哲学术语英汉对照

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哲学术语英汉对照

哲学术语英汉对照-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分 abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证 alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容 contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质 principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。

哲学专业的英文名词

哲学专业的英文名词
1. Metaphysics（形上学）：研究存在、实体和本质的学科，探讨现实的本质和不可见的现象。

2. Epistemology（认识论）：研究知识的起源、性质、限度和验证方法的学问。

3. Ethics（伦理学）：研究道德原则和价值观的学科，探讨如何判断行为的对错以及如何做出道德决策。

4. Logic（逻辑学）：研究与推理和论证相关的规则和原则的学科，帮助我们理性思考和辨别谬误。

5. Aesthetics（美学）：研究艺术、美和审美经验的学问，探讨美的本质和艺术的功能。

6. Philosophy of Mind（心灵哲学）：研究意识、心灵和思维的学科，涉及到意识的起源、本质和关系。

7. Philosophy of Science（科学哲学）：研究科学方法和科学知识的起源和本质的学科。

8. Political Philosophy（政治哲学）：研究政治权力、公正和社会秩序的学问。

这些是哲学专业中的一些常见英文名词，涵盖了不同领域的研究。

对于想要深入了解哲学的人来说，理解这些名词是很重要的。

在学术研究和讨论中，使用正确的英文术语可以提高交流的准确性和清晰度。

注意：以上内容仅供参考，具体术语使用请根据具体情况和相关权威资源进行确认。

哲学翻译词汇

哲学翻译词汇整理一.哲学家名称Acient Greek philosopherspythagoras n. 毕达哥拉斯（古希腊哲学家和数学家）Socrates n. 苏格拉底（古希腊哲学家）Plato 柏拉图Aristotles 亚里斯多德Leucippus流西普斯Democritus 德谟克利特Epicurus 伊壁鸠鲁（公元前341-270）Italian philosophersPetrarch彼特拉克（意）(1304～1374)Bruno (Giordano) （意）布鲁诺（1548年-1600）Galileo伽利略（意）(1564～1642)(Niccolo) Machiavelli马基雅维里（意）（1469—1527）Polish philosophersCopernicus哥白尼（波兰）（1473～1543）German philosophersKant: 康德（德）Nietzsche n. 尼采(德，1844-1900) (Ludwig) Feuerbach 费尔巴哈(Arthur) Schopenhauer 叔本华Hegel: 黑格尔， Hegelian,黑格尔的The Young Hegelians 青年黑格尔学派Marx 马克思Engels 恩格斯English and Scottish philosophers Francis Bacon 培根（英）（1561—1626）John Locke 洛克（英）Thomas Hobbes托马斯.霍布斯（英）Adam Smith 亚当.斯密斯(苏格兰)David Hume 休谟(苏格兰)Thomas Malthus托马斯.马尔萨斯Isaac Newton艾萨克.牛顿(Bertrand) Russell 罗素Ricardo 李嘉图French Philosophers(Rene) Descartes笛卡尔（法）Cartesian adj.笛卡尔的(Baruch) Spinoza 斯宾诺莎（法）(Denis) Diderot 狄德罗（法）(Charles) Montesquieu 孟德斯鸠（法）（1689年至1755年），(Francois) Voltaire 弗朗索瓦伏尔泰（法）（1694-1778），(Jean-Jacques) Rousseau 卢梭（法）(1712-1778)Claude-Henri Saint-Simon 克劳德.圣西门（1760年至1825年）Francois Charles Fourier弗朗索瓦.查尔斯.傅立叶（1772年至1837年）Jean-Paul Sartre 萨特Danish philosopherskierkegaard:n. 齐克果American philosophersJohn Dewey 杜威(美). Skinner 斯金纳（美）Talcott Parsons 帕森斯Chinese philosophersConfucius:孔子Lao Tzu: 老子Chuang Tzu 庄子二. 哲学流派philosophical sects 哲学学派Greek Philosophy 希腊哲学Arabian Philosophy 阿拉伯哲学German classical idealist philogophy:德国古典唯心主义哲学Classical German Philosophy德国古典哲学French Socialism法国的社会主义British Political Economy英国的政治经济学Marxist philosophy 马克思主义哲学empirical philosophy 经验哲学materialism: 唯物主义。

