句法学
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1. Syntactic relations （句法关系）
Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:
relations of position （位置关系） relations of substitutability （替代关系） relations of co-occurrence （同现关系）
They are also called Horizontal Relations （横向关系） or simply Chain Relations（链 状关系）.
21
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world:
Each person may have one coin.
15
Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:
This man runs. These men run. The bird flies. These birds fly.
16
Structuralist School(结构主义学派)
13
1.4 Agreement (一致关系)
Agreement (or concord)，一致关系（或 协同关系），指的是两个或更多处于一定 语法关系中的词，要求在某些范畴上互相 保持一致的形式。
14
This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric (照应), as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent （先行词）,
12
In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:
Inflection （屈折变化） following a preposition （跟在介词后） word order （词序）
as manifested in
teacher : teacher‟s (属格，genitive case) I give a book to him（与格，dative） John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John
2
Syntax这个词本身就来自于希腊语，由两个语素构成。 Syn-表示“一起、共同”，-tax表示“安排、排列”。 Syntax本来的意思是“排列在一起”或“组合”的意 思。 Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配 规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
11
1.3 Case
The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative（受格，宾格）”, “nominative （主格）”, “dative（与格）”, “属格 (genitive)” ， “呼格（vocative）与“离格（ablativus ）”。 “John, could you come here?” “you stupid”呼格 He opened the door with a key.离格.
The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object
19
The boy kicked the ball
*Boy the ball kicked the(句子不满足句法条件) *The ball kicked the boy（kick的主语必须是 有生命的）
3
Traditional school (传统学派)
传统学派认为句子是词的序列。因此对句 子构造的研究涉及到了对词的大量的研究。 例如：词类是对词进行的分类，而主语、 谓语等是对词的功能的描写。
4
1.Category （范畴）
The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units（语言 单位的特性）:
7
1.2 Gender
Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter（阳性，阴性，中性）”, “animate : inanimate（有生命的，非生命的）”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.
Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender （自然性别和 语法性别）, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. For instance, in Latin, ignis „fire‟ is masculine, while flamma „flame‟ is feminine.
SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.
结构主义学派的创始人是瑞士语言学家索绪尔。 1916年，索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》出版，标 志着结构主义语言学的诞生，其反对对语言现象 进行孤立的分析，主张系统的研究。 结构结构主义语言学在20世纪上半期成为语言学 的主流，尽管它的各个学派在一些具体问题上有 不同的看法，但是他们的基本观点是一致的，就 是认为语言是一个完整的符号系统，具有分层次 的形式结构；在描写语言结构的各个层次时，特 别注重分析各种对立成分。
10
Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:
le poele (the stove) la poele (the frying pan) le pendule (the pendulum) la pendule (the clock)
Whose is this pen? --Oh, it‟s the one I lost.
or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:
6
In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
le cheval royal (the royal horse) les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)
9
In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house) Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.) La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
5
1.1 Number
Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
18
Байду номын сангаас
1.1 Relations of Position （位置关系）
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. （为了实现交际功能， 语言就必须有某种方式来标记小句中各种短语的 语法作用。）
8
English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender （自然性别）type.
he: she: it prince: princess author: authoress
?结构结构主义语言学在20世纪上半期成为语言学的主流尽管它的各个学派在一些具体问题上有不同的看法但是他们的基本观点是一致的就是认为语言是一个完整的符号系统具有分层次的形式结构
Chapter Four Syntax
1
Question
（1）how many morphemes are there in the word “denationalization”? （2）Under what circumstances, “I is……” can be seen a write beginning of a sentence?
The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher （受语义 的影响，语序的不同，句义不同。）
20
Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations （横组合关系或组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure.
1. Syntactic relations （句法关系）
Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:
relations of position （位置关系） relations of substitutability （替代关系） relations of co-occurrence （同现关系）
They are also called Horizontal Relations （横向关系） or simply Chain Relations（链 状关系）.
21
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world:
Each person may have one coin.
15
Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:
This man runs. These men run. The bird flies. These birds fly.
16
Structuralist School(结构主义学派)
13
1.4 Agreement (一致关系)
Agreement (or concord)，一致关系（或 协同关系），指的是两个或更多处于一定 语法关系中的词，要求在某些范畴上互相 保持一致的形式。
14
This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric (照应), as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent （先行词）,
12
In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:
Inflection （屈折变化） following a preposition （跟在介词后） word order （词序）
as manifested in
teacher : teacher‟s (属格，genitive case) I give a book to him（与格，dative） John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John
2
Syntax这个词本身就来自于希腊语，由两个语素构成。 Syn-表示“一起、共同”，-tax表示“安排、排列”。 Syntax本来的意思是“排列在一起”或“组合”的意 思。 Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配 规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
11
1.3 Case
The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative（受格，宾格）”, “nominative （主格）”, “dative（与格）”, “属格 (genitive)” ， “呼格（vocative）与“离格（ablativus ）”。 “John, could you come here?” “you stupid”呼格 He opened the door with a key.离格.
The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object
19
The boy kicked the ball
*Boy the ball kicked the(句子不满足句法条件) *The ball kicked the boy（kick的主语必须是 有生命的）
3
Traditional school (传统学派)
传统学派认为句子是词的序列。因此对句 子构造的研究涉及到了对词的大量的研究。 例如：词类是对词进行的分类，而主语、 谓语等是对词的功能的描写。
4
1.Category （范畴）
The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units（语言 单位的特性）:
7
1.2 Gender
Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter（阳性，阴性，中性）”, “animate : inanimate（有生命的，非生命的）”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.
Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender （自然性别和 语法性别）, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. For instance, in Latin, ignis „fire‟ is masculine, while flamma „flame‟ is feminine.
SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.
结构主义学派的创始人是瑞士语言学家索绪尔。 1916年，索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》出版，标 志着结构主义语言学的诞生，其反对对语言现象 进行孤立的分析，主张系统的研究。 结构结构主义语言学在20世纪上半期成为语言学 的主流，尽管它的各个学派在一些具体问题上有 不同的看法，但是他们的基本观点是一致的，就 是认为语言是一个完整的符号系统，具有分层次 的形式结构；在描写语言结构的各个层次时，特 别注重分析各种对立成分。
10
Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:
le poele (the stove) la poele (the frying pan) le pendule (the pendulum) la pendule (the clock)
Whose is this pen? --Oh, it‟s the one I lost.
or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:
6
In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
le cheval royal (the royal horse) les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)
9
In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house) Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.) La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
5
1.1 Number
Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
18
Байду номын сангаас
1.1 Relations of Position （位置关系）
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. （为了实现交际功能， 语言就必须有某种方式来标记小句中各种短语的 语法作用。）
8
English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender （自然性别）type.
he: she: it prince: princess author: authoress
?结构结构主义语言学在20世纪上半期成为语言学的主流尽管它的各个学派在一些具体问题上有不同的看法但是他们的基本观点是一致的就是认为语言是一个完整的符号系统具有分层次的形式结构
Chapter Four Syntax
1
Question
（1）how many morphemes are there in the word “denationalization”? （2）Under what circumstances, “I is……” can be seen a write beginning of a sentence?
The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher （受语义 的影响，语序的不同，句义不同。）
20
Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations （横组合关系或组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure.