5. 外文翻译1
本科毕业论文外文翻译
本科毕业论文外文翻译Undergraduate Thesis External Translation (700 Words)Title: The Impact of Social Media on Consumer Behavior Abstract:With the rapid development of social media, its influence on consumer behavior has drawn increasing attention from scholars and marketers. This paper aims to explore the impact of social media on consumer behavior from the perspective of information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation. Through a literature review and analysis, it is found that social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior by providing easy access to information, facilitating communication between consumers, and influencing brand perception. This research provides valuable insights for marketers in understanding and utilizing social media platforms to effectively engage with consumers and influence their purchasing decisions.1. IntroductionSocial media has become an integral part of people's daily lives, and its impact on consumer behavior cannot be ignored. This paper aims to investigate the impact of social media on consumer behavior and provide practical implications for marketers. The research question is: How does social media influence consumer behavior in terms of information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation?2. Information Acquisition2.1 Social media provides a platform for consumers to easilyaccess information about products and services. Through social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, consumers can obtain product reviews, comparisons, and recommendations from peers. This information influences consumers' purchasing decisions and enhances their knowledge about products.2.2 Social media also serves as a source of entertainment and inspiration, enabling users to discover new trends and products. Influencers and celebrities, who gain popularity through social media, often endorse products and create consumer desire for these items. This form of indirect advertising through social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior.3. Interpersonal CommunicationSocial media platforms enable users to interact with friends, family, and even strangers. This communication aspect of social media hasa direct influence on consumer behavior.3.1 Word-of-mouth (WOM) communication through social media is prevalent. Consumers often share their positive or negative experiences with products on social media platforms, which influence others' opinions and purchasing decisions. These online conversations have a wide reach and can greatly impact brand perception.3.2 Social media facilitates communication between consumers and brands. Consumers can directly communicate with brands through social media channels, providing feedback, asking questions, and seeking assistance. This two-way communicationimproves customer satisfaction and loyalty.4. Brand Evaluation4.1 Social media plays a crucial role in brand evaluation. Consumers often seek information about brands, their values, and their reputation on social media platforms. Positive or negative brand mentions and reviews on social media greatly influence consumers' perceptions of brands, leading to either increased or decreased brand trust and loyalty.4.2 Social media influencers and celebrities endorsing particular brands also impact brand evaluation. These individuals' recommendations and opinions can greatly influence consumers' perceptions and preferences for specific brands.5. ConclusionIn conclusion, social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior by influencing information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation. Marketers should utilize and engage with social media platforms to effectively reach and influence their target customers. This research provides insights for marketers to enhance their social media strategies and create effective brand-consumer interactions.。
播音与主持外文翻译(1)
The three models we focus on in this issue—framing, agenda setting, and priming—have received significant scholarly attention since they were introduced. Agenda setting refers to the idea that there is a strong correlation between the emphasis that mass media place on certain issues (e.g., based on relative placement or amount of coverage) and the importance attributed to these issues by mass audiences (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). As defined in the political communication literature, Priming refers to‘changes in the standards that people use to make political evaluations’(Iyengar & Kinder, 1987, p. 63). Priming occurs when news content suggests to news audiences that they ought to use specific issues as benchmarks for evaluating the performance of leaders and governments. It is often understood as an extension of agenda setting.
毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】
因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定，为统一起见,特做以下要求：1、每篇字数为1500字左右，共两篇；2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本，具体字号、字体已标注。
外文翻译（包含原文)(宋体四号加粗）外文翻译一（宋体四号加粗）作者：(宋体小四号加粗）Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team，Korean Film Council（小四号）出处：(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358～P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景（标题：宋体四号加粗）1996～现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四）在过去的十年间，韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。
上个世纪60年代，韩国电影迅速崛起，然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后，韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。
在这个时期，韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长，但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。
1996年，韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。
但是到了1998年，市场占有量增长到35。
8%，到2001年更是达到了50%。
虽然从1996年开始，韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中，但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。
虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录，但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。
当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时，2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。
姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。
从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》，康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Traffic Assignment Forecast Model Research in ITS IntroductionThe intelligent transportation system (ITS) develops rapidly along with the city sustainable development, the digital city construction and the development of transportation. One of the main functions of the ITS is to improve transportation environment and alleviate the transportation jam, the most effective method to gain the aim is to forecast the traffic volume of the local network and the important nodes exactly with GIS function of path analysis and correlation mathematic methods, and this will lead a better planning of the traffic network. Traffic assignment forecast is an important phase of traffic volume forecast. It will assign the forecasted traffic to every way in the traffic sector. If the traffic volume of certain road is too big, which would bring on traffic jam, planners must consider the adoption of new roads or improving existing roads to alleviate the traffic congestion situation. This study attempts to present an improved traffic assignment forecast model, MPCC, based on analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of classic traffic assignment forecast models, and test the validity of the improved model in practice.1 Analysis of classic models1.1 Shortcut traffic assignmentShortcut traffic assignment is a static traffic assignment method. In this method, the traffic load impact in the vehicles’ travel is not considered, and the traffic impedance (travel time) is a constant. The traffic volume of every origination-destination couple will be assigned to the shortcut between the origination and