英文笔记
第一章导论认知心理学：研究人是怎样对信息进行感知、学习、记忆和思考的。
研究对象：心智。
研究信息在大脑中的认知过程。
心理学的前身——哲学早期工作：唐德斯关于反应时的实验，加法反应时、减法反应时。
减法：从包括该过程的信息加工任务用时中减去不包括该过程的信息加工任务用时。
加法（斯滕伯格）：人的信息加工过程是由一系列有先后顺序的加工阶段组成的。
如果两个因素有交互作用，那么它们是作用于同一个加工阶段的；如果两个因素不存在交互作用，即相互独立，那么它们则作用于不同的加工过程。
简单反应时：单一刺激——单一反应选择反应时：多种刺激——多个反应艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线：最初几次重复可以形成陡峭的学习曲线，之后的重复只能导致记住单词数的缓慢增长。
冯特的心理学实验室：结构主义心理学创始人（structralism），内省法（introspection）威廉·詹姆斯：将机能主义（functionalism）引向实用主义（pragmatists），《心理学原理》。
提出了心理学的准则or原则。
行为主义：华生，抛弃了内在的心理内容或心理机制，主张研究行为与环境。
巴浦洛夫：经典条件反射（classical conditioning）斯金纳：操作性条件反射（operant conditioning）对行为主义的批评：将心灵比作一个黑箱，其内部过程无法准确描述，因为他们是无法被观察到的；不由自主的行为；只能解释简单的行为，不能解释复杂行为，例如语言学习及问题解决。
部分心理学家开始研究内心：托尔曼：认知地图，研究大脑对于位置的关系；班杜拉：社会学习理论，强调的是我们如何观察并依照他人的行为来塑造自己的行为。
乔姆斯基对斯金纳的批评：他认为我们可以轻而易举的产生无数句子，强调语言的生物学基础和语言的创造性潜力，挑战了通过强化学习语言的行为主义。
认知心理学的出现：1950s认知革命：1950s信息加工范式相关的研究：计算机科学，脑与认知的研究，语言，人工智能重要事件：—1956，“人工智能”一词出现（达特茅斯）Newell和Simon，逻辑学家，认为用传统的行为主义已经不足准确的解释行为。
概率论沉思录阅读笔记
《概率论沉思录》阅读笔记目录一、内容概要 (2)1.1 作者简介 (2)1.2 背景介绍 (3)1.3 研究目的与意义 (4)二、概率论基本概念 (6)2.1 概率的基本定义 (7)2.2 概率的性质 (8)2.3 概率论的基本原理 (9)三、概率论的应用领域 (10)3.1 统计推断 (12)3.2 决策理论 (14)3.3 经济学 (15)3.4 生物学 (16)3.5 其他领域的应用 (18)四、常见概率分布 (19)4.1 正态分布 (21)4.2 泊松分布 (22)4.3 指数分布 (23)4.4 均匀分布 (24)4.5 其他常见分布 (25)五、概率论中的重要方法 (27)5.1 随机实验与样本空间 (28)5.2 条件概率与全概率公式 (28)5.3 贝叶斯定理 (30)5.4 联合概率与边缘概率 (31)5.5 极限定理 (32)六、概率论与统计学的关系 (34)6.1 概率论在统计学中的应用 (35)6.2 统计学中的概率论方法 (37)6.3 概率论与统计学的交叉领域 (38)七、概率论的发展历程与前沿动态 (39)7.1 国际概率论的发展历程 (40)7.2 国内概率论的发展历程 (42)7.3 概率论的前沿动态与挑战 (43)八、结论与展望 (44)8.1 本书的主要观点总结 (45)8.2 对未来研究的展望 (46)一、内容概要《概率论沉思录》一书主要探讨了概率论的基本原理、应用以及与其他数学分支的交叉领域。
作者通过对概率论的历史发展、基本概念、概率模型、随机过程等方面的深入剖析，向读者展示了一个充满智慧与趣味的数学世界。
书中不仅详细介绍了概率论的核心概念，如独立事件、条件概率、随机变量等，还通过大量的例子和评注，帮助读者理解这些概念在实际问题中的应用。
作者也探讨了概率论在统计学、组合数学、优化理论等领域中的重要地位，展示了概率论在解决实际问题中的巨大潜力。
本书还涉及了一些与概率论相关的哲学思考，如因果关系、决策制定等，引导读者从概率的角度重新审视这些复杂的问题。
耶鲁大学公开课博弈论笔记(博弈论24讲)
博弈论作业（博弈论24讲）数应专业一、1、理性人：指代这一类人，他们只关心自己的利益。
2、如果选择a的结果严格优于b，那么就说a相对于b来说是一个严格优势策略。
结论：不要选择严格略施策略。
3、理性人的理性选择造成了次优的结果4、举例：囚徒困境、宿舍卫生打扫问题、企业打价格战等5、协和谬误收益很重要，“如欲得之，必先知之”6、要学会换位思考，站在别人的立场上看别人会怎么做，在考虑自己受益的同时，要注意别人会怎么选择二、1、打渔问题、全球气候变暖与碳排放问题2、博弈的要素：参与人、策略集合、收益3、如果策略a严格劣于策略b，那么不管他人怎么选择，b总是更好的选择4、军队的入侵与防卫问题5、所有人都从1到100中选个数字，最接近所有人选的数字的均值的2/3者为胜，这个数字是多少呢？作为理性人，每个人都会选择67（100*2/3）以下的数，进一步假设你的对手也是理性的，你会选择45（100*4/9）以下的数……依据哲学观点，如果大家都是理性程度相当的，那么最后数字将为1，然而结果却是9，这说明博弈的复杂性6、共同知识与相互知识的区别三、1、利用迭代剔除法领悟中间选民问题2、迭代剔除法就是严格下策反复消去法，不断地把劣势策略剔除出去，最后只剩下相对优势的策略3、中间选民问题就是，在两党制中，政党表述施政纲领要吸引位于中间位置的选民，他们认为在选举中处于中间标度可以吸引左右两边的选民，并以此获得胜利。
4、中间选民问题理论成立的条件是有两个参与人；政治立场能使选民相信。
5、由此延伸出来的还有加油站选址问题，两家加油站不是在不同的路口选址，而是在不确定哪个位置较佳的时候会选在同一处，这也是“中间选民定理”的凸显6、在迭代剔除法不能运用时，比如说该博弈中博弈方1和2均没有严格下策，可以用二维坐标系画出选择策略之后的收益分布四、1、罚点球：一个经过模型简化的点球模型：罚球者可以选择左路，中路，右路3种路线去踢点球，门将可以选择向左扑救或者向右扑救（门将没有傻站着不动的option）。
关于共赢的读书笔记300字
关于共赢的读书笔记300字I recently read a book called "The Win-Win Solution" by Dr. Kenneth Cloke and Joan Goldsmith, which explores the concept of win-win negotiation and how it can be applied to various aspects of life. 近期我读了一本名为《共赢解决方案》的书，作者是肯尼斯·克洛克博士和琼·戈德史密斯，书中探讨了共赢谈判的概念以及它如何应用在生活的方方面面。
The book emphasizes the importance of finding mutually beneficial solutions in conflicts, whether they are personal or professional, rather than focusing solely on one's own interests. 书中强调了在冲突中寻找互利的解决方案的重要性，无论是个人的还是职业的，而不是仅仅关注自己的利益。
One key concept in the book is the idea that there is always a third option in any conflict. 这本书中的一个关键概念是，任何冲突中总是存在第三种选择。
This third option involves looking beyond the immediate wants and needs of the parties involved and seeking a solution that addresses the underlying concerns and interests of all parties. 这第三种选择包括超越相关各方的即时需求，寻求一个解决方案来解决所有相关各方的根本关切和利益。
推荐下载-平狄克微观经济学笔记 8 精品
CHAPTER 8PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND PETITIVE SUPPLYThis chapter identifies the behavioral incentives of the profit-maximizing firm and then explores the interaction of these firms in a petitive market. Each section of the chapter is important and builds a solid understanding of the supply side of the petitive market. It is necessary to build this foundation before moving on to the chapters in part III of the text. While the material in the chapter is written in a very clear, easy to understand manner, students still struggle with many of the concepts related to how the firm should choose the optimal quantity to produce, and how to apply the cost curve diagram learned in the previous chapter. One option for lecture is to spend time working with a table similar to the one used in the exercises at the end of the chapter. Working through many examples with this type of a table can help the students understand the different types of cost, as well as the firm’s optimal level of production.Section 8.1 identifies the three basic assumptions of perfect petition and section 8.2 discusses the assumption of profit maximization as the goal of the firm. Both sections are important in building the foundation for deriving the firm’s supply curve, which is done in sections 8.3 to 8.5. Section 8.3 derives the general result that the firm should produce where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. The