What is English(英语语言发展史)

What is English?
History of the English Language
A short history of the origins and development of English
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived.
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
Old English (450-1100 AD)
The invading Germanic tribes
spoke similar languages, which
in Britain developed into what
we now call Old English. Old
English did not sound or look
like English today. Native
English speakers now would
have great difficulty
understanding Old English.
Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old
English roots. The words be , strong and water , for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100. Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 William the Conqueror,
the Duke of Normandy (part of
modern France), invaded and
conquered England. The new
conquerors (called the
Normans) brought with them a
kind of French, which became
the language of the Royal
Court, and the ruling and
business classes. For a period
there was a kind of linguistic
class division, where the lower
classes spoke English and the
upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French
words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the
language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.
Part of Beowulf , a poem written in Old English. An example of Middle English by Chaucer.
Modern English
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle
English, a sudden and distinct
change in pronunciation (the
Great Vowel Shift) started,
with vowels being pronounced
shorter and shorter. From the
16th century the British had
contact with many peoples
from around the world. This,
and the Renaissance of
Classical learning, meant that
many new words and phrases
entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and
more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of
London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.
Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries. Varieties of English
From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the English of Shakespeare Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare.
than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).
Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and Caribbean English.
The Germanic Family of Languages
English is a member of the Germanic family of languages. Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.
A brief chronology of English
BC 55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius
Caesar.
Local inhabitants
speak Celtish
BC 43 Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.
436 Roman withdrawal from Britain complete.
449 Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins
Charles I
When Charles I succeeded his father in 1625, friction with Parliament began at once. Charles believed in his divine right as king and struggled to control Parliament who resented his attempts at absolute rule. One of his first acts was to dissolve parliament in 1625, and again in 1626 after attempts to impeach the Duke of Buckingham over war against Spain and support of the French Huguenots. Charles forced an unpopular ‘Ship Money’ tax to raise funds without the consent of Parliament. In 1628 Charles was presented with the Petition of Right a declaration of the “rights and liberties of the subject", which he reluctantly agreed to. However, in 1629 he dissolved Parliament again, imprisoned its leaders and ruled without a Parliament from 1629 to 1640. His advisers Earl Strafford and Archbishop Laud persecuted the Puritans, and provoked the Presbyterian Scots Covenanters to revolt when Laud attempted to introduce the English Book of Common Prayer.
The Short Parliament, which met April 1640, refused to grant money until grievances were redressed, and was dissolved after just 3 weeks. The Scots then advanced into England and forced their own terms on Charles. The Long Parliament assembled under in November 1640 under John Pym, passed an Act that prevented it from being dissolved without its own consent. Laud and other ministers were imprisoned, and Strafford condemned to death. There was now direct confrontation between Charles and Parliament. After the failure of his attempt to arrest five parliamentary leaders on 4 January 1642, Charles, confident that he had substantial support among those who believed that Parliament was becoming too Puritanical and zealous, withdrew from London, and on 22 August declared war on Parliament by raising his standard at Nottingham and beginning the English Civil War of 1642 to 1648.
The changing face of the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is a union of four territories or nations: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It is a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as the Head of State.
Devolution timeline
Middle Ages: In 1404, Wales briefly had its own parliament under Owain Glyndwr. The Laws in Wales Acts, passed between 1535 and 1542, made Wales part of England.
1603: The English and Scottish crowns united with the accession of James VI of Scotland to the English throne, as James I.
1707: The Treaty (or Act) of Union united the parliaments of England and Scotland to form a single parliament meeting in Westminster. The two nations formed 'The United Kingdom of Great Britain'.
1800: The Irish Parliament voted to join the United Kingdom of Great Britain in the Act of Union (Ireland) - creating 'The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland'.
1886: A series of Bills to give Home Rule to Ireland were introduced at Westminster.
1920: The fourth Home Rule Act was passed, effectively creating two states on the island of Ireland. Northern Ireland was established in six of the nine counties of the province of Ulster and became an entity within the UK.
1921: Northern Ireland's own parliament came into being.
1922: The Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) was established. Northern Ireland chose to remain in the United Kingdom.
1925: Plaid Genedlaethol Cymru, the National Party of Wales, was formed with the goal of securing, amongst other things, a
Welsh-speaking Wales.