destination, while the traffic volume of other roads in this sector is null. This assignment method has the advantage of simple calculation; however, uneven distribution of the traffic volume is its obvious shortcoming. Using this assignment method, the assignment traffic volume will be concentrated on the shortcut, which isobviously not realistic. However, shortcut traffic assignment is the basis of all theother traffic assignment methods.1.2 Multi-ways probability assignmentIn reality, travelers always want to choose the shortcut to the destination, whichis called the shortcut factor; however, as the complexity of the traffic network, thepath chosen may not necessarily be the shortcut, which is called the random factor.Although every traveler hopes to follow the shortcut, there are some whose choice isnot the shortcut in fact. The shorter the path is, the greater the probability of beingchosen is; the longer the path is, the smaller the probability of being chosen is.Therefore, the multi-ways probability assignment model is guided by the LOGIT model:∑---=n j ii i F F p 1)exp()exp(θθ (1)Where i p is the probability of the path section i; i F is the travel time of thepath section i; θ is the transport decision parameter, which is calculated by the followprinciple: firstly, calculate the i p with different θ (from 0 to 1), then find the θwhich makes i p the most proximate to the actual i p .The shortcut factor and the random factor is considered in multi-ways probabilityassignment, therefore, the assignment result is more reasonable, but the relationshipbetween traffic impedance and traffic load and road capacity is not considered in thismethod, which leads to the assignment result is imprecise in more crowded trafficnetwork. We attempt to improve the accuracy through integrating the several elements above in one model-MPCC.2 Multi-ways probability and capacity constraint model2.1 Rational path aggregateIn order to make the improved model more reasonable in the application, theconcept of rational path aggregate has been proposed. The rational path aggregate,which is the foundation of MPCC model, constrains the calculation scope. Rationalpath aggregate refers to the aggregate of paths between starts and ends of the trafficsector, defined by inner nodes ascertained by the following rules: the distancebetween the next inner node and the start can not be shorter than the distance betweenthe current one and the start; at the same time, the distance between the next innernode and the end can not be longer than the distance between the current one and theend. The multi-ways probability assignment model will be only used in the rationalpath aggregate to assign the forecast traffic volume, and this will greatly enhance theapplicability of this model.2.2 Model assumption1) Traffic impedance is not a constant. It is decided by the vehicle characteristicand the current traffic situation.2) The traffic impedance which travelers estimate is random and imprecise.3) Every traveler chooses the path from respective rational path aggregate.Based on the assumptions above, we can use the MPCC model to assign thetraffic volume in the sector of origination-destination couples.2.3 Calculation of path traffic impedanceActually, travelers have different understanding to path traffic impedance, butgenerally, the travel cost, which is mainly made up of forecast travel time, travellength and forecast travel outlay, is considered the traffic impedance. Eq. (2) displaysthis relationship. a a a a F L T C γβα++= (2)Where a C is the traffic impedance of the path section a; a T is the forecast traveltime of the path section a; a L is the travel length of the path section a; a F is theforecast travel outlay of the path section a; α, β, γ are the weight value of that threeelements which impact the traffic impedance. For a certain path section, there aredifferent α, β and γ value for different vehicles. We can get the weighted average of α,β and γ of each path section from the statistic percent of each type of vehicle in thepath section.2.4 Chosen probability in MPCCActually, travelers always want to follow the best path (broad sense shortcut), butbecause of the impact of random factor, travelers just can choose the path which is ofthe smallest traffic impedance they estimate by themselves. It is the key point ofMPCC. According to the random utility theory of economics, if traffic impedance is considered as the negativeutility, the chosen probability rs p of origination-destinationpoints couple (r, s) should follow LOGIT model:∑---=n j jrs rs bC bC p 1)exp()exp( (3) where rs p is the chosen probability of the pathsection (r, s);rs C is the traffic impedance of the path sect-ion (r, s); j C is the trafficimpedance of each path section in the forecast traffic sector; b reflects the travelers’cognition to the traffic impedance of paths in the traffic sector, which has reverseratio to its deviation. If b → ∞ , the deviation of understanding extent of trafficimpedance approaches to 0. In this case, all the travelers will follow the path whichis of the smallest traffic impedance, which equals to the assignment results withShortcut Traffic Assignment. Contrarily, if b → 0, travelers ’ understanding error approaches infinity. In this case, the paths travelers choose are scattered. There is anobjection that b is of dimension in Eq.(3). Because the deviation of b should beknown before, it is difficult to determine the value of b. Therefore, Eq.(3) is improvedas follows:∑---=n j OD j OD rsrs C bC C bC p 1)exp()exp(，∑-=n j j OD C n C 11（4） Where OD C is the average of the traffic impedance of all the as-signed paths; bwhich is of no dimension, just has relationship to the rational path aggregate, ratherthan the traffic impedance. According to actual observation, the range of b which is anexperience value is generally between 3.00 to 4.00. For the more crowded cityinternal roads, b is normally between 3.00 and 3.50.2.5 Flow of MPCCMPCC model combines the idea of multi-ways probability assignment anditerative capacity constraint traffic assignment.Firstly, we can get the geometric information of the road network and OD trafficvolume from related data. Then we determine the rational path aggregate with themethod which is explained in Section 2.1.Secondly, we can calculate the traffic impedance of each path section with Eq.(2),Fig.1 Flowchart of MPCC which is expatiated in Section 2.3.Thirdly, on the foundation of the traffic impedance of each path section, we cancalculate the respective forecast traffic volume of every path section with improvedLOGIT model (Eq.(4)) in Section 2.4, which is the key point of MPCC.Fourthly, through the calculation processabove, we can get the chosen probability andforecast traffic volume of each path section, but itis not the end. We must recalculate the trafficimpedance again in the new traffic volumesituation. As is shown in Fig.1, because of theconsideration of the relationship between trafficimpedance and traffic load, the traffic impedanceand forecast assignment traffic volume of everypath will be continually amended. Using therelationship model between average speed andtraffic volume, we can calculate the travel timeand the traffic impedance of certain path sect-ionunder different traffic volume situation. For theroads with different technical levels, therelationship models between average speeds totraffic volume are as follows: 1) Highway: 1082.049.179AN V = (5) 2) Level 1 Roads: 11433.084.155AN V = (6) 3) Level 2 Roads: 66.091.057.112AN V = (7) 4) Level 3 Roads: 3.132.01.99AN V = (8) 5) Level 4 Roads: 0988.05.70A N V =(9) Where V is the average speed of the path section; A N is the traffic volume of thepath section.At the end, we can repeat assigning traffic volume of path sections with themethod in previous step, which is the idea of iterative capacity constraint assignment,until the traffic volume of every path section is stable.译文智能交通交通量分配预测模型介绍随着城市的可持续化发展、数字化城市的建设以及交通运输业的发展，智能交通系统（ITS）的发展越来越快。