section then goes on to identify perfect petition as a special case where price is equal to marginal revenue, which follows directly from the assumption of price taker behavior in section 8.1. If your students have had calculus, it is helpful to derive the marginal revenue equals marginal cost rule by differentiating the profit function with respect to q. If your students have not had calculus then it is helpful to do some more work with the data tables so they understand that profit is maximized when marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Emphasize that the perfectly petitive firm chooses quantity and not price in order to maximize profit.To put perfect petition in perspective, it can also be helpful to give a brief overview of monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic petition before presenting the assumptions of perfect petition. Restrict this discussion to identifying how many firms are in the industry, if there are barriers to entry, product differentiation, and what assumptions does each firm make about how the other firms in the industry will react to their price and quantity decisions. This wil l stimulate the student’s interest about uping lectures.Sections 8.4 and 8.5 further explore the firm’s decision to produce where price is equal to marginal cost, and show that the firm’s supply curve is its marginal cost curve above its average variabl e cost curve. Although some students will understand references to second-order conditions, expect to be asked why q0 in Figure 8.3 is not profit maximizing, although MR = MC. Two additional points warrant careful explanation: 1) why the firm would remain in business if the firm sustains a loss in the short run, and 2) that maximizing profit is the same as minimizing loss.Although the summation of firm supply curves into a market supply curve is straightforward, the analysis of long-run petitive equilibrium is difficult. Difficult concepts include:*why it may be optimal for the firm to incur losses in the short run but not the long run.*why free entry and exit will reduce economic profit to zero in the long run.*why price is equal to minimum average cost in the long run.It can be helpful to present an example, algebraic and graphical, which starts out with only one firm in the industry that is earning positive economic profit, and then show how the market will converge on its long run equilibrium point. Explore changes in price, quantity produced, and the level of profits, and relate the changes to the firm’s behavioral motivations.This chapter introduces two other important topics that will be elaborated on in Chapter 9: producer surplus and economic rent. Students frequently confuse profit, producer surplus, and economic rent.1. Why would a firm that incurs losses choose to produce rather than shut down?Losses occur when revenues do not cover total costs. Revenues could be greater than variablecosts, but not total costs, in which case the firm is better off producing in the short run ratherthan shutting down, even though they are incurring a loss. The firm should pare the level of losswith no production to the level of loss with positive production, and pick the option that resultsin the smallest loss. In the short run, losses will be minimized as long as the firm covers itsvariable costs. In the long run, all costs are variable, and thus, all costs must be covered if thefirm is to remain in business.2. Explain why the industry supply curve is not the long-run industry marginal cost curve.In the short run, a change in the market price induces the profit-maximizing firm to change itsoptimal level of output. This optimal output occurs when price is equal to marginal cost, as longas marginal cost exceeds average variable cost. Therefore, the supply curve of the firm is itsmarginal cost curve, above average variable cost. (When the price falls below average variablecost, the firm will shut down.)In the long run, the firm adjusts its inputs so that its long-run marginal cost is equal to themarket price. At this level of output, it is operating on a short-run marginal cost curve whereshort-run marginal cost is equal to price. As the long-run price changes, the firm graduallychanges its mix of inputs to minimize cost. Thus, the long-run supply response is thisadjustment from one set of short-run marginal cost curves to another.Note also that in the long run there will be entry and the firm will earn zero profit, so that anylevel of output where MC>AC is not possible.3. In long-run equilibrium, all firms in the industry earn zero economic profit. Why is this true?The theory of perfect petition explicitly assumes that there are no entry or exit barriers to newparticipants in an industry. With free entry, positive economic profits induce new entrants. Asthese firms enter, the supply curve shifts to the right, causing a fall in the equilibrium price ofthe product. Entry will stop, and equilibrium will be achieved, when economic profits havefallen to zero.4. What is the difference between