重要哲学术语英汉对照

a priori瞐 posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分 abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analytic瞫ynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingent瞡ecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义 empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论 function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibniz餾 Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论non睧uclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何non瞞onotonic logics 非单一逻辑Ockham餜azor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性的质 principle of non瞔ontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russell餾 paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjective瞣bjective distinction 主客区分 sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论things瞚n瞭hemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验three瞯alued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德注释计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous)2007年8月23日，22:02:47 | mindreader计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous) K-Means Cluster逐步聚类分析K means method, 逐步聚类法Kaplan-Meier, 评估事件的时间长度Kaplan-Merier chart, Kaplan-Merier图Kendall's rank correlation, Kendall等级相关Kinetic, 动力学Kolmogorov-Smirnove test, 柯尔莫哥洛夫-斯米尔诺夫检验Kruskal and Wallis test, Kruskal及Wallis检验/多样本的秩和检验/H检验Kurtosis, 峰度Lack of fit, 失拟Ladder of powers, 幂阶梯Lag, 滞后Large sample, 大样本Large sample test, 大样本检验Latin square, 拉丁方Latin square design, 拉丁方设计Leakage, 泄漏Least favorable configuration, 最不利构形Least favorable distribution, 最不利分布Least significant difference, 最小显著差法Least square method, 最小二乘法Least Squared Criterion，最小二乘方准则Least-absolute-residuals estimates, 最小绝对残差估计Least-absolute-residuals fit, 最小绝对残差拟合Least-absolute-residuals line, 最小绝对残差线Legend, 图例L-estimator, L估计量L-estimator of location, 位置L估计量L-estimator of scale, 尺度L估计量Level, 水平Leveage Correction，杠杆率校正Life expectance, 预期期望寿命Life table, 寿命表Life table method, 生命表法Light-tailed distribution, 轻尾分布Likelihood function, 似然函数Likelihood ratio, 似然比line graph, 线图Linear correlation, 直线相关Linear equation, 线性方程Linear programming, 线性规划Linear regression, 直线回归Linear Regression, 线性回归Linear trend, 线性趋势Loading, 载荷Location and scale equivariance, 位置尺度同变性Location equivariance, 位置同变性Location invariance, 位置不变性Location scale family, 位置尺度族Log rank test, 时序检验Logarithmic curve, 对数曲线Logarithmic normal distribution, 对数正态分布Logarithmic scale, 对数尺度Logarithmic transformation, 对数变换Logic check, 逻辑检查Logistic distribution, 逻辑斯特分布Logit transformation, Logit转换LOGLINEAR, 多维列联表通用模型Lognormal distribution, 对数正态分布Lost function, 损失函数Low correlation, 低度相关Lower limit, 下限Lowest-attained variance, 最小可达方差LSD, 最小显著差法的简称Lurking variable, 潜在变量Main effect, 主效应Major heading, 主辞标目Marginal density function, 边缘密度函数Marginal probability, 边缘概率Marginal probability distribution, 边缘概率分布Matched data, 配对资料Matched distribution, 匹配过分布Matching of distribution, 分布的匹配Matching of transformation, 变换的匹配Mathematical expectation, 数学期望Mathematical model, 数学模型Maximum L-estimator, 极大极小L 估计量Maximum likelihood method, 最大似然法Mean, 均数Mean squares between groups, 组间均方Mean squares within group, 组内均方Means (Compare means), 均值-均值比较Median, 中位数Median effective dose, 半数效量Median lethal dose, 半数致死量Median polish, 中位数平滑Median test, 中位数检验Minimal sufficient statistic, 最小充分统计量Minimum distance estimation, 最小距离估计Minimum effective dose, 最小有效量Minimum lethal dose, 最小致死量Minimum variance estimator, 最小方差估计量MINITAB, 统计软件包Minor heading, 宾词标目Missing data, 缺失值Model specification, 模型的确定Modeling Statistics , 模型统计Models for outliers, 离群值模型Modifying the model, 模型的修正Modulus of continuity, 连续性模Morbidity, 发病率Most favorable configuration, 最有利构形MSC（多元散射校正）Multidimensional Scaling (ASCAL), 多维尺度/多维标度Multinomial Logistic Regression , 多项逻辑斯蒂回归Multiple comparison, 多重比较Multiple correlation , 复相关Multiple covariance, 多元协方差Multiple linear regression, 多元线性回归Multiple response , 多重选项Multiple solutions, 多解Multiplication theorem, 乘法定理Multiresponse, 多元响应Multi-stage sampling, 多阶段抽样Multivariate T distribution, 多元T分布Mutual exclusive, 互不相容Mutual independence, 互相独立Natural boundary, 自然边界Natural dead, 自然死亡Natural zero, 自然零Negative correlation, 负相关Negative linear correlation, 负线性相关Negatively skewed, 负偏Newman-Keuls method, q检验NK method, q检验No statistical significance, 无统计意义Nominal variable, 名义变量Nonconstancy of variability, 变异的非定常性Nonlinear regression, 非线性相关Nonparametric statistics, 非参数统计Nonparametric test, 非参数检验Nonparametric tests, 非参数检验Normal deviate, 正态离差Normal distribution, 正态分布Normal equation, 正规方程组Normal P-P, 正态概率分布图Normal Q-Q, 正态概率单位分布图Normal ranges, 正常范围Normal value, 正常值Normalization 归一化Nuisance parameter, 多余参数/讨厌参数Null hypothesis, 无效假设Numerical variable, 数值变量Objective function, 目标函数Observation unit, 观察单位Observed value, 观察值One sided test, 单侧检验One-way analysis of variance, 单因素方差分析Oneway ANOVA , 单因素方差分析Open sequential trial, 开放型序贯设计Optrim, 优切尾Optrim efficiency, 优切尾效率Order statistics, 顺序统计量Ordered categories, 有序分类Ordinal logistic regression , 序数逻辑斯蒂回归Ordinal variable, 有序变量Orthogonal basis, 正交基Orthogonal design, 正交试验设计Orthogonality conditions, 正交条件ORTHOPLAN, 正交设计Outlier cutoffs, 离群值截断点Outliers, 极端值OVERALS , 多组变量的非线性正规相关Overshoot, 迭代过度Paired design, 配对设计Paired sample, 配对样本Pairwise slopes, 成对斜率Parabola, 抛物线Parallel tests, 平行试验Parameter, 参数Parametric statistics, 参数统计Parametric test, 参数检验Pareto, 直条构成线图（又称佩尔托图）Partial correlation, 偏相关Partial regression, 偏回归Partial sorting, 偏排序Partials residuals, 偏残差Pattern, 模式PCA（主成分分析）Pearson curves, 皮尔逊曲线Peeling, 退层Percent bar graph, 百分条形图Percentage, 百分比Percentile, 百分位数Percentile curves, 百分位曲线Periodicity, 周期性Permutation, 排列P-estimator, P估计量Pie graph, 构成图,饼图Pitman estimator, 皮特曼估计量Pivot, 枢轴量Planar, 平坦Planar assumption, 平面的假设PLANCARDS, 生成试验的计划卡（偏最小二乘法）Point estimation, 点估计Poisson distribution, 泊松分布Polishing, 平滑Polled standard deviation, 合并标准差Polled variance, 合并方差Polygon, 多边图Polynomial, 多项式Polynomial curve, 多项式曲线Population, 总体Population attributable risk, 人群归因危险度Positive correlation, 正相关Positively skewed, 正偏Posterior distribution, 后验分布Power of a test, 检验效能Precision, 精密度Predicted value, 预测值Preliminary analysis, 预备性分析Principal axis factoring,主轴因子法Principal component analysis, 主成分分析Prior distribution, 先验分布Prior probability, 先验概率Probabilistic model, 概率模型probability, 概率Probability density, 概率密度Product moment, 乘积矩/协方差Profile trace, 截面迹图Proportion, 比/构成比Proportion allocation in stratified random sampling, 按比例分层随机抽样Proportionate, 成比例Proportionate sub-class numbers, 成比例次级组含量Prospective study, 前瞻性调查Proximities, 亲近性Pseudo F test, 近似F检验Pseudo model, 近似模型Pseudosigma, 伪标准差Purposive sampling, 有目的抽样QR decomposition, QR分解Quadratic approximation, 二次近似Qualitative classification, 属性分类Qualitative method, 定性方法Quantile-quantile plot, 分位数-分位数图/Q-Q图Quantitative analysis, 定量分析Quartile, 四分位数Quick Cluster, 快速聚类Radix sort, 基数排序Random allocation, 随机化分组Random blocks design, 随机区组设计Random event, 随机事件Randomization, 随机化Range, 极差/全距Rank correlation, 等级相关Rank sum test, 秩和检验Rank test, 秩检验Ranked data, 等级资料Rate, 比率Ratio, 比例Raw data, 原始资料Raw residual, 原始残差Rayleigh's test, 雷氏检验Rayleigh's Z, 雷氏Z值Reciprocal, 倒数Reciprocal transformation, 倒数变换Recording, 记录Redescending estimators, 回降估计量Reducing dimensions, 降维Re-expression, 重新表达Reference set, 标准组Region of acceptance, 接受域Regression coefficient, 回归系数Regression sum of square, 回归平方和Rejection point, 拒绝点Relative dispersion, 相对离散度Relative number, 相对数Reliability, 可靠性Reparametrization, 重新设置参数Replication, 重复Report Summaries, 报告摘要Residual sum of square, 剩余平方和residual variance (剩余方差)Resistance, 耐抗性Resistant line, 耐抗线Resistant technique, 耐抗技术R-estimator of location, 位置R估计量R-estimator of scale, 尺度R估计量Retrospective study, 回顾性调查Ridge trace, 岭迹Ridit analysis, Ridit分析Rotation, 旋转Rounding, 舍入Row, 行Row effects, 行效应Row factor, 行因素RXC table, RXC表Sample, 样本Sample regression coefficient, 样本回归系数Sample size, 样本量Sample standard deviation, 样本标准差Sampling error, 抽样误差SAS(Statistical analysis system , SAS统计软件包Scale, 尺度/量表Scatter diagram, 散点图Schematic plot, 示意图/简图Score test, 计分检验Screening, 筛检SEASON, 季节分析Second derivative, 二阶导数Second principal component, 第二主成分SEM (Structural equation modeling), 结构化方程模型Semi-logarithmic graph, 半对数图Semi-logarithmic paper, 半对数格纸Sensitivity curve, 敏感度曲线Sequential analysis, 贯序分析Sequence, 普通序列图Sequential data set, 顺序数据集Sequential design, 贯序设计Sequential method, 贯序法Sequential test, 贯序检验法Serial tests, 系列试验Short-cut method, 简捷法Sigmoid curve, S形曲线Sign function, 正负号函数Sign test, 符号检验Signed rank, 符号秩Significant Level, 显著水平Significance test, 显著性检验Significant figure, 有效数字Simple cluster sampling, 简单整群抽样Simple correlation, 简单相关Simple random sampling, 简单随机抽样Simple regression, 简单回归simple table, 简单表Sine estimator, 正弦估计量Single-valued estimate, 单值估计Singular matrix, 奇异矩阵Skewed distribution, 偏斜分布Skewness, 偏度Slash distribution, 斜线分布Slope, 斜率Smirnov test, 斯米尔诺夫检验Source of variation, 变异来源Spearman rank correlation, 斯皮尔曼等级相关Specific factor, 特殊因子Specific factor variance, 特殊因子方差Spectra , 频谱Spherical distribution, 球型正态分布Spread, 展布SPSS(Statistical package for the social science), SPSS统计软件包Spurious correlation, 假性相关Square root transformation, 平方根变换Stabilizing variance, 稳定方差Standard deviation, 标准差Standard error, 标准误Standard error of difference, 差别的标准误Standard error of estimate, 标准估计误差Standard error of rate, 率的标准误Standard normal distribution, 标准正态分布Standardization, 标准化Starting value, 起始值Statistic, 统计量Statistical control, 统计控制Statistical graph, 统计图Statistical inference, 统计推断Statistical table, 统计表Steepest descent, 最速下降法Stem and leaf display, 茎叶图Step factor, 步长因子Stepwise regression, 逐步回归Storage, 存Strata, 层（复数）Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Strength, 强度Stringency, 严密性Structural relationship, 结构关系Studentized residual, 学生化残差/t化残差Sub-class numbers, 次级组含量Subdividing, 分割Sufficient statistic, 充分统计量Sum of products, 积和Sum of squares, 离差平方和Sum of squares about regression, 回归平方和Sum of squares between groups, 组间平方和Sum of squares of partial regression, 偏回归平方和Sure event, 必然事件Survey, 调查Survival, 生存分析Survival rate, 生存率Suspended root gram, 悬吊根图Symmetry, 对称Systematic error, 系统误差Systematic sampling, 系统抽样Tags, 标签Tail area, 尾部面积Tail length, 尾长Tail weight, 尾重Tangent line, 切线Target distribution, 目标分布Taylor series, 泰勒级数Test(检验)Test of linearity, 线性检验Tendency of dispersion, 离散趋势Testing of hypotheses, 假设检验Theoretical frequency, 理论频数Time series, 时间序列Tolerance interval, 容忍区间Tolerance lower limit, 容忍下限Tolerance upper limit, 容忍上限Torsion, 扰率Total sum of square, 总平方和Total variation, 总变异Transformation, 转换Treatment, 处理Trend, 趋势Trend of percentage, 百分比趋势Trial, 试验Trial and error method, 试错法Tuning constant, 细调常数Two sided test, 双向检验Two-stage least squares, 二阶最小平方Two-stage sampling, 二阶段抽样Two-tailed test, 双侧检验Two-way analysis of variance, 双因素方差分析Two-way table, 双向表Type I error, 一类错误/α错误Type II error, 二类错误/β错误UMVU, 方差一致最小无偏估计简称Unbiased estimate, 无偏估计Unconstrained nonlinear regression , 无约束非线性回归Unequal subclass number, 不等次级组含量Ungrouped data, 不分组资料Uniform coordinate, 均匀坐标Uniform distribution, 均匀分布Uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimate, 方差一致最小无偏估计Unit, 单元Unordered categories, 无序分类Unweighted least squares, 未加权最小平方法Upper limit, 上限Upward rank, 升秩Vague concept, 模糊概念Validity, 有效性VARCOMP (Variance component estimation), 方差元素估计Variability, 变异性Variable, 变量Variance, 方差Variation, 变异Varimax orthogonal rotation, 方差最大正交旋转Volume of distribution, 容积W test, W检验Weibull distribution, 威布尔分布Weight, 权数Weighted Chi-square test, 加权卡方检验/Cochran检验Weighted linear regression method, 加权直线回归Weighted mean, 加权平均数Weighted mean square, 加权平均方差Weighted sum of square, 加权平方和Weighting coefficient, 权重系数Weighting method, 加权法W-estimation, W估计量W-estimation of location, 位置W估计量Width, 宽度Wilcoxon paired test, 威斯康星配对法/配对符号秩和检验Wild point, 野点/狂点Wild value, 野值/狂值Winsorized mean, 缩尾均值Withdraw, 失访Youden's index, 尤登指数Z test, Z检验Zero correlation, 零相关Z-transformation, Z变换注释。