5电气自动化 单片机 外文文献 英文文献 外文翻译 中英对照大学毕设论文
Single-chip1.The definition of a single-chipSingle-chip is an integrated on a single chip a complete computer system .Even though most of his features in a small chip，but it has a need to complete the majority of computer components：CPU，memory，internal and external bus system，most will have the Core.At the same time，such as integrated communication interfaces，timers，real-time clock and other peripheral equipment.And now the most powerful single-chip microcomputer system can even voice ，image，networking，input and output complex system integration on a single chip.Also known as single-chip MCU（Microcontroller），because it was first used in the field of industrial control.Only by the single-chip CPU chip developed from the dedicated processor. The design concept is the first by a large numberof peripherals and CPU in a single chip，the computer system so that smaller，more easily integrated into the complex and demanding on the volume control devices.INTEL the Z80 is one of the first design in accordance with the idea of the processor，From then on，the MCU and the development of a dedicated processor parted ways.Early single-chip 8-bit or all the four.One of the most successful is INTELs 8031，because the performance of a simple and reliable access to a lot of good praise.Since then in 8031to develop a single-chip microcomputer system MCS51 series.based on single-chip microcomputer system of the system is still widely used until now.As the field of industrial control requirements increase in the beginning of a 16-bit single-chip，but not ideal because the price has not been very widely used.After the90s with the big consumer electronics product development，single-chip technology is a huge improvement.INTEL i960 series with subsequent ARM in particular ，a broad range of application，quickly replaced by 32-bit single-chip 16-bit single-chip performance has been the rapid increase in processing power compared to the 80s to raise a few hundred times.At present，the high-end 32-bit single-chip frequency over 300MHz，the performance of the mid-90s close on the heels of a special processor，while the ordinary price of the model dropped to one U.S dollars，the most high-end models，only 10 U.S dollars.Contemporary single-chip microcomputer system is no longer only the bare-metal environment in the development and use of a large number of dedicated embedded operating system is widely used in the full range of single-chip microcomputer.In PDAs and cellphones as the coreprocessing of high-end single-chip or even a dedicated direct access to Windows and Linux operating systems.More than a dedicated single-chip processor suitable for embedded systems，so it was up to the application.In fact the number of single-chip is the worlds largest computer.Modern human life used in almost every piece of electronic and mechanical products will have a single-chip integration.Phone，telephone，calculator，home applicances，electronic toys，handheld computers and computer accessories such as a mouse in the Department are equipped with 1-2 single chip.And personal computers also have a large number of single-chip microcomputer in the workplace.Vehicles equipped with more than 40 Department of the general single-chip ，complex industrial control systems and even single-chip may have hundreds of work at the same time!SCM is not only far exceeds the number of PC and other integrated computing,even more than the number of human beings.2.single-chip introducedSingle-chip,also known as single-chip microcontroller,it is not the completion of a logic function of the chip,but a computer system integrated into a chip.Speaking in general terms: a single chip has become a computer .Its small size,light weight,cheap,for the learning,application and development of facilities provided .At the same time,learning to use the principle of single-chip computer to understand and structure the best choice.Single-chip and computer use is also similar to the module,such as CPU,memory,parallel bus, as well as the role and the same hard memory,is it different from the performance of these components are relatively weak in our home computer a lot,but the price is low ,there is generally no more than 10yuan,,can use it to make some control for a class of electrical work is not very complex is sufficient.We are using automatic drum washing machines, smoke hood,VCD and so on inside the home appliances can see its shadow! It is mainly as part of the core components of the control.It is an online real-time control computer,control-line is at the scene,we need to have a stronger anti-interference ability,low cost,and this is off-line computer(such as home PC)The main difference.By single-chip process,and can be amended.Through different procedures to achieve different functions,in particular the special unique features,this is the need to charge other devices can do a great effort,some of it is also difficult to make great efforts to do so .A function is not very complicated fi the United States the development of the 50s series of 74 or 60 during the CD4000series to get these pure hardware,the circuit must be a big PCB board !However,if the United States if the successful 70s seriesof single-chip market ,the result will be different!Simply because the adoption of single-chip preparation process you can achieve high intelligence,high efficiency and high reliability!Because of cost of single-chip is sensitive,so the dominant software or the lowest level assembly language,which is in addition to the lowest level for more than binary machine code of the language ,since such a low-level so why should we use ?Many of the seniors language has reached a level of visual programming why is it not in use ?The reason is simple ,that is,single-chip computer as there is no home of CPU,also not as hard as the mass storage device.A visualization of small high-level language program,even if there is only one button which will reach the size of dozens of K! For the home PCs hard drive is nothing,but in terms of the single-chip microcomputer is unacceptable.Single-chip in the utilization of hardware resources have to do very high ,so the compilation of the original while still in heavy use .The same token ,if the computer giants operating system and appplications run up to get the home PC,homePCcan not afford to sustain the same.It can be said that the twentieth century across the three “power”of the times,that is ,the electrical era,the electronic age and has now entered the computer age. However ,such a computer,usually refers to a personal computer,or PC.It consisits of the host ,keyboards,displays .And other components.There is also a type of computer,not how most people are familiar with . This computer is smart to give a variety of mechanical single-chip(also known as micro-controller).As the name suggests,these computer systems use only the minimum of an integrated circuit to make a simple calculation and control. Because of its small size,are usually charged with possession of machine in the “belly”in. It in the device,like the human mind plays a role, it is wrong,the entire device was paralyzed .Now,this single chip has a very wide field of use,such as smart meters,real-time industrial control,communications equipment,navigation systems,and household appliances. Once a variety of products with the use of the single-chip ,will be able to play so that the effectiveness of product upgrading,product names often adjective before the word “intelligent”,such as was hing machines and so intelligent.At present,some technical personnel of factories or other amateur electrtonics developers from engaging in certain products ,not the circuit is too complex ,that is functional and easy to be too simple imitation.The reason may be the product not on the cards or the use of single-chip programmable logic device on the other.3.single-chip historysingle-chip 70 was born in the late 20th century,experienced a SCM,MCU,SOC three stages.Single-chip micro-computer 1.SCM that(Single Chip Microcomputer)stage,is mainly a single from to find the best of the best embedded systems architecture.”Innovation model”to be successful,lay the SCM with the general-purpose computers,a completely different path of development . In embedded systems to create an independent development path,Intel Corporation credit.That is 2.MCU microcontroller(Micro Controller Unit)stage,the main direction of technology development: expanding to meet the embedded applications,the target system requirements for the various peripheral circuits and interface circuits,to highlingt the target of intelligent control.It covers all areas related with the objectSystem,therefore,the development of MCU inevitably fall on the heavy electrical,electronics manufacturers. From this point of view ,Intels development gradually MCU has its objective factors.MCU in the development ,the most famous manufacturers when the number of Philips Corporation.Philips in embedded applications for its enormous advantages,the MCS-51 from the rapid deveploment of single-chip micro-computer to the microcontroller.Therefore,when we look back at the path of development of embedded systems,Intel and Philips do not forget the historical merits.3.Single-chip is an independent embedded systems development,to the MCU an important factor in the development stage,is seeking applications to maximize the natural trend .With the mico-electronics technology,IC design,EDA tools development,based on the single-chip SOC design application systems will have greater development. Therefore,the understanding of single-chip micro-computer from a single ,monolithic single-chip microcontroller extends to applications.4.Single-chip applicationsAt present,single-chip microcomputer to infiltrate all areas of our lives,which is very difficult to find the area of almost no traces of single-chip microcomputer.Missile navigation equipment,aircraft control on a variety of instruments,compuer network communications and data transmission,industrial automation,real-time process control and data processing ,are widely used in a variety of smart IC card,limousine civilian security systems,video recorders,cameras,the control of automatic washing machines,as well as program-controllde toys,electronic pet,etc,which are inseparable from the single-chip microcomputer.Not to mention the field of robot automation ,intelligent instrumentation,medical equipment has been. Therefore,the single- chip learning ,development and application to a large number of computer applications and intelligent control of scientists,engineers.Single-chip widely used in instruments and meters,household appliances，medical equipment ,acrospace,specialized equipment and the intellingent management in areas such as process control,generally can be divided into the following areas:1.In the smart application of instrumentationSingle-chip with small size,low power consumption,control,and expansion flexibility , miniaturization and ease of sensors,can be realized,suchvoltage,power,frequency,humidity,temperature,flow,speed,thickness,angle,length,hardness,elemen t,measurement of physical pressure. SCM makes use of digital instrumentation,intelligence,miniaturization and functional than the use of electronic or digital circuitry even stronger.For example,precision measurement equipment(power meter,oscilloscope,and analyzer).2.In the industrial controlMCU can constitute a variety of control systems,data acquisition system.Such as factory assembly line of intelligent management ,intelligent control of the lift ,all kinds of alarm systems ,and computer networks constitute a secondary control system.3.In the applicationof household appliancesIt can be said that almost all home appliances are using the single-chip control,electric rice from favorable,washing machines,refrigerators,air conditioners,color TV and other audio video equipment,and then to the electronic weighing equipment,all kinds ,everywhere.4.On computer networks and communication applications in the field ofGenerally with the modern single-chip communication interface,can be easily carried out with computer carried out with computer data communications,computer networks and in inter-application communications equipment to provide an excellent material conditions,the communications equipment to provide an excellent material condition,from the mobile phone ,telephone , mini-program-controlled switchboards,buiding automated communications system call,the train wireless communications,and then you can see day-to-day work of mobile phones,Mobile communications,such as radios.5.Single-chip in the field of medical equipment applicationsSingle-chip microcomputer in medical devices have a wide range of purpose,such as medical ventilator,various analyzers,monitors,ultrasonic diagnostic equipment and hospital call systems.6.In a variety of large-scale electrical applications of modularSome special single-chip design to achieve a specific function to carry out a variety of modular circuitapplications,without requiring users to understand its internal structure.Integrated single-chip microcomputer such as music ,which seems to be simpleFunctions,a miniature electronic chip in a pure(as distinct from the principle of tape machine),would require a complex similar to the principle of the computer. Such as :music signal to digital form stored in memory(similar to ROM),read out by the microcontroller into analog music signal(similar to the sound card).In large circuits,modular applications that greatly reduces the size ,simplifying the circuit and reduce the damage,error rate ,but also to facilitate the replacement.In addition,single-chip microcomputer in the industrial,commercial,financial,scientific research ,education,defense aerospace and other fields have a wide range of uses.单片机1.单片机定义单片机是一种集成在电路芯片上的完整计算机系统。
外文翻译(1)(1)
注：红色字体表示语句不明白的地方，请求学姐帮忙。
聚亚烷基二醇的化学结构和它们在含水环境中的好氧生物降解性之间的关系简要：使用一组聚合流体，其中包括聚乙二醇、聚丙二烯（PPG）、不同EO/PO 比率的环氧乙烷（EO）的无规共聚物和环氧丙烷（PO），对聚亚烷基醇（PAG）的化学结构和它们的生物降解性之间的关系进行研究以及用PAG的醚和酰基部分封端。
被测试的PAG中有一个均分子量范围在350-3600Da，它们的差异是由其聚合物主链的直链（二醇型）或支链（三元醇型）分子。
PAG的最终生物降解能力是根据ISO14593（CO2顶空试验）用非预曝光（如在OECD310试验）和预曝光（改编）接种物来确定。
带有PPG结构和二元醇或三元醇的EO/PO共聚物，均分子量不超过1000沓的PAG，被认为是易于生物降解的。
他们的最终生物降解可超过60％的限制（根据OECD310测试标准）。
具有共聚结构并且MW值在1000-3600之间的PAG不易生物降解，但它们可以被看做是那些固有的最终降解物。
在PAG结构中EO含量的增长和末端羟基的酰化与羧酸基团有利地影响了他们的生物降解性。
含末端醚基团封端的PAG似乎是耐生物降解的。
关键词生物降解、聚亚烷基二醇、PAG、PPG、封顶PAG、ISO14593。
引言：术语中的聚亚烷基二醇-PAG，以及在相关文献中的PAG，例如，聚乙二醇，聚醚和聚（烯化氧）中使用的PAG术语都是带有环氧化物结构烯化氧聚合得到的化合物。
PAG主要是通过使用乙烯和丙烯的氧化物合成的，不常使用丁二醇和更高的烯烃氧化物。
PAG类化合物（不同的分子量，性能和应用）最常用的包括氧化乙烯或丙烯均聚物氧化物以及乙烯和丙烯氧化物的无规或嵌段共聚物。
PAG的分子结构不仅取决于种类和亚烷基氧化物的比例，而且还取决于用于聚合反应的引发剂分子的类型（单-，二-或多官能分子具有2个以上活泼氢原子）。
引发剂影响PAG分子的末端羟基基团和聚合物链的类型，其可以是线性的（单醇及二醇型）或支链的（多元醇的数类型）。