1934: The Scottish National Party (SNP) was formed, from the merger of the National Party of Scotland and the Scottish Party.
1950s: The Labour Party gradually replaced the Liberal Party as the dominant political force in Wales.
1960s - 70s: Demands for Scottish Home Rule, or devolution, gained strength after SNP election and by-election victories. In Wales, the
strength of the UK Labour Party, especially in the south of the country, meant that the political impetus for devolution was always weaker than in Scotland.
1972: Northern Ireland parliament was suspended and abolished the following year in favour of direct rule from Westminster.
1979: Devolution referendums were held in Scotland and Wales. In Scotland, the referendum failed: although a majority voted 'yes', there was only a 32% turnout and the rules required at least 40% of the electorate to vote for devolution. In Wales, the referendum resulted in a 'no' vote.
1997: Labour won the General Election and implemented its manifesto pledge to have referendums on devolution in Scotland and Wales.
1998: Devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales produced 'yes' votes. The Scottish Parliament returned to Edinburgh and the National Assembly for Wales (at that time called the Welsh Assembly) was founded.
1998: The Good Friday Agreement revived the prospect of a return of devolved government to Northern Ireland, setting up the Northern Ireland Assembly and power sharing Executive.
2006: Devolution was extended in Wales.
2007: Following several suspensions of devolution, the Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive were restored in Northern Ireland. Knighthood
Knighthood was about more than just fighting, it was also about chivalry. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, this meant good horsemanship, but by 1100 it had become a whole new way of life. Knights were expected to be brave, and honorable, to uphold the honor of women, and to protect the weak. Tales of chivalry were very popular during the Middle Ages, but even so, many knights failed to live up to these high standards.
This was just the beginning of the young man's career as a knight. Knights protected the lord's lands from invaders and fought in the lord's battles against other lords.
Medieval Background of the King Arthur Legend
To understand the “great misery of Britain〞when there was no true king, students need knowledge of the warlike tribes attacking the Roman Empire, sacking Rome, and taking land. The Angles, Saxons, Huns, Vandals, Goths, and Franks split the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern sections. In this pe riod of “Dark Ages,〞beginning about AD 450, Britain had no king or emperor. The British Isles were in turmoil. The people longed for a leader to protect the poor and keep justice.
By AD 476, many of the tribes had converted to Christianity and adopted the religion and customs of Rome. The Bishop of Rome (the Pope) had become the most important Church official whose power extended beyond church affairs. European monks lived as hermits or in monasteries isolated from the world. But St. Benedict’s reforms encouraged monks to work together, to spread Christianity, and to help the poor. Benedictine rules influenced other types of monasteries and convents so that religion had a great impact on the daily life of people as well as the liturgy of the Church. Gregorian chant, beloved by Benedict, became the official music of the
Catholic Church.
With the advance of Christianity, the reverence for the Holy Grail, thought to be the cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, and other relics spread across Europe. The Quest for the Holy Grail inspired hundreds of knights to search for heavenly objects that only the holy and pure could find. This spiritual journey can be better understood when students realize that in the middle ages earthly life was seen as a battle between heaven and hell. In this age of faith, belief in miracles prevailed, and witchcraft and magic were used to test truth and loyalty.
In 800 A.D., Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, the first emperor since 476. During his reign the empire expanded, Christianity spread, education and culture were encouraged, and communication and travel were improved.
Feudalism, a social system based on loyalty, developed. Kings needed warriors to fight for them; the warriors (vassals) needed land. The vassal swore to fight for the king, and the king pledged to protect his vassal. The feudal agreement was made in a church ceremony with the vassal paying homage to his king. The oath of fealty bound the king to his lords, the lords to their vassals, and the vassals to
dukes and knights. This sacred oath was respected throughout Europe. If a vassal failed to serve his lord, he became an outlaw, persecuted by other lords.
Knights of the Round Table lived by a code of chivalry built on courage, honor, and respect. In the fellowship of the Round Table, all were treated equally. Loyalty was owed to God and King.Truth and love were seen as worth dying for. For students, knowledge of knighthood and tournament games provides the background for understanding the pageantry and celebrations at Camelot. Familiarity with heraldry helps them understand the tragedy of brother slaying brother when each carries a shield without his own device as in the case with Balan and Balin in Chapter four.。