economic profit and producer surplus?While economic profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost, producer surplus isthe difference between total revenue and total variable cost. The difference between economicprofit and producer surplus is the fixed cost of production.5. Why do firms enter an industry when they know that in the long run economic profit will be zero?Firms enter an industry when they expect to earn economic profit. These short-run profits areenough to encourage entry. Zero economic profits in the long run imply normal returns to thefactors of production, including the labor and capital of the owners of firms. For example, theowner of a small business might experience positive accounting profits before the foregonewages from running the business are subtracted from these profits. If the revenue minus othercosts is just equal to what could be earned elsewhere, then the owner is indifferent to staying inbusiness or exiting.6. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were many small American automobile manufacturers. At the end of the century, there are only three large ones. Suppose that this situation is not the result of lax federal enforcement of antimonopoly laws. How do you explain the decrease in the number of manufacturers? (Hint: What is the inherent cost structure of the automobile industry?)Automobile plants are highly capital-intensive. Assuming there have been no impediments topetition, increasing returns to scale can reduce the number of firms in the long run. As firmsgrow, their costs decrease with increasing returns to scale. Larger firms are able to sell theirproduct for a lower price and push out smaller firms in the long run. Increasing returns maycease at some level of output, leaving more than one firm in the industry.7. Industry X is characterized by perfect petition, so every firm in the industry is earning zero economic profit. If the product price falls, no firms can survive. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.Disagree. As the market price falls, firms cut their production. If price falls below average totalcost, firms continue to produce in the short run and cease production in the long run. If pricefalls below average variable costs, firms cease production in the short run. Therefore, with asmall decrease in price, i.e., less than the difference between the price and average variable cost,the firm can survive. With larger price decrease,i.e., greater than the difference between priceand minimum average cost, the firm cannot survive. In general, we would expect that somefirms will survive and that just enough firms will leave to bring profit back up to zero.8. An increase in the demand for video films also increases the salaries of actors and actresses. Is the long-run supply curve for films likely to be horizontal or upward sloping? Explain.The long-run supply curve depends on the cost structure of the industry. If there is a fixedsupply of actors and actresses, as more films are produced, higher salaries must be offered.Therefore, the industry experiences increasing costs. In an increasing-cost industry, the long-run supply curve is upward sloping. Thus, the supply curve for videos would be upward sloping.9. True or false: A firm should always produce at an output at which long-run average cost is minimized. Explain.False. In the long run, under perfect petition, firms will produce where long-run average costsare minimized. In the long-run, the firm will have adjusted its mix of capital and labor so thataverage costs are minimized. In addition, entry and exit will force price to adjust so it is close tominimum average cost. In the short run, however, the firm might not be producing the optimallong-run output. For example, if there are any fixed factors of production, the firm does notalways produce where long-run average cost is minimized. Also, in the short run the firm maybe producing at a point where price equals marginal cost at a quantity that is different than thatwhich corresponds to minimum long-run average cost.10. Can there be constant returns to scale in an industry with an upward-sloping supply curve? Explain.Constant returns to scale imply that proportional increases in all inputs yield the sameproportional increase in output. Proportional increases in inputs can induce higher prices if thesupply curves for these inputs are upward sloping. For example, production that uses rare ordepleting inputs will see higher costs of production as production increases in scale. Doublinginputs will still yield double output, but because of rising costs, the firm cannot offer increasingamounts of the good without higher prices. Therefore, constant returns to scale does not alwaysimply long-run horizontal supply curves.11. What assumptions are necessary for a market to be perfectly petitive? In light of what you have learned in this chapter, why is each of these assumptions important?The two primary assumptions of perfect petition are (1) all firms in the industry are price