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编号：毕业设计(论文)外文翻译（原文）学院：计算机科学与工程学院专业：计算机科学与技术专业学生姓名：覃龙学号：0700720222指导教师单位：计算机科学与工程学院姓名：黄廷磊职称：教授2011年5月30 日Block RAM SummaryThe block RAM in Virtex-5 FPGAs stores up to 36K bits of data and can be configured aseither two independent 18 Kb RAMs, or one 36 Kb RAM. Each 36 Kb block RAM can beconfigured as a 64K x 1 (when cascaded with an adjacent 36 Kb block RAM), 32K x 1,16K x 2, 8K x 4, 4K x 9, 2K x 18, or 1K x 36 memory. Each 18 Kb block RAM can beconfigured as a 16K x 1, 8K x2 , 4K x 4, 2K x 9, or 1K x 18 memory.Similar to the Virtex-4 FPGA block RAMs, Write and Read are synchronous operations; thetwo ports are symmetrical and totally independent, sharing only the stored data. Each portcan beconfigured in one of the available widths, independent of the other port. Inaddition, the read port width can be different from the write port width for eac h port. Thememory content can be initialized or cleared by the configuration bitstream. During awrite operation the memory can be set to have the data output either remain unchanged,reflect the new data being written or the previous data now being overwritten.Virtex-5 FPGA block RAM enhancements include:I ncreased memory storage capability per block. Each block RAM can store up to 36Kbits of data.S upport of two independent 18K blocks, or a single 36K block RAM.E ach 36K block RAM can be set to simple dual-port mode, doubling data width of theblock RAM to 72 bits. The 18K block RAM can also be set to simple dual-port mode,doubling data width to 36 bits.Simple dual-port mode is defined as having one readonlyport and one write-only port with independent clocks.T wo adjacent block RAMs can be combined to one deeper 64K x 1 memory withoutany external logic.O ne 64-bit Error Correction Coding block is provided per 36 Kb block RAM or 36 KbFIFO. Separate encode/decode functionality is available.S ynchronous Set/Reset of the outputs to an initial value is available for both the latchand register modes of the block RAM output.A n attribute to configure the block RAM as a synchronous FIFO to eliminate flaglatency uncertainty.T he Virtex-5 FIFO does not have FULL flag assertion latency.Virtex-5 FPGA block RAM features:18, 36, or 72-bit wide ports can have an individual write enable per byte. This featureis popular for interfacing to an on-chip microprocessor.E ach block RAM contains optional address sequencing and control circuitry to operate as a built-in multirate FIFO memory. In Virtex-5 architecture, the block RAM can be configured as an18Kb or 36Kb FIFO.A ll inputs are registered with the port clock and have a setup-to-clock timing specification.A ll outputs have a read function or a read-during-write function, depending on the state of the write enable (WE) pin. The outputs are available after the clock-to-out timing interval. The read-during-write outputs have one of three operating modes:WRITE_FIRST, READ_FIRST, and NO_CHANGE.A write o peration requires one clock edge.A read operation requires one clock edge.A ll output ports are latched. The state of the output port does not change until the port executes another read or write operation. The default block RAM output is latch mode.T he output data path has an optional internal pipeline register. Using the regist ermode is strongly recommended. This allows a higher clock rate, however, it adds a clock cycle latency of one. Virtex-5 FPGA block RAM usage rules:T he Synchronous Set/R eset (SSR) port cannot be used when the ECC decoder is enabled (EN_ECC_READ = TRUE).T he setup time of the block RAM address and write enable pins must not be violated. Violating the address setup time (even if write enable is Low) will corrupt the datacontents of the block RAM.T he block RAM register mode SSR requires REGCE = 1 to reset the output DO register value. The block RAM array data output latch does not get reset in this mode. The block RAM latch mode SSR requires the block RAM enable, EN = 1, to reset the output DO latch value.A lthough RAMB18SDP (x36 18k block RAM) and RAMB36SDP (x72 36k block RAM)are simple dual-port primitives, the true dual-port primitives (RAMB18 and RAMB36) can be used with one read-only port and one write-only port. For example: a RAMB18s READ_WIDTH_A = 18, WRITE_WIDTH_B = 9, with WEA = 0 and WEB = 1 is effectively a simple dual-port block RAM with a smaller port width having been derived from the true dual-port primitive. Similarly, a ROM function can be built out of either the true dual-port (RAMB18 or RAMB36) or the simple dual-portblock RAM primitives (RAMB18SDP or RAMB36SDP).D ifferent read and write port width choices are available when using specific block RAM primitives. The parity bits are only available for the x9, x18, and x36 port widths. The parity bits should not be used when the read width is x1, x2, or x4. If the read width is x1, x2 or x4, the effective write width is x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, or x32. Similarly, when a write width is x1, x2, or x4, the actual available read width is x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, or x32 even though the primitive attribute isset to 1, 2, 4, 9, 18, or 36respectively. Table 4-1 shows some possible scenarios.Table 4-1: Parity Use SceneriesNotes:1. Do not use parity bits DIP/DOP when one port widths is less than nine and another port width is nineBlock RAM IntroductionIn addition to distributed RAM memory and high-speed SelectIO™ memory interfaces, Virtex-5devices feature a large number of 36 Kb block RAMs. Each 36 Kb block RAM contains two independently controlled 18 Kb RAMs. Block RAMs are placed in columns, and the total number of block RAM memory depends on the size of the Virtex-5 device. The 36 Kb blocks are cascadable to enable a deeper and wider memory implementation, with a minimal timing penalty. Embedded dual- or single-port RAM modules, ROM modules, synchronous FIFOs, and data width converters are easily implemented using the Xilinx CORE Generator™ block memory modules. Multirate FIFOs can be generated using the CORE Generator FIFO Generator module. The synchronous or asynchronous (multirate) FIFO implementation does not require additional CLB resources for the FIFO control logicsince it uses dedicated hardware resources.Synchronous Dual-Port and Single-Port RAMsData FlowThe true dual-port 36 Kb block RAM dual-port memories consist of a 36 Kb storage area and two completely independent access ports, A and B. Similarly, each 18 Kb b lock RAM dual-port memory consists of an 18 Kb storage area and two completely independent access ports, A and B. The structure is fully symmetrical, and both ports are interchangeable. Figure 4-1 illustrates the true dual-port data flow. Table 4-2 lists the port names and descriptions. Data can be written to either or both ports and can be read from either or both ports. Each write operation is synchronous, each port has its own address, data in, data out, clock, clock enable, and write enable. The read and write operations are synchronousand require a clock edge. There is no dedicated monitor to arbitrate the effect of identical addresses onboth ports. It is up to the user to time the two clocks appropriately. Conflicting simultaneous writes to the same location never cause any physical damage but can result in data uncertainty.Read OperationIn latch mode, the read operation uses one clock edge. The read address is registered on the read port, and the stored data is loaded into the output latches after the RAM access time. When using the outputregister, the read operation will take one extra latency cycle.Write OperationA write operation is a single clock-edge operation. The write address is registered on the write port, andthe data input is stored in memory.Write ModesThree settings of the write mode determines the behavior of the data available on the output latches after a write clock edge: W RITE_FIRST, REA D_FIRST, and NO_CHANGE. Write mode selection is set by configuration. The Write mode attribute can be individually selected for each port. The default mode is WRITE_FIRST. W RITE_FIRST outputs thenewly written data onto the output bus. REA D_FIRST outputs the previously stored data while new data is being written. NO_CHANGE maintains the output previously generated by a read operation. For the simple dual port block RAM, the Write mode is always READ_FIRST in ECC configuration,and therefore no collision can occur when used in synchronous mode.WRITE_FIRST or Transparent Mode (Default)In WRITE_FIRST mode, the input data is simultaneously written into memory an d stored in the data output (transparent write), as shown in Figure 4-2. These waveforms correspond to latch modewhetREAD_FIRST or Read-Before-Write ModeIn REA D_FIRST mode, data previously stored at the write address appears on the output latches, while the input data is being stored in memory (read before write). The waveforms in Figure 4-3 correspond to latch mode when the optional output pipeline register is not usdedNO_CHANGE ModeIn NO_CHANGE mode, the output latches remain unchanged during a write operation. As shown in Figure 4-4, data output remains the last read data and is unaffected by a write operation on the same port. These waveforms correspond to latch mode when the optional output pipeline register is not used.Conflict AvoidanceVirtex-5 FPGA block RAM memory is a true dual-port RAM where both ports can access any memory location at any time. When accessing the same memory location from both ports, the user must, however, observe certain restrictions. There are two fundamentally different situations: The two ports either have a common clock (synchronous clocking), or the clock frequency and phase is different for the two ports (asynchronous clocking).Asynchronous ClockingAsynchronous clocking is the more general case, where the active edges of both clocks do not occur simultaneously:T here are no timing constraints when both ports perform a read operation.W hen one port performs a write operation, the other port must not read- or writeaccess the same memory location. The simulation model will produce an error if this condition is violated. If this restriction is ignored, a read or write operation willproduce unpredictable results. There is, however, no risk of physical damage to the device. If a read and write operation is performed, then the write will store valid data at the write location. Synchronous ClockingSynchronous clocking is the special case, where the active edges of both port clocks occur simultaneously:T here are no timing constraints when both ports perform a read operation.W hen one port performs a write operation, the other port must not write into the same location, unless both ports write identical data.W hen one port performs a write operation, the write operation succeeds; the other port can reliably read data from the same location if the write port is in READ_FIRST mode. DATA_OUT on bothports will then reflect the previously stored data. If the write port is in either WRITE_FIRST or inNO_CHA NGE mode, then the DATAOUT on the read port would become invalid (unreliable). Themode setting of the read-port does not affect this operation.Additional Block RAM Features in Virtex-5 Devices Optional Output RegistersThe optional output registers improve design performance by eliminating routing delay to the CLB flip-flops for pipelined operation. An independent clock and clock enable input is provided for these output registers. As a result the output data registers hold the value independent of the input register operation. Figure 4-5 shows the optional output register.Independent Read and Write Port Width SelectionEach block RAM port has control over data width and address depth (aspect ratio). The true dual-portblock RAM in Virtex-5 FPGAs extends this flexibility to Read and Write where each individual portcan be configured with different data bit widths. For example, port A can have a 36-bit Read width anda 9-bit Write width, and port B can have a 18-bit Read width and a 36-bit Write width. See “BlockRAM Attributes,” page 126. If the Read port width differs from the Write port width, and is configuredin WRITE_FIRST mode, then DO shows valid new data for all the enabled write bytes. The DO portoutputs the original data stored in memory for all not enabled bytes. Independent Read and Write portwidth selection increases the efficiency of implementing a content addressable memory (CAM) inblock RAM. Th is option is available for all Virtex-5 FPGA true dual-port RAM port sizes and modes. Simple Dual-Port Block RAMEach 18 Kb block and 36 Kb block can also be configured in a simple dual-port RAM mode. In this mode, the block RAM port width doubles to 36 bits for the 18 Kb block RAM and 72 bits for the 36 Kb block RAM. In simple dual-port mode, independent Read and Write operations can occur simultaneously, where port A is designated as the Read port and port B as the Write port. When the Read and Write port access the same data location at the same time, it is treated as a collision, similar to the port collision in true dual-port mode. Readback through the configuration port is not supported in simple dual-port block RAM mode. Figure 4-6 shows the simple dual-port data flowCascadable Block RAMIn the Virtex-5 block RAM architecture, two 32K x 1 RAMs can be combined to form one 64K x 1 RAM without using local interconnect or additional CLB logic resources. Any two adjacent block RAMs can be cascaded to generate a 64K x 1 block RAM. Increasing the depth of the block RAM by cascading two block RAMs is available only in the 64K x 1 mode. Further information on cascadable block RAM is described in the “Additional RAMB18 and RAMB36 Primitive Design Considerations” section. For other wider and/or deeper sizes, consult the Creating Larger RAM Structures section. Figure 4-7 shows the block RAM with the appropriate ports connected in the Cascadable mode.Byte-wide Write EnableThe byte-wide write enable feature of the block RAM gives the capability to write eight bit (one byte) portions of incoming data. There are four independent byte-wide write enable inputs to the RAMB36 true dual-port RAM. There are eight independent byte-wide write enable inputs to block RAM in simple dual-port mode (RAMB36SDP). Table 4-4 summarizes the byte-wide write enables for the 36K and 18K block RAM. Each byte-wide write enable is associated with one byte of input data and one parity bit. A ll byte-wide write enable inputs must be driven in all data width configurations. This feature is useful when using block RAM to interface with a microprocessor. Byte-wide write enable is not available in the multirate FIFO or ECC mode. Byte-wide write enable is further described in the “Additional RAMB18 and RAMB36 Primitive Design Considerations” section.Figure 4-8 shows the byte-wide write-enable timing diagram for the RAMB36.When the RAMB36 is configured for a 36-bit or 18-bit wide data path, any port can restrict writing to specified byte locations within the data word. If configured in READ_FIRST mode, the DO bus shows the previous content of the whole addressed word. In WRITE_FIRST mode, DO shows a combination of the newly written enabled byte(s), and the initial memory contents of the unwritten bytes.Block RAM Error Correction CodeBoth block RAM and FIFO implementations of the 36 Kb block RAM support a 64-bit Error Correction Code (ECC) implementation. The code is used to detect single and double-bit errors inblock RAM data read out. Single-bit errors are then corrected in the output data.Block RAM Library PrimitivesThe Virtex-5 FPGA block RAM library primitives, RAMB18 and RAMB36, are the basic building blocks for all block RAM configurations. Other block RAM primitives and macros are based on these primitives. Some block RAM attributes can only be configured usingone of these primitives (e.g., pipeline register, cascade, etc.). See the “Block RAM Attributes” section. The input and output data buses are represented by two buses for 9-bit width (8 + 1), 18-bit width (16 + 2), and 36-bit width (32 + 4) configurations. The ninth bit associated with each byte can store parity/error correction bits or serve as additional data bits. No specific function is performed on the ninth bit. The separate bus for parity bits facilitates some designs. However, other designs safely use a 9-bit, 18-bit, or 36-bit bus by merging the regular data bus with the parity bus. Read/write