常用哲学术语

常用哲学术语
1. 本体论（Ontology）：关注存在的本质和实体之间的关系，研究存在的本源、本体和属性。

2. 存在（Being）：指实体的存在状态，可以是物质的或非物质的。

3. 形而上学（Metaphysics）：研究超越经验、本质、实在性等问题的哲学分支。

4. 认识论（Epistemology）：研究人类知识的来源、性质、限制和可靠性等问题的哲学分支。

5. 知觉（Perception）：指人类通过感官器官认知外部事物的过程，是认识论研究的重要对象之一。

6. 理智（Reason）：是指人类思维能力的高级形式，包括推理、分析、判断等能力。

7. 道德（Morality）：研究人类行为和价值观念的哲学分支，涉及良心、义务、责任等问题。

8. 名称（Nominalism）：一种认为抽象概念只是人类的命名约定而不存在于现实世界的哲学观点。

9. 经验主义（Empiricism）：认为知识源于经验和感官观察的哲学学说。

10. 索菲斯主义（Skepticism）：一种怀疑论哲学观点，认为人类无法获得绝对真理并且应该保持怀疑态度。

11. 逻辑学（Logic）：研究推理和论证形式的哲学分支。

12. 实证主义（Positivism）：认为只有经验和科学可以为真理提供证明的哲学学说。

13. 伦理学（Ethics）：研究道德价值和行为原则的哲学分支。

14. 教育哲学（Philosophy of Education）：研究教育的本质、意义和目标，包括教学方法和教育理论。

15. 自由主义（Liberalism）：一种主张个人自由和人权的政治哲学观点。

英日对照-哲学词汇

actuality-現実性adequate-十全aesthetics-美学agnosticism-不可知論analytic philosophy-分析哲学a priori-先天的archetype-原型asceticism-禁欲主義assertive-信念表明型atheism-無神論attributive-属性表示的autonomy-自律axiology-価値論axiomatism-公理主義belief-信念categorical judgment-定言的判断casuistry-決疑論causality-因果関係casual theory-因果説certitude-確実性cluster theory-群理論commissive-行為拘束型Confucianism-儒教Confucius-孔子connotation-内包contemplation-観想contingency-偶然correlation-相関関係cosmogony-宇宙発生論cosmos-宇宙creature comfort-肉体的快楽declaration-宣言型deduction-演繹definite description-確定記述denotation-外延description-記述descriptive theory-記述理論determinism-決定論dialectic-弁証法dialectical materialism-弁証法的唯物論directive-行為司令型disjunctive syllogism-選言的三段論法distribution-周延dualism-二元論eclecticism-折衷主義empiricism-経験論Epicurean-快楽主義のepistemology-認識論eschatology-終末論essential attribute-本質的属性essential condition-本質条件eudemonism-幸福主義expressive-心情表現型extenuation-外延extrapolate-外挿する、推論するfallacy-虚偽figure of syllogism-演繹的推論法given-所与hedonism-快楽主義heuristic principle-発見的原理holistic-全体論的homily-法話hypothetical syllogism-仮言的三段論法idea-理念idealism-観念論identification-同定identify-同定するidentity-同一性illocutionary-発話内image-形象immediacy-直接性induction-帰納法inference-推論intention-意図intentionality-指向性irony-反語linguistic turn-言語論的転回logical positivism-論理実証主義macroscopic-巨視的major premise-大前提materialism-唯物論maxim-格率、格言metaphysics-形而上学minor premise-小前提modal logic-様相論理学monism-一元論mood-式naming-名指しnecessity-必然性nihilism-虚無主義norm-規範objectivism-客観論obscurantism-曖昧主義ontology-存在論paradigm-パラダイムparadox-逆説personalism-人格主義pessimism-厭世主義phenomenology-現象学pluralism-多元論posit-仮定postulate-公準predicate-述語premise-前提preparatory condition-事前条件principle of identity-同一原理proposition-命題propositional content-命題内容propositional function-命題関数providence-摂理raison d’etre-存在理由rationalism-合理主義realism-実在論reference-指示reflection-反省representation-表象representative content-表象内容rigidity-固定性scholasticism-スコラ哲学scientific empiricism-科学的経験主義scientific philosophy-科学哲学sincerity condition-誠実条件singular concept-単独概念singular judgment-単独判断solipsism-唯我論sophist-詭弁家speculation-思弁speech act-言語行為stoicism-ストア哲学substance-実体syllogism-三段論法Taoism-道教tautology-同語反復teleology-目的論term-名辞transcendentalism-超越論trinity-三位一体universal judgment-全称判。

哲学术语英汉对照

a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。

(完整版)马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇

(完整版)马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇目的本文档旨在提供一个完整的马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇表，以协助研究和理解马克思主义哲学中的重要概念和术语。

内容以下是一些常用的马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇：1. Dialectical Materialism - 辩证唯物主义2. Historical Materialism - 唯物史观3. Class struggle - 阶级斗争4. Proletariat - 无产阶级5. Bourgeoisie - 资产阶级6. Means of production - 生产资料7. Surplus value - 剩余价值8. Alienation - 异化9. Socialist Revolution - 社会主义革命10. Dictatorship of the proletariat - 无产阶级专政请注意，以上仅为示例词汇，文档中将提供更全面的词汇表。

马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇目的本文档旨在提供一个完整的马克思主义哲学英语专业词汇表，以协助研究和理解马克思主义哲学中的重要概念和术语。

中英文哲学名词解释

形上学(Metaphysics)：研究我们所接触的物质世界的背後到底是什麽，甚至这个物质世界到底存不存在。

（见"唯物主义"及"唯心主义"）美学：研究一件事物要具备什麽元素才能称得上是"美"。

伦理学：研究人应以怎样的行为标准去生活，才能为人类带来幸福。

生态哲学(Ecophilosophy)：研究世界各地的哲学及文化趋势与地球生态的关系。

一元论(Monism)：宇宙万物都是由同一种元素造成的。

二元论(Dualism)：宇宙万物都由两部份组成的。

例如：柏拉图的二元论是"宇宙分为理型世界与感官世界"（见"理型论"）。

无神论(Atheism)：宇宙没有神。

一神论(Monotheism)：全宇宙只有一个神。

例如：基督教。

多神论(Polytheism)：宇宙中有多过一个神。

例如：佛教。

不可知论(Agnostism)：无法确定是否有神存在。

泛神论(Pantheism)：认为假如神是无穷无限的话，他便应存在於（他所造的）万物中。

自然神论(Deism)：相信神在创造宇宙万物之後，只会透过大自然显现自己，绝对不会透过超自然的方式显现。

知识论：关於知识的起源及其本质的一些理论。

宇宙论：关於宇宙、时间及空间的来由和它们的本质的一些理论。

理型论：宇宙分为"理型世界"和"感官世界"，比如说：人是由肉体（理型）和灵魂（感官）组成的。

机械论(Machanistism)：一种世界观，认为宇宙万物都在相同且永远不变的规则下活动，因此所有的变化都能用数学精确地计算出来。

存在主义(Existentialism)：研究人类的个体的存在，一个人的存在方式。

理想主义(Idealism)：相信在生命的基本物质上，有一种精神、思想存在着。

虚无主义(Nihilism)：每一件事物都没有特别的意义，怎样都可以。

理性主义(Rationalism)：在学习知识上，理性的思考是非常重要的。

马克思哲学术语[整理]