takers,and (2) there is free entry and exit of firms from the market. This chapter discusses howpetitive equilibrium is achieved under these assumptions. The first assumption is importantbecause it means that no firm has any market power. Given no firm has market power, firmswill produce where price is equal to marginal cost. In the short run, price could equal marginalcost at a quantity where marginal cost is greater than average cost, implying positive economicprofits. With free entry and exit, positive economic profits would encourage other firms to enter.This entry exerts downward pressure on price until price is equal to both marginal cost andminimum average cost.12. Suppose a petitive industry faces an increase in demand (i.e., the demand curve shifts upward). What are the steps by which a petitive market insures increased output? Will your answer change if the government imposes a price ceiling?If demand increases with fixed supply, price and profits increase. The price increase induces thefirms in the industry to increase output. Also, with positive profit, firms enter the industry,shifting the supply curve to the right. This results in a new equilibrium with a higher quantityproduced and a price that earns all firms zero economic profit. With an effective price ceiling,profit will be lower than without the ceiling, reducing the incentive for firms to enter theindustry. With zero economic profit, no firms enter and there is no shift in the supply curve.13. The government passes a law that allows a substantial subsidy for every acre of land used to grow tobacco. How does this program affect the long-run supply curve for tobacco?A subsidy on tobacco production decreases the firm’s costs of production. These costdecreases encourage other firms to enter tobacco production, and the supply curve for theindustry shifts out to the right14. A certain brand of vacuum cleaners can be purchased from several local stores as well as from several catalogue or web site sources.a.If all sellers charge the same price for the vacuum cleaner, will they all earn zero economicprofit in the long run?Yes by charging the same price they will all earn zero economic profit in the long run. Ifeconomic profit was greater than zero then firms would enter the industry and if economicprofit was less than zero firms would exit the industry.b.If all sellers charge the same price and one local seller owns the building in which he doesbusiness, paying no rent, is this seller earning a positive economic profit?No this seller would still earn zero economic profit. If he pays no rent then the accountingcost of using the building is zero, but there is still an opportunity cost, which represents thevalue of the next best alternative use of the building.c.Does the seller who pays no rent have an incentive to lower the price he charges for thevacuum cleaner?No he has no incentive to charge a lower price because this will lower his economic profit.Given all firms sell an identical good, they will charge the same price for that good. Bycharging a lower price, the firm is no longer maximizing profit.1. The data in the following table give information about the price (in dollars) for which a firm can sell a unit of output and the total cost of production.a.Fill in the blanks in the table.b.Show what happens to the firm’s output choice and profit if the price of the product falls from $60to $50.4 60 2125 60 2306 60 2507 60 2728 60 3109 60 35510 60 41011 60 475The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost for the two prices.At a price of $60, the firm should produce ten units of output to maximize profit because this isthe point closest to where price equals marginal cost without having marginal cost exceed price.At a price of $50, the firm should produce nine units to maximize profit. When price falls from$60 to $50, profit falls from $190 to $95.2. Using the data in the table, show wha t happens to the firm’s output choice and profit if the fixed cost of production increases from $100 to $150, and then to $200. Assume that the price of the output remains at $60 per unit. What general conclusion can you reach about the effects of fixed costs on the firm’s output choice?The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost information for fixed cost, FC of 100, 150,and 200.In all of the given cases, with fixed cost equal to 100, then 150, and then 200, the firm willproduce 10 units of output because this is the point closest to where price equals marginal costwithout having marginal cost exceed price. Fixed costs do not influence the optimal quantity,because they do not influence marginal cost. Higher fixed costs also result in lower profits.4 60 240 212 28 14 262 -22 312 -725 60 300 230 70 18 280 20 330 -306 60 360 250 110 20 300 60 350 107 60 420 272 148 22 322 98 372 488 60 480 310 170 38 360 120 410 709 60 540 355 185 45 405 135 455 8510 60 600 410 190 55 460 140 510 9011 60 660 475 185 65 525 135 575 853. Use the same information as in Exercise 1.a. Derive the firm’s short-run supply