and storage operations are identical for all bits, including the parity bits.Block RAM Port SignalsEach block RAM port operates independently of the other while accessing the same set of 36K-bit memory cells.Clock - CLK[A|B]Each port is fully synchronous with independent clock pins. All port input pins have setup time referenced to the port CLK pin. The output data bus has a clock-to-out time referenced to the CLK pin. Clock polarity is configurable (rising edge by default).Enable - EN[A|B]The enable pin affects the read, write, and set/reset functionality of the port. Ports with an inactive enable pin keep the output pins in the previous state and do not write data to the memory cells. Enable polarity is configurable (active High by default).Byte-wide Write Enable - WE[A|B]To write the content of the data input bus into the addressed memory location, both EN and WE must be active within a set-up time before the active clock edge. The output latches are loaded or not loaded according to the write configuration (W RITE_FIRST, READ_FIRST, NO_CHA NGE). When inactive, a read operation occurs, and the contents of the memory cells referenced by the address bus appear on the data-out bus, regardless of the write mode attribute. Write enable polarity is not configurable (active High).Register Enable - REGCE[A|B]The register enable pin (REGCE) controls the optional output register. When the RAM is in register mode, REGCE = 1 registers the output into a register at a clock edge. The polarity of REGCE is not configurable (active High).Set/Reset - SSR[A|B]In latch mode, the SSR pin forces the data output latches, to contain the value SRVA L. See“Block RAM Attributes,” pag e 126. When the optional output registers are enabled, the data output registers can also be forced by the SSR pin to contain the value SRVA L. SSR does not affect the latched value. The data output latches or output registers are synchronously asserted to 0 or 1, including the parity bit. Each port has an independent SRVA L[A|B] attribute of 36 bits. This operation does not affect RAM memory cells and does not disturb write operations on the other port. Similar to the read and write operation, the set/reset function is active only when the enable pin of the port is active. Set/reset polarity is configurable (active High by default).Address Bus - ADDR[A|B]<13:#><14:#><15:#>The address bus selects the memory cells for read or write. The data bit width of the port determinesthe required address bus width for a single RAMB18 or RAMB36, as shown in Table 4-6 and Table 4-7.For cascadable block RAM using the RAMB36, the data width is one bit, and the address bus is 16 bits <15:0>. The address bit 15 is only used in cascadable block RAM. For noncascading block RAM, connect High. Data and address pin mapping is further described in the “Additional RAMB18 and RAMB36 Prim itive Design Considerations”section.Data-In Buses - DI[A|B]<#:0> & DIP[A|B]<#:0>Data-in buses provide the new data value to be written into RAM. The regular data-in bus (DI), plus the parity data-in bus (DIP) when available, have a total width equal to the port width. For example the 36-bit port data width is represented by DI<31:0> and DIP<3:0>, as shown in Table 4-6 and Table 4-7. Data-Out Buses - DO[A|B]<#:0> and DOP[A|B]<#:0>Data-out buses reflect the contents of memory cells referenced by the address bus at the last active clock edge during a read operation. During a write operation (WRITE_FIRST or READ_FIRST configuration), the data-out buses reflect either the data being written or the stored value before write. During a write operation in NO_CHANGE mode, data-out buses are not changed. The regular data-out bus (DO) plus the parity data-out bus (DOP) (when available) have a total width equal to the port width, as shown in Table 4-6 and Table 4-7.Cascade In - CASCADEINLAT[A|B] and CASCADEINREG[A|B]The CASCA DEIN pins are used to connect two block RAMs to form the 64K x 1 mode (Figure 4-10.) This pin is used when the block RAM is the UPPER block RAM, and is connected to the CASCADEOUT pins of the LOW ER block RAM of the same port. When cascade mode is not used, this pin does not need to be connected. Refer to the “Cascadable Block RAM” for further information.CascadeOut - CASCADEOUTLAT[A|B] and CASCADEOUTREG[A|B]The CASCA DEOUT pins are used to connect two block RAMs to form the 64K x 1 mode. This pin is used when the block RAM is the LOW ER block RAM, and is connected to the CASCADEIN pins of the UPPER block RAM of the same port. When cascade mode is not used, this pin does not need to be connected. Refer to the “Cascadable Block RAM” for further information.Inverting Control PinsFor each port, the six control pins (CLK, EN, and SSR) each have an individual inversion option. EN and SSR control signals can be configured as active High or Low, and the clock can be active on a rising or falling edge (active High on rising edge by default), without requiring other logic resources. GSRThe global set/reset (GSR) signal of a Virtex-5 device is an asynchronous global signal that is active at the end of device configuration. The GSR can also restore the initial Virtex-5 device state at any time. The GSR signal initializes the output latches to the INIT (simple dual port), or to the INIT_A and INIT_B value (true dual port.) See “Block RAM Attributes.” A GSR signal has no impact on internal memory contents. Because it is a global signal, the GSR has no input pin at the functional level (block RAM primitive).Unused InputsUnused data and/or address inputs should be connected HighBlock RAM Address MappingEach port accesses the same set of 18,432 or 36,864 memory cells using an addressing scheme dependent on whether it is a RAMB18 or RAMB36. The physical RAM locations addressed for a particular width are determined using the following formula (of interest only when the two ports use different aspect ratios):END = ((A DDR + 1) Width) -1START = A DDR WidthTable 4-8 shows low-order address mapping for each port width.Block RAM AttributesAll attribute code examples are discussed in the “Block RAM Initialization in VHDL or Verilog Code” section. Further information on using these attributes is available in the“Additional RAMB18 and RAMB36 Primitive Design Considerations” section.Content Initialization - INIT_xxINIT_xx attributes define the initial memory contents. By default, block RAM memory is initialized with all zeros during the device configuration sequence. The 64 initialization attributes from INIT_00 through INIT_3F for the RAMB18, and the 128 initialization attributes from INIT_00 through INIT_7F for the RAMB36 represent the regular memory contents. Each INIT_xx is a 64-digit hex-encoded bit vector. The memory contents can be partially initialized and are automatically completed with zeros. The following formula is used for determining the bit positions for each INIT_xx attribute. Given yy = conversion hex-encoded to decimal (xx), INIT_xx corresponds to the memorycells as follows:f rom [(yy + 1) 256] – 1t o (yy) 256For example, for the attribute INIT_1F, the conversion is as follows:y y = conversion hex-encoded to decimal (xx) “1F” = 31f rom [(31+1) 256] – 1 = 8191t o 31 256 = 7936More examples are given in Table 4-9.Content Initialization - INITP_xxINITP_xx attributes define the initial contents of the memory cells corresponding to DIP/DOP buses (parity bits). By default these memory cells are also initialized to all zeros. The initialization attributes represent the memory contents of the parity bits. The eight initialization attributes are INITP_00 through INITP_07 for the RAMB18. The 16 initialization attributes are INITP_00 through INITP_0F for the RAMB36. Each INITP_xx is a 64-digit hex-encoded bit vector with a regular INIT_xx attribute behavior. The same formula can be used to calculate the bit positions