英汉马克思主义理论常用词汇Aabstract labour抽象劳动accumulation积累Adler,Max阿德勒,麦克斯Adorno,Theodor 阿多尔诺,西奥多aesthetics 美学agnosticism 不可知论alienation异化Althusser, Louis 阿尔都塞,路易anarchism 无政府主义ancient society 古代社会anthropology人类学archaeology and prehis tory考古学和史前史aristocracy贵族统治art艺术Asiatic society亚细亚社会Austro-Marxism奥地利马克思主义automation自动化BBakunin, Michael巴枯宁,米哈伊尔banks银行base and superstructure基础和上层建筑Bauer, Otto鲍威尔,奥托Benjamin, Walter本杰明,瓦尔特Bernal, John Desmond 贝纳尔,约翰·德斯蒙德Bernstein, Eduard伯恩施坦,爱德华Blanquism布朗基主义Blosh, Ernst布洛赫,恩斯特Bolshevism布尔什维克主义Bonapartism波拿巴主义bourgeoisie资产阶级Brecht, Bertol t布莱希特,贝托尔特Bukharin, Nikolai lvanovich布哈林,尼古拉·伊万诺维奇bureaucracy官僚机构Ccapital资本capitalism资本主义cartels and trusts卡特尔和托拉斯caste种姓centralization and concentration of capital资本集中和积累chance and necessity偶然性和必然性Christianity基督教circulation流通city state城邦civil society市民社会class阶级class conflict阶级冲突class consciousness阶级意识colonial and post-conlonial societies殖民社会和后殖民社会colonialism殖民主义commodity商品commodity fetishism商品拜物教communism共产主义competition竞争consumption消费contradiction矛盾cooperation协作cooperative association合作社corporation公司councils委员会credit and fictitious capital信用和虚拟资本crime犯罪crisis in capitalist society资本主义社会的危机critical theory批判理论critics of Marxism马克思主义的批评家culture文化DDarwinism达尔文主义democracy民主dependency theory依附论determinism决定论Deutscher, lsaac多伊切，艾萨克dialectical materialism辩证唯物主义dialectics辩证法dialectics of nature自然辩证法dictatorship of the proletariat 无产阶级专政distribution分配division of labour分工Dobb, Maurice多布，莫里斯domestic labour家务劳动Eecology生态economic crisis经济危机economics经济学economism经济主义education教育elite精英emancipation解放empires of Marx’s day马克思时代的帝国empiricism经验主义Engels, Friedrich恩格斯，弗里德里希equality平等ethics伦理Eurocommunism欧洲共产主义exchange交换exploitation剥削Ffalling rate of profit利润率趋于下降false consciousness虚假意识family家庭fascism法西斯主义feminism女权运动fetishism拜物教Feudal society封建社会feuerbach, Ludwig费尔巴哈，路德维希financial capital金融资本financial capital and interest银行资本和利息force武力forces and relations of production生产力和生产关系forms of capital and revenues资本的形态和收益Frankfurt school法兰克福学派freedom自由Ggeography 地理Goldmann,Lucien 戈尔德曼，卢西安Gramsci, Antonio 葛兰西，安东尼奥Grǖnberg, Carl 格律恩堡，卡尔HHadermas, jurgen 哈贝马斯，尤尔根Hegel,Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 黑格尔，乔治·威廉·弗里德里希Hegel and Marx 黑格尔和马克思hegemony 领导权Hilferding, Rudolf 希法亭，鲁道夫Hinduism 印度教historical materialism 历史唯物主义historicism 历史主义historigraphy 历史编纂学Horkheimer, Max 霍克海默，麦克斯Human nature 人的本性Iidealism 唯心主义ideology 意识形态imperialism and world market 帝国主义和世界市场individual 个人industrialization 工业化intellectuals 知识分子interest 利息internationalism 国际主义Internationals 国际Islam 伊斯兰教JJaures,Jean 饶勒斯，让joint-stock company 股份公司Judaism 犹太教KKantianism and Neo-Kantianism 康德主义和新康德主义Kautsky,Karl 考茨基，卡尔Keynes and Marx凯恩斯和马克思kinship 亲属关系knowledge,theory of 认识论Kollontai, Alexandra 柯伦泰，亚历山德拉Korsch,Karl 科尔施，卡尔Llabour aristocracy工人贵族labour power劳动力labour process劳动过程Labriola,Antonio拉布里奥拉,安东尼奥Lafargue,Paul拉法格,保尔landed property and rent地产和地租Lassalle,Ferdinand 拉萨尔,裴迪兰law法律legal Marxism合法马克思主义Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich列宁,弗·伊Leninism列宁主义Linguistics语言学literature文学logic逻辑学Lukács,Gy?rgy卢卡奇，乔治lumpenproletariat流氓无产阶级Luxemburg,Rosa 卢森堡,罗莎Lysenkoism李森科主义Mmachinery and machinofacture机器和大工业manufacture工场手工业Mao Tse-tung毛泽东Marcuse,Herbert马尔库塞,赫伯特Martov,Y.O.(Tsederbaum)马尔托夫,尤·奥·(策杰尔包姆) Marx,Karl Heinrich马克思,卡尔·亨利希Marx,Engels and contemporary politics马克思恩格斯和当时的政治Marxism,development of马克思主义的发展Marxism and the Third World马克思主义和第三世界Marxism in Eastern Europe东欧马克思主义Marxist economics in Japan日本马克思主义经济学materialism唯物主义matter物质means of production生产资料machanical materialism机械唯物主义mediation中介Mehring, Franz梅林,弗兰茨Mensheviks孟什唯克派merchant capital 商业资本middle class 中等阶级mode of production生产方式money 货币monopoly capitalism 垄断资本主义morals 道德multinational corporations跨国公司Nnation民族national bourgeoisie民族资本主义nationalism民族主义matural science自然科学nature自然needs需要negation否定non-capitalist modes of production非资本主义生产方式Oorganic composition of capital资本有机构成organized capitalism有组织的资本主义oriental despotism东方专制制度overproduction生产过剩PPannekoek,Antoine潘涅库克,安东尼Paris Commune 巴黎公社party政党Pauperization贫困化peasantry农民periodization of capitalism资本主义的历史分期petty bourgeoisie小资产阶级philosophy哲学Plekhanov,Georgii Valentinovich普列汉诺夫，格奥尔基·瓦连廷诺维奇political economy政治经济学population人口populism民粹主义positivism实证主义praxis实践Preobrazhensky,Evgeny Alexeyevich普列奥布拉任斯基，叶夫根尼·阿列克谢耶维奇price of production and the transformation problem生产价格和转化问题primitive accumulation原始积累primitive commumism原始共产主义production生产productive and unproductive labour生产劳动和非生产劳动profit利润progress进步prole tariat无产阶级property财产Proudhon,Pierre-Joseph蒲鲁东，皮埃尔-约瑟夫Psycho-analysis 精神分析学Psychology心理学Qquality and quantity质量和数量Rrace种族realism实在论reformism改良主义reification物化relations of production生产关系religion宗教Renner,Karl伦纳，卡尔rent地租reproduction再生产reproduction schema再生产公式reserve army of labour劳动后备军revis ionism修正主义revolution革命Ricardo and Marx李嘉图和马克思Roy,Manabendra Nath罗易，马纳卡德拉·纳特ruling class统治阶级Russian commune俄国公社SSarter,Jean-Paul萨特，让-保罗science科学scientific and technological revo lution科学和技术革命self-management自我管理serfdom农奴制slavery奴隶制social democracy社会民主social formation社会形态socialism社会主义socialization社会化socially necessary labour社会必要劳动society社会sociology社会学Sorel,Georges索列尔，若尔日Soviet Marxism苏联马克思主义Soviets苏维埃Sraffa,Piero斯拉法，皮尔罗stages of development发展阶段Stalin,Iosif Vissarionovich斯大林，约瑟夫·维萨里昂诺维奇Stalinism斯大林主义state 国家state monopoly capitalism国家垄断资本主义strikes罢工structuralism结构主义superstructure上层建筑surplus value剩余价值Ttechnology 技术totalitarianism 极权主义totality 总体性trade unions 工会transformation problem 转化问题transition from feudalism to capitalism 封建主义向资本主义的过渡transition to socialism 向社会主义的过渡tribal society 部落社会Trotsky,leon 托落茨基，列甫Trotskyism托落茨基主义truth 真理Uunderconsumption消费不足underdevelopment and development不发达和发达unequal exchange不平等交换uneven development不平衡发展unproductive labour非生产劳动urbanization城市化use value使用价值utopian socialism空想社会主义VValue价值value and price价值和价格value composition of capital资本价值构成value of labour power劳动力的价值violence暴力vulgar economics庸俗经济学surplus value and profit剩余价值和利润syndicalism工团主义Wwages 工资war战争Western Marxism西方马克思主义working class工人阶级working class movement工人阶级运动YYoung Hegelians青年黑格尔派。

119个哲学术语和解释

119个哲学术语和解释A ：哲学家专有名词1 辩证法（dialectic）一种被黑格尔和马克思大加使用的哲学方法，在辩证法中，矛盾之间互相对抗以达到真理。

辩证法的起源可以在古希腊哲学中找到。

2 白板（tabula rasa）洛克哲学中的术语。

洛克认为心灵就像一块白板，从而与天赋观念存在的学说相对立。

换句话说，心灵在人刚出生时是“空白的”，我们所知道的任何东西都必须通过经验“印上去”。

3 超人（ubermensch）尼采著作中的一个概念，指一个有可能在未来取代我们的卓越的人。

4 超验的（transcendent）独立的。

在宗教哲学中，超验的上帝与他所创造的宇宙是相分离的和迥然不同的。

这与内在的上帝概念相反，比如在泛神论中，上帝是等同于他的造物的，或可举一个不同的例子，在某种形式的人本主义那里，上帝是与人类相等同的（黑格尔主张这种观点）。

5 沉思（的生活）[contemplation（the life）]按照亚里士多德（和其他哲学家）的说法，这是最幸福的生活，即是思想和哲学的生活。

6 存在的世界（world of Being）柏拉图形而上学中的术语，指理想中的“形式”的世界，这个世界是没有变化的，我们只能通过理性和思想来认识这个世界。

7 单子（monad）莱布尼茨用来指一切不变事物的最终组成部分的非物质实体，上帝是唯一一个不是被创造的单子，他作为自我封闭的（“无窗的”）的先定实体创造了所有其他单子。

8 狄奥尼索斯式的（尼采）[Dionysian（Nietzsche）]艺术、精力和意志中的非理性原则。

9 公意（卢梭）[general will（Rousseau）]一个民族集体的愿望和决定。

10 信仰的飞跃（leap of faith）克尔凯郭尔的用语。

他认为一个人不可能证明他所信仰的东西。

11 海森堡不确定性原理（物理学中的）[Heisenberg uncertainty principle（in physics）]一个亚原子粒子的运动和位置不可能同时确定。