curve. (Hint: you may want to plot the appropriate costcurves.)The firm’s short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve above average variable cost. Thetable below lists marginal cost, total cost, variable cost, fixed cost, and average variable cost.The firm will produce 8 or more units depending on the market price and will not produce inthe 0-7 units of output range because in this range AVC is greater than MC. When AVC is greaterthan MC, the firm minimizes losses by producing nothing.Q TC MC TVC TFC AVC 0 100100 ___ 0 100 ___ 1 150 50 50 100 50.0 2 178 28 78 100 39.0 3 198 20 98 100 32.7 4 212 14 112 100 28.0 5 230 18 130 100 26.0 6 250 20 150 100 25.0 7 272 22 172 100 24.6 8 310 38 210 100 26.3 9 355 45 255 100 28.3 10 410 55 310 100 31.0 114756537510034.1b.If 100 identical firms are in the market, what is the industry supply curve?For 100 firms with identical cost structures, the market supply curve is the horizontal summation of each firm’s output at each price.80060QP4. Suppose you are the manager of a watchmaking firm operating in a petitive market. Your cost of production is given by C = 200 +2 q2, where q is the level of output and C is total cost. (The marginal cost of production is 4q. The fixed cost of production is $200.)a. If the price of watches is $100, how many watches should you produce to maximize profit?Profits are maximized where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue. Here, marginalrevenue is equal to $100; recall that price equals marginal revenue in a petitive market:100 = 4q, or q = 25.b. What will the profit level be?Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost:π = (100)(25) - (200 + 2*252) = $1050.c. At what minimum price will the firm produce a positive output?A firm will produce in the short run if the revenues it receives are greater than its variable costs.Remember that the firm’s short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve above the minimumof average variable cost. Here, average variable cost is VCq=2q2q=2q. Also, MC is equal to4q. So, MC is greater than AVC for any quantity greater than 0. This means that the firmproduces in the short run as long as price is positive.5. Suppose that a petitive firm’s marginal cost of producing output q is given by MC(q) = 3 + 2q. Assume that the market price of the firm’s product is $9.a. What level of output will the firm produce?To maximize profits, the firm should set marginal revenue equal to marginal cost. Given the factthat this firm is operating in a petitive market, the market price it faces is equal to marginalrevenue. Thus, the firm should set the market price equal to marginal cost to maximize itsprofits:9 = 3 + 2q, or q = 3.b. What is the firm’s producer surplus?Producer surplus is equal to the area below the market price, i.e., $9.00, and above the marginalcost curve, i.e., 3 + 2q. Because MC is linear, producer surplus is a triangle with a base equal to$6 (9 - 3 = 6). The height of the triangle is 3, where P = MC. Therefore, producer surplus is(0.5)(6)(3) = $9.c.firm’s fixed costs are known to be $3. Will the firm be earning a positive, negative, or zero profit in the short run?Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost. Total cost is equal to total variable cost plusfixed cost. Total variable cost is equal to (AVC)(q). Therefore, at q = 3,TVC = (3 + 3)(3) = $18.Fixed cost is equal to $3. Therefore, total cost equals TVC plus TFC, orTC = 18 + 3 = $21.Total revenue is price times quantity:TR = ($9)(3) = $27.Profit is total revenue minus total cost:π = $27 - $21 = $6.Therefore, the firm is earning positive economic profits. More easily, you might recall that profitequals producer surplus minus fixed cost. Since we found that producer surplus was $9 in partb, profit equals 9-3 or $6.6. A firm produces a product in a petitive industry and has a total cost function TC=50+4q+2q2 and a marginal cost function M C=4+4q. At the given market price of $20, the firm is producing 5 units of output. Is the firm maximizing profit? What quantity of output should the firm produce in the long run?If the firm is maximizing profit, then price will be equal to marginal cost. P=MC results inP=20=4+4q=MC, or q=4. The firm is not maximizing profit, since it is producing too muchoutput. The current level of profit isprofit = 20*5-(50+4*5+2*5*5) = –20,and the profit maximizing level isprofit = 20*4-(50+4*4+2*4*4) = –18.Given no change in the price of the product or the cost structure of the firm, the firm shouldproduce q=0 units of output in the long run since at the quantity where price is equal tomarginal cost, economic profit is negative. The firm should exit the industry.7. Suppose the cost function is C(q)=4q2+16.a.Find variable cost, fixed cost, average cost, average variable cost, and average fixed cost. Hint:Marginal cost is MC=8q.Variable cost is that part of total cost that depends on q (4q2) and fixed cost is that part of total cost that does not depend on q (16).VC=4q2FC=16AC=C(q)q=4q+16qAVC=VCq=4qAFC=FCq=16qb.Show the average cost, marginal cost, and average variable cost curves on a graph.Average cost is u-shaped. Average cost is relatively large at first because the firm is not ableto spread the fixed cost over very many units of output. As output increases, average fixed costs will fall relatively rapidly. Average cost will increase at some point because theaverage fixed cost will bee very small and average variable cost is increasing as q increases.Average variable cost will increase because of diminishing returns to the variable factorlabor. MC and AVC are linear, and both pass through the origin. Average variable cost is everywhere below average cost. Marginal cost is everywhere above average variable cost. If the average is rising, then the marginal must be above the average. Marginal cost will hit average cost at its minimum point.c.Find the output that minimizes average cost.The minimum average cost quantity is where MC is equal to AC:AC=4q+16q=8q=MC16q=4q16=4q24=q22=q.d.At what range of prices will the firm produce a positive output?The firm will supply positive levels of output as long as P=MC>AVC, or as long as the firm is covering its variable costs of production. In this case, marginal cost is everywhere above average variable cost so the firm will supply positive output at any positive price.e.At what range of prices will the firm earn a negative profit?The firm will earn negative profit when P=MC<AC, or at any price below minimum average cost. In part c above we found that the minimum average cost quantity was q=2. Plug q=2 into the average cost function to find AC=16. The firm will therefore earn negative profit if price is below 16.f.At what range of prices will the firm earn a positive profit?In part e we found that the firm would earn negative profit at any price below 16. The firm therefore earns positive profit as long as price is above 16.8. A petitive firm has the following short run cost function:C(q)=q3-8q2+30q+5.a.Find MC, AC, and AVC and sketch them on a graph.The functions can be calculated as follows:MC =∂C ∂q =3q 2-16q +30AC =C q =q 2-8q +30+5qAVC =VC q=q 2-8q +30 Graphically, all three cost functions are u-shaped in that cost declines initially as q increases,and then cost increases as q increases. Average variable cost is below average cost. Marginal cost will be initially below AVC and will then increase to hit AVC at its minimumpoint. MC will be initially below AC and will also hit AC at its minimum point.b. At what range of prices will the firm supply zero output?The firm will find it profitable to produce in the short run as long as price is greater than orequal to average variable cost. If price is less than average variable cost then the firm will bebetter off shutting down in the short run, as it will only lose its fixed cost and not fixed plus some of variable cost. Here we need to find the minimum average variable cost, which canbe done in two different ways. You can either set marginal cost equal to average variablecost, or you can differentiate average variable cost with respect to q and set this equal tozero. In both cases, you can solve for q and then plug into AVC to find the minimum AVC.Here we will set AVC equal to MC:AVC =q 2-8q +30=3q 2-16q +30=MC2q 2=8qq =4AVC (q =4)=42-8*4+30=14.Hence, the firm supplies zero output if P<14.c. Identify the firm’s supply curve on your graph.The firm supply curve is the MC curve above the point where MC=AVC. The firm willproduce at the point where price equals MC as long as MC is greater than or equal to AVC.d. At what price would the firm supply exactly 6 units of output?The firm maximizes profit by choosing the level of output such that P=MC. To find the price where the firm would supply 6 units of output, set q equal to 6 and solve for MC: P =MC =3q 2-16q +30=3(62)-16(6)+30=42.9. a. Suppose that a firm ’s production function is q =9x 12in the short run, where there are fixed costs of $1,000 and x is the variable input, whose cost is $4,000 per unit. What is the total cost of producing a level of output q. In other words, identify the total cost function C(q).The total cost function C(x) = fixed cost + variable cost = 1000 + 4000x. Since the variableinput costs $4,000 per unit, the variable cost is 4000 times the number of units, or 4000x. Now rewrite the production function to express x in terms of q so that x =q 281. We can then substitute this into the above cost function to find C(q):C (q )=4000q 281+1000. b. Write down the equation for the supply curve.The firm supplies output where P=MC so the marginal cost curve is the supply curve, orP =8000q 81.c. If price is $1000, how many units will the firm produce? What is the level of profit? Illustrate on a cost curve graph.To figure this out, set price equal to marginal cost to find:P =8000q 81=1000⇒q =10.125. Profit is 1000*10.125-(1000+(4000*10.125*10.125)/81) = 4062.5. Graphically, the firmproduces where the price line hits the MC curve. Since profit is positive, this will occur at a quantity where price is greater than average cost. To