英汉哲学术语词典

Aaberrant 背离真理的，离经叛道的；越轨的；异常的；aberrant behavior 异常行为aberration 不合真情的，不合道德标准；像差；精神不健忘；abhorrent to reason 反理性的Abiding 房屋的，固定不变的，持久的abiogenesis (=abiogeny ) 自然发生；自然发生论，无生源说，偶发论abiogenetic 自然发生的；自然发生论的，无生源说的abiogeny 自然发生；自然发生论，偶发论abiotic 无生命的，非生物的abnorm 反常；变态abnormal 反常的；变态的abnormal reaction 异常反常abnormalism, abnormality 变态，变态性；反常的性质和状态；反常的事物abolish 取消，废除（某种制度和法律等）abolishable 可废弃的，可废除的abolition 废弃，取消；黑奴制度的废除aboriginal 最初的，元初的；原始的；原生的aboriginal language 土著语言aboriginal tribes 原始部落abreaction 发泄，宣泄，精神发泄疗法abrogate 废止；废除；扬弃absent-mindedness 心不在焉，神不守舍Absolute, the 绝对的存在；绝对者；（宇宙的）第一原因（first cause）;上帝（God） absolute accident 绝对附属性质，绝对附质absolute and relative truths 绝对真理和相对真理absolute a priori 绝对先天的absolute certitude 绝对必然性，绝对确实性absolute cognitive consciousness 绝对的认识意识；纯认知意识absolute completeness 绝对完备，绝对完备性absolute concept 绝对概念absolute consistency 相对相容性，绝对一致性，无矛盾性absolute definition 绝对定义absolute ego （费希特的）绝对自我absolute existence 绝对存在，绝对实存absolute good 绝对善，纯粹善absolute idealism （黑格尔的）绝对唯心论，绝对观念论（旧译），绝对唯心主义absolute idealist 绝对唯心论才，绝对观念论者（旧译），绝对唯心主义者absolute ideas 绝对观念，（黑格尔的）绝对理念absolute mind 绝对精神absolute notion 绝对概念absolute pragmatism 绝对的实用主义absolute reality 绝对本体，绝对实在absolute spirit （黑格尔哲学）绝对精神absolute value 绝对价值absoluteness 绝对，绝对性absoluter Geist [德]绝对精神absolutism 绝对论；专制主义；绝对宿命论absolutist 绝对论者；专制主义者；绝对论的；专制主义的；绝对论者的；专制主义者的；绝对宿命论者，绝对宿命论的abstinence 节制，禁欲abstract 抽象的；理论上的；观念的；（艺术上）抽象派的；抽象；抽象概念，抽象名词 abstract being 抽象存在abstract category 抽象范畴abstract entity 抽象的存在；抽象实体abstract idea 抽象观念abstract ideal theory 抽象观念论abstract proposition 抽象命题abstract reasoning 抽象推理abstract representation 抽象描述，抽象表述abstract thinking 抽象思维abstract thought 抽象思维能力，抽象推理能力abstract unity with itself 抽象的自身统一或同一abstraction 抽象，抽象化，抽象作用absurd 荒谬的，荒诞的，不合理的absurdism 荒诞主义，荒唐性；人生无意义论absurdist 荒诞主义者，荒诞主义哲学的提倡者或信奉者；荒诞主义的，有关（或涉及）荒诞主义的；荒诞剧的absurdity 荒谬；荒谬的事物或性质abuses of language 语言滥用academic 学术的；学院的；学究式的；理论的Academic 柏拉图学派的，学院派哲学的；柏拉图学派的人，学院派哲学家Academician 英国皇家美术院会员；法国美术院会员；苏联科学院院士；学院派哲学家 academicism (=academism) 学院主义，学院哲学的教义，学院式风气；传统主义Academy ,the 柏拉图学园；柏拉图哲学（又称学院派哲学）Academy of Plato 柏拉图学园acatalepsy (古代怀疑论者所谓的)不可知论，不可知性，概然论acataleptic （涉及）不可知论的，（具有）不可知论性质的；不可知论音，概然论者 acceptance 接受；承认；认可accepted 常规的；（被）认可的；公认为真实的access 接近；途径，门路（指手段、方法等）accessible 可接近的；容易理解的，易受影响的accident 偶然性，意外事件accidental 偶然的，偶发的；不具有实质（或内在）性质的，非本质的；附带的；非本质特性，偶然属性accidental event 偶然事件，意外事件accidentalism 偶然论，偶生论；偶然结果；偶发事件accidentality 偶然性，偶有性accommodation 调节；顺应，迁就accountability 有责任，有义务；可解释性，可说明性accumulation 积累achievable 可达到的；可获得的acme, the 顶点，极度acme of perfection, the 十全十美，尽善尽美acon （地质）十亿年，十亿期acosmic 宇宙否定论的，无宇宙论的，否认现世世界是客观存在的acosmism 无宇宙论，无世界论acquaimtance 相识；（从经验中获得的）知识，习知acquired 获得的，习得的；已成习惯的，后天的acquired taste 后天嗜好acquisition 习得；获得；获得物active being 主动的存在active intellect 能动的知性activism 行动论；能动性；能动主义activist 能动论者；能动论者的，有关或涉及能动论者的；能动论的，有关或涉及能动论的 activity 活动，活动性actual value 内在价值actuality 现实性；现实adage 格言，谚语Adam （《圣经》）亚当；最初的人Adaptation 适应，顺应addition 加，加法adequate 充分的，合适的adjoint 伴随的；伴随adjudication 判决aesthetic(=esthetic) 美学；美学的，审美的；感性的aesthetic sense 美感，美意识aesthetic sentiment 美的情操aesthetician 美学家，审美学家，审美学者aestheticist 美学家；审美学家aesthetics 美学；（康德哲学）感性论aetiological 原因论的aetiology 原因论affection 情感，爱；影响，作用affiliation 亲密关系affinity 亲和力；姻亲关系；关系密切；构造（或结构）近似after-effect 后效应；副作用afterimage 残像，余像afterthought 回想；追悔age 年龄；时代；时期；年代agent 行动者；原因；动因；作用物agent intellect 起动因作用的理智agent of the world-spirit 世界精神的代理人aggregate 使聚集；聚合的；集合aggregation 聚集作用，集合体；（生态）集合生活aggressiveness 攻击性，侵略性agitation 不安，激动agnostic 不可知论的；不可知论者的；不可知论者agnostical realism 不可知论的实在论agnosticism 不可知论agnosticist 不可知论者alchemist 炼丹术士的，炼金术的aleatory 侥幸的，碰运气的alien 相异的，异己的alienate 疏远，异化alienated labor 异化劳动alienation 异化alienism 精神病学alienist 精神病学家alignment （政治上的）结盟；合作；（系统内的）调整allegiance 忠顺，忠诚；虔诚allegory 比喻；寓言，寓意Allfather 神，上帝all-nature 整个自然界allocution 训谕almightiness 全能，万能almighty 全能的，万能的Almighty God, the（=God Almighty=the Almighty）全能之神，上帝 alternative 二者择一的；选代的；互斥性；选代alternative case 可供选择的情况，可供选择的事例altruism 利他主义（A.孔德用语）altruist 利他主义者，信奉利他主义的人altruistic 利他的，利他主义的amalgamation （社会、思想等）同化，融合amalgamation of thought and action 思想与行动的一致ambiguity 含糊，模棱两可的语意；双重意义（double meaning） ambiguous 有歧义的，语议含混的，模棱两可的ambit 界限；范围ambitendency 自我矛盾倾向ambition 野心；功名心；宏愿的目标ambivalence （对同一人、事、物的）矛盾心理；双重性amelioration改善，改良ament 低能者，智力欠缺的人；白痴Americanologist 美国问题专家amorphism 虚无主义；无定形现象，无定形amphibol（o）gy（o）gy 模棱两可的言词；意义含糊amphibolous 含糊的，模棱两可的anabolism 同化作用，同化，物质合成代谢Analects of Confucius 《伦语》analogic（al）类推的，类比的；根据类似的analogous 类似的，相似的analysis and synthesis 分析与综合analytic and synthetic propositions 分析命题和综合命题analytic geometry 解析几何analytic judgment a priori 先天分析判断analytic Marxism 分析的马克思主义analytic Marxist 分析的马克思主义者analytic philosophy 分析哲学，哲学分析（philosophical analysis） analytic philosophy of language 语言分析哲学anarchism 无政府主义；无政府状态，无政府anarchistic（al）无政府主义的，关于（或倾向于）无政府主义的 Anaximandrian 阿那克西曼德哲学的ancient Greek views of nature 古希腊的自然观ancient materialism 古代唯物主义ancient of Days, the 上帝，神ancient philosophy 古代哲学ancients, the 古代文明的人民（尤指古希腊罗马人）angelology 天使说animal soul 动物的灵魂animal spirits 生命精气；元气（liveli-ness）；元精anmal worship 动物崇拜animatism 物活论animatist 物活论者animism 泛灵论，万物有灵论animist 泛灵论者，万物有灵论者animistic materialism 泛灵论唯物主义animistic materialist 泛灵论唯物主义者annals 年鉴，编年史annihilation 灵魂与肉体的毁灭annotated 附注释的，有注释的annotation 注释Anointed, the 救世主，基督anomaly 不规则，反常现象，异常anomy（=anomie）（社会）反常状态，混乱；无法无天行为；无律anonymous 匿名的，无名的，假名的Anselm’s ontological argument of the existence of God 安塞姆关于上帝存在的本体论论证 antagonism 敌对，对立；对抗性，对抗作用antagonistic（al）对抗性的，敌对的，不相容的anteriority 先前，原先anthem 赞美诗，赞歌anthology 选集anthropic 人类的，与人类有关的anthropism（=anthropocentrism）人类中心主义，人类中心说，人类本位观anthropocentric 以人类为宇宙中心的；人类中心主义的；以人类标准观察和解释宇宙万物的 anthropologism 人本主义anthropologist 人类学家；人本主义者anthropology 人类学；文化人类学，哲学人类学anthropomorphic 神人同形或同性论的anthropomorphism 拟人说，神人同形或同性论；拟人化anthropomorphist 神人同形或同性论者anthropomorphous 有人形的，似人的anthropophuism 神人同形或同性论anticipation 预想；预期；期待antinomy 二律背反，（法律、原则、法则的）矛盾；悖论antinomy of liar 说谎者悖论antitheism 反有神论，无神论antitheist 反有神论者，无神论者antithesis 对立；对立面；反题antithetic（al）正相反的，对立的apathy 无动于衷，冷淡，情感淡漠apeman 猿人apex 顶点，顶峰aphorism 格言，警句Apocalypse, the 《圣经》中的《启示录》apodeictic （=apodictic）表达必然真理的；必然的；可以明确表示或证明的；绝对肯定的apologetics （基督教的）辩证学，护教学，辩证论apologist 辩护士，辩护者，护教论者apology 辩护，辩解aporetic 怀疑的a posteriori [拉]后天的；归纳的；后天地，归纳地Apostle （基督教）十二使徒之一。

哲学的专业英语术语有哪些

哲学的专业英语术语有哪些哲学的专业英语术语有哪些哲学是社会意识形态之一，是关于世界观的学说。

是理论化、系统化的世界观，是自然知识、社会知识、思维知识的概括和总结，是世界观和方法论的统一。

关于哲学，总感觉是抽象的，难以理解的。

下面，还是一起来看一些哲学的专业英语术语，初步了解一下哲学。

1).philosophyAt the mention of philosophy, he seems to talk endlessly.1).n.哲学，哲理一提到哲学，他似乎有说不完的话。