find profit on the graph, take thedifference of the revenue box (price times quantity) and the cost box (average cost timesquantity). This rectangle is the profit area. 10. Suppose you are given the following information about a particular industry:Q D =6500-100P Market demandQ S =1200P Market supplyC (q )=722+q 2200Firm total cost function MC (q )=2q 200 Firm marginal cost function. Assume that all firms are identical, and that the market is characterized by pure petition.a. Find the equilibrium price, the equilibrium quantity, the output supplied by the firm, and the profit of the firm.Equilibrium price and quantity are found by setting market supply equal to market demand,so that 6500-100P=1200P. Solve to find P=5 and substitute into either equation to find Q=6000. To find the output for the firm set price equal to marginal cost so that 5=2q 200 and q=500. Profit of the firm is total revenue minus total costorpq -C (q )=5(500)-722-5002200=528. Notice that since the total output in the market is 6000, and the firm output is 500, there must be 6000/500=12 firms in the industry. b. Would you expect to see entry into or exit from the industry in the long-run? Explain. What effect will entry or exit have on market equilibrium?Entry because the firms in the industry are making positive profit. As firms enter, the supplycurve for the industry will shift down and to the right and the equilibrium price will fall, all e lse the same. This will reduce each firm’s profit down to zero until there is no incentive forfurther entry.c. What is the lowest price at which each firm would sell its output in the long run? Is profit positive, negative, or zero at this price? Explain.In the long run the firm will not sell for a price that is below minimum average cost. At anyprice below minimum average cost, profit is negative and the firm is better off selling itsfixed resources and producing zero output. To find the minimum average cost, set marginalcost equal to average cost and solve for q: 2q 200=722q +q 200q 200=722qq 2=722(200)q =380AC (q =380)=3.8.。
王乐夫 蔡立辉 公共管理学 笔记重点资料整理
公共管理学王乐夫蔡立辉公共管理学王乐夫蔡立辉主编第1章导论公共管理学概述公共管理学的研究对象公共管理学的研究途径和方法本章教学目的本章综合介绍、梳理了国内外关于公共管理研究的前沿理论成果：介绍了当代西方学者关于公共管理概念的界定和公共管理的发展过程；分析了公共管理、公共政策与公共行政之间的相互关系；阐述了公共管理学的具体研究对象、公共管理学的研究途径和方法。
通过本章的教学，主要培养学生公共管理的基本理论素养和专业意识，了解公共管理的发展过程，形成公共管理的知识与分析框架。
本章学习的重点问题•公共行政与公共管理的关系•公共管理学的概念范畴、研究对象和内容•公共管理学的研究途径与方法•公共管理学的学科特征公共管理学概述1.1.1 公共管理的含义1.西方学者关于公共管理概念的界定在西方，公共管理目前只是公共行政（public administration）的一个分支，即公共管理小于公共行政；但在中国，公共管理是一级学科，公共行政是公共管理下设的一个二级学科，即公共管理大于公共行政。
2.公共管理的含义在西方国家，公共管理是公共行政（public administration）中重视公共组织（包括政府行政组织、非营利组织和准政府组织）实施管理的技术与方法、重视公共项目与绩效管理、重视公共政策执行的理论派别和分支，是研究以政府行政组织为核心的各种公共组织管理公共事务的活动及其规律的学问。
它是在当代社会科学和管理科学的整体化趋势以及¡°新公共管理¡±运动的推动下，以公共部门管理问题的解决为核心、融合多种相关学科知识和方法所形成的一个知识框架。
在我国，公共管理是包括政府在内的公共部门依法管理公共事务的各种活动的总称；根据管理的公共事务的不同，公共管理可区分为国家公共管理、政府公共管理、社会公共管理和国际公共管理。
1.1.2 公共管理学的概念范畴1.公共管理与公共行政（1）学术界关于公共管理与公共行政的三种不同观点（2）公共管理与公共行政：内在的联系：公共管理在实施管理的主体、管理活动的内容与范围、管理的目标等一些基本的原则和管理理念方面，仍然与公共行政保持一致。
2021年10月自考“变态心理学”北大笔记(14)
2021年10月自考“变态心理学”北大笔记（14）贝克的认知理论中，有以下几个重要不雅点： 1.图式。
指过去经验中有组织的知识构形，人们用它来解释新的经验。
2.自动式思维，是介于外部刺激事件与个体对事件的情绪反应之间的想法。
3.共同感受，是指以问题解决的形式出现的，人们用以解决日常生活问题的知觉和思维过程。
4.规则是认知治疗中一个主要不雅点，它指个体在成长过程中习得的社会认可的行为准则，人们据此评价过去、指导现在和预测未来。
二、认知治疗的基本原理认知治疗有三条基本原理：（重点）（1）认知是情感和行为反应的中介，引起人们情绪和行为问题的原因不是发生的事件本身，而是人们对事件的解释。
（2）认知、情感和行为彼此联系、彼此影响，不良认知和负性情绪、异常行为彼此之间互相加强，形成恶性循环，是情感和行为问题迁延不愈的原因。
（3）情绪障碍者常存在认知歪曲，只有识别和矫正其歪曲的认知，他的问题才可能得到改善。
三、常见的认知歪曲形式1.武断的推论。
在缺乏充分的证据或证据不够瞧客不雅的情况下，仅凭本身的主不雅感受就草率得出结论。
2.过率引申。
又译“过份概括化”，即只按照个别事件，不考虑其他情况就对本身或他人做出关于能力、智力和价值等整体本质的遍及性结论。
3.选择性概括。
仅仅按照个别细节，不考虑与其相矛盾的地方或其他证据，就对整个事件做出结论。
4.“全或无”的思维方式。
以绝对化的思考方式对事物做出判断或评价，要么全对，要么全错。
5.夸大或缩小。
对客不雅事物做出歪曲的评价，或过分夸大本身的失误、缺陷，或过分贬抑本身的成绩、优点。
6.个人化。
将一切不幸、变乱都归因于本身的过失，并不竭自责。
第三节认知治疗的基本技术认知治疗的技术包罗两大方面：族技术和行为技术。
现在经常使用认知行为治疗。
一、认知技术贝克提出五种具体的认知治疗技术：1.识别负性自动式思维2.识别认知性错误3.真实性验证。
是真实必验证是认知治疗最为核心的部分。
有两种具体的操作方法：（1）言语盘问法：治疗者通过一系列的提问引导来访者重新评价本身的不雅念，寻找合理的替代想法。
beckhoff培训笔记
b e
c k h o f f培训笔记(总7页)
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--内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--
Twincat2 Scopeview
EtherCat诊断
30微妙处理1000个分布式IO
配合超高速交换机
主站安装软件
从站硬件技术，相关芯片
灵活的拓扑结构
网段容纳65535个设备
以太网线，从站之间通讯距离100米
光纤2000米
E-bus(lvds)2片传输电力4片传输信号
模块不允许热插拔，否则模块烧毁
拓扑结构
IPC主站-EK耦合器-从站EL-驱动器AX-编码器
现有总线系统的无缝集成
El6通讯模块，可以集成现有输入输出设备150微妙实用性
同步时钟
电缆冗余
设备间轻便交换
网段间热链接
Ethercat诊断
Slavecount用于检查网线是否连接
Op是正常状态
EK1000总线耦合器DevState
Ethercat 网线受到电磁干扰，网络状态监控，看看通讯质量，会不会丢失数据
通讯参数，模拟量设定
Coe-online
网络拓扑结构
读取设备
从PLC读取程序
首先要把源代码下载到PLC里面
再open
电机
功能库，包含伺服电机运动的一些功能块，可添加第三方电机，电机的参数提供给倍福，由倍福来制作电机的配置文件，放置tincat相应目录，即可识别出来。
【读书笔记】《运动技能学习与控制》（一）
【读书笔记】《运动技能学习与控制》（⼀）Unit One 动作技能和运动能⼒概述Chapter One 动作机能的分类⼈类的各种⾏为活动都可以统称为动作技能。
技能（skill）：1.为实现特定⽬标⽽操作的动作或任务；2.以操作质量为表征。
运动技能（motor skill）：指有特定操作⽬标，涉及⾃主⾝体或肢体运动的技能。
动作（action）：由⾝体和/或肢体运动产⽣的指向⽬标的运动。
【疑】百度——⾝体：指⼈或动物的整个⽣理组织，有时特指驱⼲和四肢。
既然⾝体包括四肢，关于动作的解释不就可以直接定义为由⾝体运动产⽣的指向⽬标的运动嘛。
也许是翻译的问题，body和limb的意思还是不⼀样的，原因也许就在这吧。
运动（movement）：构成动作或运动技能的肢体或肢体联合的⾏为特征。
⼀维分类系统通常我们根据技能间的相似特征来对动作技能进⾏分类。
最常见的⽅法是根据技能的共同特征将技能进⾏归类。
每⼀种共同特征包含两个范畴（注意并⾮⼆元范畴），⽤⼀个连续区间的两端来表⽰。