2).materialismWe advocate materialism and oppose idealism2).n.唯物主义我们提倡唯物主义，而反对唯心主义。

3).idealismThe philosopher is talking historical idealism with us3).n.唯心主义，理想主义这位哲学家正在和我们讨论唯心史观。

4).world outlookOur problem is what kind of world outlook we will build4).世界观我们的问题是我们将建立什么样的世界观。

5).phenomenonIt is a common phenomenon that young people offer their seats to old people In the bus5).n.现象年轻人在公交车上给老年人让位，这是一个普遍现象。

6).essenceThe essence of this article is that we should take measures toprotect environment6).n.本质，要素，精华这篇文章的本质内容是我们应该采取措施保护环境。

7).substanceWe are surprised to find that the substance of this material is carbon.7).n.实质我们很惊奇地发现这种物质的实质成分是碳。

科学哲学术语对照表

ad hoc hypothesis 特设性假说naive realism 朴素实在论anomaly 反常negative heuristic 反面启发法auxiliary assumption 辅助假定non-normal science 非常规科学auxiliary hypothesis 辅助假说non-science 非科学basic statement 基本陈述normal science 常规科学behaviourism 行为主义object language 对象语言conceptual framework 概念框架objectivism 客观主义confirm 确证observational statement 观察陈述confirmation 确证operativism 操作主义conjecture 推测panpsychism 泛心论conventionalism 约定论parallelism 平行论conversion改宗、改变信仰paradigm 规范corroborate 确认perceptual experience 知觉经验corroboration 确认physicalism 物理主义counter-induction 反归纳pluralism 多元论critical rationalism 批判理性主义pluralistic realism 多元实在论critical realism 批判实在论positive heuristic 正面启发法critical thought批判思维positivism 实证主义crucial experiment 判决性实验potential falsifier 潜在证伪者deduction 演绎、演绎法prescience 前科学degree of corroboration 确认度principle of induction 归纳原理determinism 决定论principle of proliferation 扩散原理dogmatic thought 教条思维principle of tenacity 靭性原理demarcation 分界principle of transference 传递原理disposition 素质、倾向problem of induction 归纳问题downward causation 下向因果性problem shift 问题转换emergence 突现problem situation 问题状况epiphenomenalism 附带现象论proof 证明epistemological anarchy 认识论无政府状态propensity 倾向性epistemology 认识论pseudo-science 类科学、伪科学error-elimination 除错psychologism 心理主义essentialism 本质论radical instrumentalism 激进工具主义explanation 解释rationalism 理性主义fallibilism 易谬主义rationality 理性fallibility 易谬性realism 实在论falsifiability 可证伪性reality 实在falsification 证伪reductionism 还原论falsificationism 证伪主义refutability 可反驳的falsify 证伪refutation 反驳falsity content 虚假性内容research programme 研究纲领first world 第一世界second world 第二世界formal language 形式语言simplicity 简单性gestalt switch 格式塔转换singular statement 单称陈述improbablity 不可几性sophisticated falsificationism 精致的证伪主义irrationalism 非理性主义subjectivism 主观主义guess 猜测tentative theory 试验性理论heuristic 启发法test 检验hypothesis 假说testability 可检验性indeterminism 非决定论theory-laden 渗透理论induction 归纳、归纳法third world 第三世界inductionism 归纳主义thought experiment 思想实验initial condition 初始条件trial and error 试错法instant rationality 即时理性truth content 真理性内容instrumentalism 工具主义universal statement 全称陈述interactionism 相互作用论upward causation 上向因果性irrefutability 不可反驳性verifiability 可证实的justification 证明verification 证实justify 证明verify 证实justificationism 证明主义verisimilitude 逼真性logical positivism 逻辑实证主义world 1 世界1macrologic 宏观逻辑world 2 世界2mentalism 精神主义world 3 世界3metalanguage 元语言metascience 元科学metatheory 元理论micrologic 微观逻辑naive falsificationism 朴素证伪主义naive instrumentalism 朴素工具主义。