【疑】两个范畴和⼆元范畴有何不同呢？1.参与操作的技能肌⾁系统的⼤⼩：⼤、⼩肌⾁群2.动作开始和结束的特征：连续动作技能--任意动作开始和结束；重复性活动分⽴技能--指定动作开始和结束；单⼀性活动3.环境背景的稳定性：开放性动作技能--⽀撑⾯、操作对象和/或操作中处于运动状态的其他⼈封闭性动作技能--⽀撑⾯、操作对象和/或操作中处于静⽌状态的其他⼈【疑】有绝对的封闭性动作技能吗？⽇常⽣活中绝⼤部分都是开放性动作技能。
⼤肌⾁群动作技能（gross motor skill）：指需要⼤肌⾁系统参与⼯作才能实现操作⽬标的动作技能。
⼩肌⾁群动作技能（fine motor skill）：指需要⼩肌⾁群参与动作控制才能实现操作⽬标的动作技能；包括⼿眼协调动作和⾼度精确性的⼿指、⼿腕动作。
分⽴动作技能（discrete motor skill）：指具有明显开始和结束界限的运动技能，⼀般由简单动作构成。
“实验心理学”串讲笔记第二章
第⼆章⼼理物理学⽅法 ⼼理物理学的先驱者是费希纳（g.t.fechner，1801-1987）。
1860年他发表了《⼼理物理学纲要》⼀书。
为⼼理物理学研究⽅法的发展奠定了基础，他给⼼理物理学下的定义是：⼀门研究⼼⾝之间或⼼物之间的函数关系的精密科学。
第⼀节感觉阈限的测量 感觉阈限：有感觉与⽆感觉的分界线上的刺激强度。
韦伯定律。
⼆、测量⽅法： ①最⼩变化法②恒定刺激法③平均差误法 学习者应特别注意这三种⽅法的实验程序和实验结果的统计处理。
1、最⼩变化法 （1）最⼩变化法的刺激由递减和递增的两个系列组成，每次呈现刺激后让被试报告，他是否有感觉。
刺激的增减应尽可能的⼩，⽬的是系统的探求被试由⼀类反应到另⼀类反应的转折点，即在多强刺激时由有感觉变为⽆感觉；或由⽆感觉变为有感觉。
（2）注意递减、递增系列是交替进⾏的，数量⼀致；每个系列的起始点也不⼀样，以免被试形成定势； （3）每个系列的转折点就是该系列的绝对阈限，最后求得的绝对阈限系列绝对阈限的算数平均值。
⽤最⼩变化法测量差别阈限的⽅法如下： （1）每⼀次试验中⽐较两个刺激，⼀个是标准刺激（st）⼀个是⽐较刺激（co）。
在这⾥我们有从-到=的转折点，这个转折点为下限（l1），这⾥我们有从=到+的转折点，这个转折点称为上限（lu）。
上限与下限之间叫做不肯定间距（iu）或相等地带，差别阈限（dl）等于1/2不肯定间距。
不肯定间距的中点称为主观相等点（pse），它的含义是，被试在作⽐较时，实际上是标准刺激，为标准刺激，所以叫做主观相等点。
（2）差别阈限也是多次试验后的统计值，把6个系列的上限平均，下限平均，就可以求得差别阈限，求得的差别阈限叫绝对差别阈限。
绝对差别阈限和标准刺激的经例叫作相对这也就是视觉长度的韦伯⽐例。
（3）⽤最⼩变化法进⾏实验，被试会产⽣习惯误差或期望误差。
①习惯语差：被试习惯试习惯于原先的刺激引起的感觉或感觉状态，因 ⽽对新的刺激作了错误的判断。
倍福伺服驱动器产品选型及诊断 ppt课件
Beckhoff产品选型
通讯类产品选型——TCP、OPC、ADS通讯
TCP通讯 BK9xxx、BC9xxx、BX9xxx、CXxxxx、EL6xxx等Ehternet耦合器、 控制器、嵌入式PC及模块 OPC通讯——组态软件、第三方触摸屏及所有支持OPC协议的设备通讯 CX嵌入式PC、IPC
所有类型
现场总线从站
集成了 IEC 61131-3 PLC
256 kbyte
1750 mA 插头
（取决于现场总线）
所有类型
现场总线从站
集成了 IEC 61131-3 PLC
32/96 kbyte
1450 mA 插头
（取决于现场总线）
所有类型
64
（可通过端子模块总线扩展至 255）
64
64
（可通过端子模块总线扩展至
BC2000
LC3100 BC3100 BC3150
12 Mbaud
12 Mbaud
12 Mbaud
BX3100
12 Mbaud
Interbus
BK4000 BK4010 BK4020 BK4500
LWL 接口
BC4000
CANopen
DeviceNet BK5200 ControlNet BK7000
功能
现场总线从站
集成了 IEC 61131-3 PLC
程序内存
32/96 kbyte
K-bus 电源
1750 mA
现场总线接口
所支持的总线端子模 块 总线端子模块的最大 数量
插头
（取决于现场总线）
所有类型
64
现场总线从站
集成了 IEC 61131-3 PLC
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Beckhoff 致力于为您实现基于 PC 控制技术的开放式自动化系统。
我们的产品范围包括工业 PC、现场总线组件、驱动技术和自动化软件。
这些产品线既可作为独立的组件来使用，也可将它们集成到一个完整的控制系统中，适用于各种行业领域。
Beckhoff自动化
Beckhoff 为自动化的各个领域提供不同性能等级的综合性系统解决方案。
Beckhoff 的控制技术具有可升级性—从高性能工业 PC 到迷你 PLC —可以根据具体应用场合进行精确调整。
TwinCAT 自动化软件在一个软件包里集成了带 PLC、NC 和 CNC 功能的实时控制系统。
所有的 Beckhoff 控制器都采用TwinCAT 进行编程，符合全球公认的 IEC 61131-3 编程标准。
嵌入式 PC
模块化安装于 DIN 导轨上的工业 PC
随着 CX 系列嵌入式 PC 的推出，Beckhoff 将 PC 技术和 I/O 级模块化技术相结合，构成一种可以安装于控制柜中的 DIN 导轨单元。
该设备系列结合了工业 PC 和硬件 PLC 环境，适用于中等规模的控制任务。
可以根据现有任务对模块化控制系统进行配置，并将其安装在控制柜或端子盒中。
CX 系统在价格和性能上涵盖了 Beckhoff 的所有控制技术。
该产品系列是为那些需要有工业 PC 的特性和计算能力，但由于项目预算有限又不打算购买全套工业 PC 机的客户而设计。
配置该系统时，用户只需订购实际所需的组件。
例如，CX 能够在“无头”模式中运行，即无显示器和键盘；这种情况下，就无需配置相关的接口。
可升级的性能等级
CX 系列产品有多种可选的基本 CPU 模块，分别配备有不同的处理器，可以满足各个控制任务的需求：CX1020：采用Intel® Celeron® M ULV CPU、1 GHz 处理器的高性能 CX
现场总线接口：
主站CX1500-M310
电源模块：
CX1100-0004
现场总线工具包:
Beckhoff 公司为所有常用的 I/O 信号和现场总线系统提供全系列的总线组件。
从防护等级为 IP 20 的总线端子模块到防护等级为 IP 67 的总线端子盒，品种齐全，应有尽有，适用于所有相关的信号类型和现场总线系统。
Beckhoff 公司的 Lightbus 作为一种快速、安全的现场总线系统，专为自动化技术量身打造。
EtherCAT 是由 Beckhoff 公司推出的一种全新的实时以太网现场总线，进一步拓展了 Lightbus 系统。
EtherCAT 在网络性能上达到了一个新的高度。
PC 现场总线接口卡是专为快速控制和实时任务而专门开发
的，因而可得到广泛的应用。
I/O 系列都配有相应的导线套件以及编程和组态工具。
Beckhoff 提供类型丰富的 I/O 组件，供您选择最适合的总线系统：
EtherCAT
EtherCA T（Ethernet for Control Automation Technology，用于控制和自动化技术的以太网）是一种用于工业自动化的实时以太网解决方案，性能优越，使用简便。
Ethernet
以太网是办公环境中的主流标准。
在Beckhoff 以太网产品中，也秉承并发扬了以太网的优点，例如数据传输速率高，与现有网络的简便集成以及广泛的服务和接口等。
Lightbus
这种经过验证的Beckhoff 光纤总线系统具有极为优秀的抗EMI 性能，易于安装，数据流快速、循环且具有确定性。
PROFIBUS
Profibus 作为一种快速总线，被广泛应用于分布式外围组件（PROFIBUS-DP）。
除了PROFIBUS-DP 和FMS 以外，Beckhoff 还支持驱动器通讯标准PROFIBUS MC。
PROFINET
PROFINET 是一种由PNO（PROFIBUS 用户组织）针对开放式工业以太网制定的标准。
国际上订立的IT 标准，如用于通讯的TCP/IP 标准。
EtherNet/IP
Ethernet/IP 是由ODV A（Open Device-Net Vendor Association，开放式设备网络供货商协会）订立的工业以太网标准。
Ethernet/IP 是基于以太网TCP/IP和UDP/IP 标准的。
CANopen
通过有效利用总线带宽，CANopen 可在即使相对较低的数据传输速率时也能实现较短的系统响应时间。
秉承了CAN 的传统优点，例如数据安全性高且具备多主站能力。
DeviceNet
DeviceNet 是一种传感器/执行器总线系统，起源于美国，但现在在亚洲和欧洲也被越来越多地应用。
DeviceNet 也基于CAN 协议（Controller Area Net，控制器局域网）。
Interbus
Interbus 易于配置，通讯快速而可靠。
主/从系统的移位寄存器协议可提供高效循环通讯。
SERCOS interface
SERCOS 最初作为用于驱动器的快速光纤总线系统研发。
采用Beckhoff SERCOS 总线耦合器，I/O 设备可实现高速率数据传输和较短的循环时间。
ControlNet
ControlNet 是一种开放式标准现场总线系统。
该总线协议允许循环数据和非循环数据通过总线同时进行交换，而两者之间互不影响。
CC-Link
CC-Link（Control & Communication Link，控制与通信链路）是一种开放式总线系统，用于控制级和现场总线级之间的通讯。
应用范围主要为亚洲地区。
Fipio
FIP 符合EN 50170 欧洲标准，并受到WorldFIP 现场总线组织的支持。
USB
USB 已成为PC 技术的标准接口，具有传输速率高，拓扑结构灵活（通过集成集线器）等特点，加上Beckhoff USB 总线耦合器，在距离较短时，该系统可替代现场总线。
Modbus
Modbus 是一种基于主/从结构的开放式串行通讯协议。
可非常轻松地在所有类型的串行接口上实现。
RS232/RS485
Beckhoff 生产的RS485/RS232 I/O 模块采用一种简单、已公布的串行通信协议，易于执行。
总线端子模块：用于实现自动化的模块化现场总线系统
包括：总线耦合器+总线端子模块控制器+总线端子模块
总线端子模块系统
Beckhoff 总线端子模块是一种独立于现场总线的开放式 I/O 系统，由电子端子排组成。
电子端子排的核心是带现场总线接口的总线耦合器。
总线耦合器适用于所有的通用总线系统。
通过主站端子模块，也能够以标准总线端子模块的形式提供现场总线功能。
这对于那些集成在上位系统中作为子系统的总线系统来说非常有益。
坚固的外壳、安全可靠的接点和性能稳定的电子元件是Beckhoff 公司产品的显著特点。
一个站点由一个总线耦合器和64 个电子端子模块所组成。
通过 K-bus 扩展，则可以在一个总线耦合器上连接最多 255 个总线端子模块。
电子端子模块与总线耦合器之间采用插拔式连接。
总线耦合器：总线端子模块与现场总线之间的连接器
现场总线端子模块
Profibus BX3100-0000
总线耦合器：总线端子模块与现场总线之间的连接
在一个总线耦合器上最多可连接64 个总线端子模块（通过K-bus 扩展的KL9020 和KL9050最多可连接255 个总线端子模块）
通过串行端子模块总线可实现快速而安全的数据连接
KLxxxx | 标准的KL 型号总线端子模块，其机箱中包含各种电子元件和连接层。