简明哲学术语英语词典

简明哲学术语英语词典A BRIEF LEXICON OF PHILOSOPHICAL TERMSA BRIEF LEXICON OF SOME COMMONLY USED PHILOSOPHIC AL TERMS IN THE PRESENT DAYhttp://www.tcdsb.on.ca/external/schools/chaminade/oac-philosophy/public_h tml/lexicon.htmEdited and copyright Ó 1989 by F.F. CentoreA POSTERIORI (to come after in time): That which follows upon or depends upon sense experience; a knowledge of things which cannot be arrived at or deduced from definitions alone. E.g., if it is rainin g today I could not know that fact simply by knowing the definition s of "rain," "today," etc. I must learn about it by either observing it for myself or having some other observer convey t he information to me.A PRIORI (prior to in time): That which comes before sense experie nce; that which does not require sense knowledge to be known as tru e. Cf. "armchair" mathematicians. E.g., I know a circle is round by definition, even if I had never seen a circle in my life. ABSTRACTION (ab-trahere; to draw out): The mental concentration o n one aspect of something while ignoring other aspects; contrasted wi th the whole, CONCRETE thing, e.g., sweetness—this orange; humann ess-Sally. It does not necessarily entail or imply the actual divisionor separation of the different aspects of the thing as it exists outside of the mind.ABSURD (ab-surdus; senseless): That which is self—contradictory, imp ossible, e.g., a square circle; hence, meaningless, ridiculous,irrational. In 20th c. phil. the term is often used by Atheistic Existentialists, such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, to refer to the human co ndition, i.e., the "absurd man" must learn to survive, without committ ing suicide, in a meaningless, de tr op, world, one which hasn’t come from anywhere and which is not going anywhere. The world and hu mans are "surds," things without any reason for being.ACADEMIC FREEDOM: The right to do research and teach in accord ance with the standards of the institution you freely chose to join an d by whose moral and intellectual principles you freely agreed to abi de. Hence, IF both the individual and the leaders of the institution k now what they are about in the first place, there-cannot be any-confli ct between one’s pe rsonal,conscience and the school. If such should arise due to a change on the part of the teacher, in good conscience the teacher should voluntarily leave.AD HOMINEM (against the person): In logic, a pseudo—argument dir ected against some personal characteristic of the opponent rather than against the substance of the position. E.g., Einstein couldn’t have be en right; just look at the way he combed his hair!AESTHETICS (aisthanesthai; to perceiveby the senses): Theories conce rning the nature, origins, and appreciation of the beautiful. AGNOSTICISM (a—gnostos; unknown): In Latin, ignorance. Claiming t hat nothing is known concerning the answers to the ultimate question s of science, phil., theology, and life in general. Such knowledge is lacking now, but we may get it in the future. E.g., Darwin claimed t hat he didn’t have any certain knowledge about the existence of God and human freedom.ALIENATION (alius; other): In general, the withdrawing or removing of one thing from another; to be left out; estranged. In 19th c. phil., the "For—Itself" losing itself to the "In—Itself," which then comes t o stand over in opposition against the "For—Itself." In Hegel, The A bsolute Spirit (God) becoming other in the form of the Material worl d which is determined and mechanisti c in accordance with the Newto nian laws of nature. In Marx, the workers losing their profits to the capitalists; their labor, which is the source of all wealth, is alienate d from themselves. In Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud, the proj ection of human father—figure traits into the heavens so as to produ ce God; the losing of human nature, which is real, to divine nature, which is unreal but which nevertheless, as an obsessional neurosis, st ands in opposition to man. In Sartre, the human condition of the ab s olute, autonomous, free will (the For—Itself, non-being, nothingness) i n opposition to the oppressive, inert world of physical matter (the In —Itself, being); inexplicably the In-Itself produces the For—Itself; bei ng recoils against itself to produce the n othingness of human conscio usness; it’s me (my consciousness) against the world (including other people).ALTRUISM (alter; the other): Showing an unselfish love for others. ANALOGOUS USAGE: In general, the same term has a meaning that’s partially the same and partially different in different contexts; very common in ordinary language. E.g., tall man, ta;; tree; good flatwor m, good husband; true diamond, true friend, true love; beautiful flow er, beautiful building, beautiful person, etc.ANALOGY (ana—logos; to say again): A ratio of one thing to anothe r; a comparison; usually meaning that two things are the same in at least one respect even though there may be differences in other respe cts. Main types: ATTRIBUTION: The trait belongs to only one of the things being compared but is attributed by the mind to something else, e.g., only a whole organism is really healthy but we can also cal l vitamin C healthy because of its relationship to health in the body. GENUS, INEQUALITY: Both a man and a dog are animals; "an imal" is the genus to which they both belong; we can compare them by p ointing out this sameness. However, although they are equally animals they are not equal animals, i.e., man is superior to dog. IMPROPER PROPORTIONALITY: Literary devices and comparisons; "Pretty as a picture;" "The sunset was a great pool of blood lying on the horizo n;" "My love is like a red, red rose...;" etc. This sort is very import ant in rhetoric, poetry, persuasive speech, etc., and can add a great deal of enjoyment to our lives, but is not so useful in science, phil., and theology. PROPER PROPORTIONALITY:The most important in phil. Here there is a strict proportion of prop ortions; the individual terms of one proportion are not proportionate t o the individual terms of the other pro portion, but the whole proporti on between the terms on one side is proportionate to the whole prop ortion between the terms on the other side of the relationship. E.g., 3/6 = 5/10; the good for a flatworm is to the nature of a flatworm as the good for a human is to the nature of a human; knowledge in God is to the essence of God as knowledge in an angel is to the e ssence of an angel as knowledge in a human is to the essence of a human. 3 and 5 are different numbers; goodness and knowledge are d ifferent in each of the cases mentioned. Yet, even though the numera tors and denominators are not the same, the proportion holds. What t he sets have in common is the same relationship within each of the respective proportions. This is very important when it comes to rea so ning by analogy in phil., especially in the Phil. of Being.ANALYTIC STATEMENT: (see A Priori).ANGST (die Angst——German; mir 1st angst-—I am afraid; anxiety, a nguish): Term popularized by Heidegger; the human condition when A theistic Existentialism takes hold and we become fully aware of the meaninglessness of life. Also known as Existential or Objectless Anxi ety; state of being forlorn, lost; aimless; bored. ANTHROPOMORPHISM (anthropos-morphos; human-shaped): Having hu man traits; attributing human traits to non—humans, such as to anima ls or to the gods.APPEARANCE (ad-parere; to come forward and show yourself): That which shows itself in any way, either to the senses or to the mind. Cf. PHENOMENON (phainein; to show).ARGUMENT (argos; white; arguere; to clarify): Words arranged in su ch a way so as to persuade somebody of something; a proof; to mak e clear by "spelling it out;" a reasoning process which goes from the truth of some given statements to the truth of some other statement (s). Either Deductive or Inductive.ASSUMPTION (assumere; to take up): Something taken for granted wi thout proof.ATHEISM (a-theos; godless): A denial of God’s existence; usually me aning the denial of the Judaeo—Christian God of the Bible.ATOM (a-tomos; indivisible): The smallest possible unit of material r eality. Atomism as a phil. of all reality was first developed by the a ncient Greeks.ATTACKING A STRAW MAN: In logic, a faulty argument which mis ses the main point of something and instead of directing its rebuttal against the opponent’s true point sets up a false point (a straw man) which it then proceeds to attack as if it were the true point. E.g., the traditional religious position on human nature and freedom is that we are free but that we also have a nature (essence) which sets li mits to what we are capable of doing freely (e.g., we are not free t o fly by flapping our arms). Someone such as Sartre, though, claims that having a positive essence necessarily determines all of our action s so that we are not free at all. But thi s is to sidestep the original position which was to be argued against.AUTHENTICITY (authentikos; one who acts boldly, the master): In 2 0th c. phil., doing what, you want to do without making any excuses or giving any reasons; to be true to yourself by act ing in oppositio n to others. Cf. Jean—Paul Sartre: "Hell is other people." Cf. his Be ing and Nothingness, III, 3, iii: "The essence of the relations betwee n consciousnesses is not the Mitsein; it is conflict."AUTHORITY (auctor; originator): The right to d irect and rule; a mor al power, not based on physical force, although force must often be used in practice. Presupposes the freedom of those commanded; only free beings can responsibly respond to an order. E.g., the difference between the government orderin g the rain not to fall and ordering cit izens to pay taxes.AUTONOMOUS (auto—nomos; self-law): In 20th c. phil., being a law unto yourself; disregarding the needs of others if you want to and not feeling guilty about it; acting without any external guidelin es, rul es, objective measures of what’s good and bad or right and wrong. " Doing your own thing."AXIOM (axios; worthy): Something obvious enough to be taken for g ranted."BAD FAITH": In 20th c. phil., acting in a non-authentic and non-au tonomous way.BECOMING (becuman-—Old English): Any motion or change; any pro cess of passing from potency to act; any condition of being different from what something was before.BEGGING THE QUESTION: Assuming the truth of the thing to be pr oven; circular argument. E.g., you can tell the age of the rock stratafrom the fossils and we know the fossilsare of a certain age because of the rock strata in which they are fo und; This is an IQ test. Yes but what is IQ? It is what the IQ test tests for. Sometimes it is called a vicious circle (vitium; corrupt, vi ce) because of its faultiness.BEHAVIORISM: In the 20th c., philosophical Reductionism applied to the study of humans. Developed by J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner; a dopted by A.J. Ayer.BEING (esse; to be): That which is in any wa y whatsoever, whether in or out of the wind, whether actual or possible. A BEING: That w hich is in existence here and now in any way whatsoever.BEING-FOR-ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-pour-soi), the nihilation of being within eac h human being; the basis for consciousness of the world and self—consciousness; that which sta nds out in opposition to being even though it is itself a creation of being; human nature.BEING-IN—ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-en-soi), the non-conscious, inert, dead, inexplicable, physical nature w orld of being; the full world; the world without the admixture of not hingness; the world that simply is; what we will become at death. BEING OF REASON: In Latin: ens rationis; plural: entia rationis. So mething which cannot exist outside the mind; it can have only mental existence; a logical being; a mental construct, but which nevertheles s has a foundation in extramental reality. E.g., negations and privatio ns——talking about something which i sn’t there; logical devices to de al with things as thought——abstractions, subjects and predicates in p ropositions, genera and species, etc. It does not refer to simply imagi native entities, e.g., a flying horse, or the numerous Hollywood creati ons. (see Intention)CATEGORY (kata—agora; by the town square where people congregat e): A more definite arrangement of things; a narrowing down of some thing broad and open; a classification; putting something into a class, group, set, type, sort, etc., as set of f fro m other groups, classes, e tc.CATHOLIC (kata-holos; •in with the whole): That which is universal and all—encompassing. Most usually used in The Roman Catholic Chu rch: A universal religious organization with its HQ in Rome whose o bligation it is to convey the message of Christ to all parts of the w orld until the end of time.CAUSE (causa): That upon which something else is dependent for its existence; that which in any way influences the being or becoming of something; the reason for the exisence of somethin g; the principle from which something flows. Aristotle’s four main types of causes: MATERIAL: That out of which something is made; that which is inpotency to become something else, e.g., the wood used in making a chair. AGENT orEFFICIENT: The real thing that works on the material to wake the t hing, e.g., the carpenter. The agent cause must be a really existing t hing; a possible carpenter cannot make anything. FORMAL: The form or nature of the thing made, e.g., it’s a chair rather than a table, e tc. In this case it is an artifact, and so the form is accidental to th e material. In the case of a natural entity, such as a human being o r an oak tree, the form would be essential. FINAL: The purpose, end, goal, or reason why the thing is made. In the case of a na tural thi ng, the Formal Cause, once in existence, acts as an Agent Cause to produce the Final product, e.g., an acorn growing into an oak tree. T hus Aristotle can treat the last three causes as one cause in natural operations. Beware of pseudo—causes. Time, for instance, is not a ca use of anything; it cannot heal any wounds or bring about the creati on of a new species. How did you get from New York to Toronto? It took a long time. HOW did man develop from the apes? It took a long time.CENSORSHIP (censere; to tax or assess costs): In common usage, al ways bad and incompatible with a free society; the unjustified suppre ssion of public expression. But this should not be confused with the justified regulation of the popular media. E.g., the control of informa tion in time of war; the suppression of hate literature or material de grading or exploiting people, such as pornography; the control of mat erial inciting riots, violence, and sedition; copyright laws preventing one person from stealing the work of another; l aws forbidding the tel ling of lies about people in public, etc. Also, in any decent society self-censorship is necessary.CERTITUDE (certus; cernere; to sift out, to discern): The state of be ing certain and settled in one’s view; a firm assent to an intell igible statement without any fear of error. To be really firm and complete (scientific) it must include a knowledge of the reasons why things a re the way they are and could not be otherwise. Main types: METAPHYSICAL, MATHEMATICAL, ABSOLUTE: There is no pos sibi lity of error, e.g., 2 plus 2 is 4, a physical whole is always greater than any one of its parts or subdivisions, the diameter of a given c ircle is always shorter than its circumference, a world of physical thi ngs exists independently of the individual’s own mind, etc. PHYSICA L: The ordinary and usual laws of nature, e.g., the laws of chemical interaction, motion, thermodynamics, aerodynamics, etc. Barring mirac les, we can bet our lives on these certitudes-—and do! MORAL, JUR IDICAL: Beyond reasonable doubt; the ordinary kind in most societal interactions; all the evidence, from many different independent sourc es, all points to the same conclusion. E.g., when taking a bus downtown, it would be unreasonable to run up and down the aisle shouting that the bus was being captured by Martians. The denial of Moral Certitude is the most- usual basis for Hollywood spy movies, science fiction plots, adventure series, etc. The suspension of ordinary huma n expectations (i.e., being neurotic) greatly helps one’s career as a n ovelist and screenwriter. (see Realism)COMMON SENSE: In general, knowing those things which are require d in order to survive in a given society. This will vary from society to society in different parts of the world. E.g., those living in the Arctic need to know about 14 different kinds of snow; those living i n London need to know not to run out into the street from between parked cars, etc. In phil., it refers to those truths known with certain ty by all normal human beings, regardless of where they live. E.g., b asic mathematics, the existence of the external world, that there’s a difference between existential questions (Is it?) and essentialistic ques tions (What is it?), that water runs down hill, that what goes up (a rock, an arrow, a spear, etc.) comes down, etc. These certitudes can then be used as a basis for further philosophical and scientific reason ing.COMMUNISM: A 19th c. utopian political phil. based upon Hegel’s d octrine of conflicting contradictories, but reduced to a two—part disju nction in which one side is all bad and the other side all good. In t heory, the 19th c. capitalists would concentrate more and more power in themselves while the working class would become larger and larg er and poorer and poorer. Finally a flash—point would be reached, re volution would break out, all capitalists would be destroyed, and the society, after a brief bloody and violent transition period, would be t ransformed into a new classless, stateless, godless Paradise on earth f or all future generations. Abhors (in theory) God—Statism (Fascism, Nazism).CONCEPT (concipere; to conceive in the womb): Something born with in the mind; an IDEA, a "universal," that about which we invent lan guages, etc. Every idea we have is a universal in the sense that its content or meaning is something common to many different things in the world. E.g., the word "dog" in English stands for the concept o f dogness, which applies to all possible dogs, whether past, present, or future. No concept can be identified with anything of a mate rial o r physical nature, such as the word "dog," or some particular picture or graphic image of a particular dog, etc. Since —~ philosophers w ork with ideas, and since ideas are so special, they have always been of special interest to philosophers.CONCLUSION (com—claudere; to close in): In logic, the end of a re asoning process; the final outcome of an argument. E.g., given that a ll people are mortal and that Sally is a person we conclude that Sally is mortal.CONSERVATIVE (conservare; to preserve): In gene ral, anyone who w ants to maintain the status quo without any fundamental change or al teration. "Today’s liberals are tomorrow’ s conservatives." CONTINGENT (com—tangere; to touch upon): That which need not b e the case; something which could be otherwise; t he accidental; somet hing which just happens to be the case.CONTRADICTION (contra—dicere; to speak against): In logic, the rel ationship between a universal proposition and a particular proposition differing in quality. E.g., All people are mortal——Some people are n ot mortal; No people are mortal-—Some people are mortal. In general, any statement which denies a given statement in an immediate and direct way.COSMOLOGY (kosmos-logos; explaining the cosmos): The General Sci ence of Nature; the attempt to explai n the natural universe of changi ng things in some general and comprehensive way. Common topics: S ubstance, change, chance, teleology, time. Cf. cosmonauts, cosmetics. Today the word is often used to mean astronomy.CREATION EX NIHILO (creare; to make more): To create from nothi ng; creation strictly and properly speaking; possible only for a Supre me Being whose very essence is to exist.DASEIN (there-being in German): Term for human nature derived fro m Hegel and popularized by Heidegger. Humans are the locus, mediu m, site, etc., wherein Being becomes aware of itself. Only in humans is Being there; otherwise it would be completely unknown and even "non—existent."DEDUCTION (de—ducere; to lead away from): In logic, the processof starting from something more universal and coming down to somet hing more particular; common in a priori reasoning; a desirable and s trong form of reasoning because if the premises are true we can be sure that the conclusion will be true. E.g., all circles are round, this thing is a circle, and so this thing is round.DEISM (deus; god): The doctrine that there indeed exists a God who created the universe and who punishes sinners, but in a highly "rati onalized" sense; after setting things up God abandoned the world and us to the laws of nature; an absentee landlord; there is no Revelati on nor authoritative Scripture and Church. Some famous deists: Many of the leaders of the American and French Revolutions; Voltaire, Ro usseau, Hugo, maybe Darwin.DETERMINISM (de—terminare; to set limits to): The doctrine that ev erything that happens, including apparently free decisions by humans, is really already decided by previous, unconscious, unfree events whic h cause things to go one way rather than some other way regardless of what we think about it; fatalism; a perfect knowledge of the causes would provide us with perfect predictability (the dream of scienc e). Some famous determjnists: Darwin, Freud, Einstein, Bertrand Russe ll, B.F. Skinner, A.J. Ayer.DIALECTIC (dia-legesthai; to converse): In Plato, phil. itself; the epit ome of reasoning; the process of trying to reach a conclusion by exa mining all possibilities until the right one is found. In phil. since th e early 19th c., a collision of contradictories producing some third th ing which synthesizes them and then becomes itself a part of another conflict. In Georg Regel and Karl Marx, the fusion of Something an d Nothing to give Becoming; in Fascism, the conflict of capitalists a nd workers to give the State.DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM: The theoretical foun dation for the Co mmunism of Marx and Engels; the doctrine that the only reality is th e material universe, but that it necessarily progresses in a dialectical way, the results of which are various stages of development, i.e., n on—life to life to animals to man to society to various economic sys tems to socialisms to Communism; a "scientific" dialectic, in contrast to Hegel’s mystical spiritualistic process.DISTINCTION (stigma; mark; dis—stinguere; different marks): The no n—identity of one thing with another.Main types: SEPARATION: The physical arrangement of parts outside of parts, e.g., your pen is sep arate from your hand. VERBAL; Different names for one and the sam e thing, e.g., methanol, methyl alcohol, methyl hydrate, denatured alc ohol, wood alcohol. LOGICAL, MENTAL, CONCEPTUAL, RATIONAL: The difference is only in the mind; outside the mind there is in fa ct no real differentiation, e.g., cat—mammal, dime—coin; in the extra mental world every case of cat is also a case of mammal, every dim e is a coin; in reality the two are the same; they are identical. REA L: Even though there is no separation of parts, outside the mind one aspect is really not the other; in one and the same unified being th ere is a non-identity of aspects, features, etc., e.g., your height and weight, the direction and velocity of a body in locomotion, the essen ce and existence of a being. Distinction should not be identified with separation; although every separation is a distinction it is not the c ase that every distinction is a separation. This is very important in t he Phil. of Being.DUALISM (dualis, duo; two): Most usually in phil. the view that the body and soul (psyche, mind, consciousness, etc.) cannot be reduced one to the other; i.e., both are factors in the explanation of human nature which possess some sort of reality of their own. Main types: MODERATE: In’ Aristotle, the body and soul constitute a unity of one being in which the soul is the form of the substance; they can be distinguished but not separated. Variations are possible, e.g., Thom ism, in which the body and soul form a unity based upon the existential act of the soul, so that it’s possible for the soul to survive the breakdown of its body. EXTREME: In Plato and Descartes, the body and soul are two separate entities which do not form a unity; the s oul is the real person; the body is simply a machine. EGALITARIANISM (egalitaire; equality): An absolute equality of ever yone in everything; the Prime Minister would have exactly the same rights, privileges, standard of living, e tc., as the lowest street cleaner; males and females must be treated in exactly the same way, whethe r it’s fighting in the army or having babies; a doctrine proposed by some modern revolutionaries and feminists; but quite impossible in pr actice.EMPIRICISM (en—peiran; to try something for yourself): The doctrine that all knowledge must come through the senses; there are no INN ATE IDEAS born within us that only require to be remembered. It is often carried to the extreme of saying that our concepts are only se nse images or only the words we use to refer to things.ENTITY (ens; being): Anything that exists, usually meaning as a natu ral unified substance.EPICUREANISM: An ancient Greek school of phil. founded by the At henian Epicurus. Based upon a materialistic atomism, it taught that p hysical pleasures, adjusted to what can be reasonably expected in a p articular time and place, constitute man’s greatest good and happiness. One must live unknown, avoid pain and trouble, and calculate the p leasure and pain to be derived from a given activity, including interp ersonal relations; produces a very conservative attitude because "rocki ng the boat" is sure to get you into trouble with the police. "Eat, dr ink, and be merry for tomorrow you die" is really a distortion of th i s phil. The phil. of life actually practiced by most people in the wo rld. Defended by the Roman Lucretius about the time of Christ. EPISTEMOLOGY (episteme-logos; true and certain knowledge explaine d): The study of human knowledge; its origins, types, and dependabili ty.EQUALITY (aequus; on the same level): Everyone having the same b asic worth and dignity before God, the law, and among other people; the same opportunities for success and advancement, though equality of results is not guaranteed. It does not mean that anyone can do a nything anyone else can do, e.g., becoming a priest.EQUIVOCATION (aequi—vox; with equal voice): Using the same term with entirely different meanings. E.g., a river bank, a bank for mon ey; Fido and Kierkegaard are both Great Danes. Often the basis for puns and jokes.ESSENCE (essentia; beingness, reality): Answers to the question, Wha t is it? The definition of something. The NATURE as known. E.g., F ido and Rex are Great Danes; Sally and Sam are human beings.ETHICS (ethos; habits): The ultimate practical knowledge; how to lea d the good life in the good society; the norms of proper behavior fo r humans as humans, not as doing some particular Job, e.g., Street cl eaning, computer programming, being the president of GM, being the Pope, etc. Ethics presupposes freedom on the part of the beings capa ble of acting ethically, e.g., humans. Things such as animals, plants, and minerals, which are not free in the sense of having the potential for free -choice, are not held responsible for their a ctions in any m oral sense. Main subdivisions, following the six main institutions of a ll human soèieties: Phil. of Religion and Government (Political Phil.), Family, Education, Work, Recreation.ETIOLOGY (aitia; cause): The study of the causes and origins of thi ngs.EUDAEMONISM (eu-daimon; good demon or spirit): Living well; bein g attended by good fortune. In Aristotle, happiness as the ultimate re sult of a good life.EVIDENCE (e-videre; clearly seen): The reasons for holding a certain view; the indicators of truth.EVIL (yfel--Old English): The privation of something that a being sh ould have or is due to it; the deviation from an ideal. E.g., with res pect to humans, not having wings is not an evil. PHYSICAL EVIL: Starvation, blindness, being crippled; MORAL EVIL: Sin, turning awa y from God; SOCIAL EVIL: Being deprived of just treatment, not be ing able to receive a liberal education. Any talk of evil presupposes the existence of objective standards or ideals.EVOLUTION (e-volvere; to unroll): Originally, the unrolling or unfold ing of Divine Providence, which is why Charles Darwin avoided usin g the term. DARWINIAN EVOLUTION: The creation of new species by common descent with modification via natural selection. He could not reconcile evil and Providence and so sought to explain species w ithout their being specially created by God. Starting from one very si mple living thing each new individual would vary somewhat from all others. Those better able to survive in their given environments wou ld go on to reproduce in larger numbers than the others (differential reproduction). In time, different looking, more complicated things wou ld be seen, while many others died out. He was a firm believer in t he overall progress and advancement of the biosphere. This has led t o the widespread present—day attitude that anything novel is automati cally better and superior to anything old; the common saying, "You’r e history," indicates that you are no longer of any importance or sig nificance. Today, in common speech, evolution usually m eans simply a slow change, as opposed to a fast change (revolution). EXISTENTIALISM (ex—sistere; to stand outside of its cause or sourc e): In 20th c. phil., mainly the view of Sartre, emphasizing the Deat。