initialized by a particular INITP_xx attribute.Output Latches Initialization - INIT (INIT_A or INIT_B)The INIT (single-port) or INIT_A and INIT_B (dual-port) attributes define the output latches or output register values after configuration. The width of the INIT (INIT_A andINIT_B) attribute is the port width, as shown in Table 4-10. These attributes are hexencoded bit vectors, and the default value is 0. In cascade mode, both the upper and lower block RAM should be initialized to the same value. Output Latches/Registers Synchronous Set/Reset (SRVAL_[A|B])The SRVA L (single-port) or SRVA L_A and SRVA L_B (dual-port) attributes define output latch values when the SSR input is asserted. The width of the SRVA L (SRVA L_A and SRVA L_B) attribute is the port width, as shown in Table 4-10. These attributes are hexencoded bit vectors and the default value is 0. This attribute sets the value of the output register when the optional output register attribute is set. When the register is not used, the latch gets set to the SRVA L instead. In the 36-bit mode, SRVA L[35:32] corresponds toDP[3:0].Output Latches/Registers Synchronous Set/Reset (SRVAL_[A|B])The SRVA L (single-port) or SRVA L_A and SRVA L_B (dual-port) attributes define output latch values when the SSR input is asserted. The width of the SRVA L (SRVA L_A and SRVA L_B) attribute is the port width, as shown in Table 4-10. These attributes are hexencoded bit vectors and the default value is 0. This attribute sets the value of the output register when the optional output register attribute is set. When the register is not used, the latch gets set to the SRVA L instead. In the 36-bit mode, SRVA L[35:32] corresponds toDP[3:0].Optional Output Register On/Off Switch - DO[A|B]_REGThis attribute sets the number of pipeline register at A/B output of the block RAM. The valid values are 0 (default) or 1.Extended Mode Address Determinant - RAM_EXTENSION_[A|B]This attribute determines whether the block RAM of interest has its A/B port as UPPER/LOW ER address when using the cascade mode. Refer to the “Cascadable Block RAM”section. When the block RAM is not used in cascade mode, the default value isNONE.Read Width - READ_WIDTH_[A|B]This attribute determines the A/B read port width of the block RAM. The valid values are:0 (default), 1, 2, 4, 9, 18, and 36.Write Width - WRITE_WIDTH_[A|B]This attribute determines the A/B write port width of the block RAM. The valid values are:0 (default), 1, 2, 4, 9, 18, and 36.Write Mode - WRITE_MODE_[A|B]This attribute determines the write mode of the A/B input ports. The possible values are WRITE_FIRST (default), READ_FIRST, and NO_CHANGE. Additional information on the write modes is in the “Write Modes” sectionBlock RAM Location ConstraintsBlock RAM instances can have LOC properties attached to them to constrain placement. Block RAM placement locations differ from the convention used for naming CLB locations, allowing LOC properties to transfer easily from array to array. The LOC properties use the following form:。
物流专业外文翻译5
1. The Definition of LogisticsAfter completing a commercial transaction, logistics will execute the transfer of goods from the supplier( seller) to the customer( buyer) in the most cost-effective manner. This is the definition of logistics. During the transfer process, hardware such as logistics facilities and equipment( logistics carriers) are needed, as well as information control and standardization. In addition, supports from the government and logistics association should be in place.Three major functions of logistics(1) Creating time value: same goods can be valued different at different times. Goods often stop during the transfer process, which is professionally called the storage of logistics. It creates the time value for goods.(2) Creating location value: same goods can be valued differently at different locations. The value added during the transfer process is the location value of logistics.(3) Distribution processing value: sometimes logistics create distribution processing value, which changes the length, thickness and packages of the goods. Like popular saying, “ cutting into smaller parts” is the most commonly seen distribution processing within logistics create added value for goods.2. Logistics is a new commercial area, developing from the traditional stage to a modern one. The main differences between these two stage include:(1) Modern logistics adopts containerization techniques. The goods transfer process starts with packaging, followed by transportation, storage and distribution. The whole process is operated under logistics standards. Based on the logistics base module of 600×400mm, from the logistics module of 1,200×1,000mm, and enlarge to the size of2,591×2,438mm-the size of high×wide of the container. It can be adjusted to the standard sizes of containers for trains, trucks and ships.(2) Information technologies are most important for modern logistics. Bar Code, POS, EDI and GPS systems dramatically improve the efficiency and accuracy of the logistics activities. Internet further assists the market development, operation and management of the logistics industry.3.International LogisticsAn increasing number of companies are involving in international markets through exporting, licensing, joins ventures, and ownership. This trend should continue. With such expansion there is a need to develop worldwide logistics networks. Integrated logistics management and cost analysis will be more complex and difficult to manage.There are some future trends in internationalization:(1) More logistics executives with international responsibilities(2) Expansion of the number and size of foreign trade zones.(3) Reduction in the amount of international paperwork and documentation(4) More foreign warehousing is owned and controlled by the exporting firm(5) Increasing number of smaller firm(6) Foreign ownership of logistics service firms, e. g., public warehousing and transportation carriers.(7) Increasing multiple distribution channelsThe international transport and the international logistics are same things in some way. So, when the international trading involved, the firm must establish international logistics systems to provide the products and service demanded. The most significant development in international logistics will be the increasing sophistication information system adopted and independent departments to operate.4.Packaging.Packaging performs two basic functions–marketing and logistics. In marketing the packaging acts promotion and advertising. Its size, weight, color, and printed information attract customers and convey knowledge of the product. When firms are involved in international marketing, packaging becomes even more important. Products sold to foreign countries travel greater distances and undergo more handling operations. The logistics package is to protect the products during the process of logistics.Scrap disposal. The logistics process must effectively and quickly handle, transport, and store waste products. If they can be reused or recycled, logistics company should arrange and move them to the re–production and re–processing locations.Return goods handling. The handling of return goods is often called reverse distribution. Buyers may return items to the seller for a number of reasons. Most logistics systems are not good enough to handle such cases. In many industries, consumers return products for warranty repair, replacement, or recycling, reverse distribution costs may be very high. Reverse distribution will become more important as customers demand more flexible and favorable return policies.5.Third Part Logistics ( TPL)Third Part Logistics provides all the logistics services. They act as a bridge or facilitator between the first part( supplier or producer) and the second part( buyer or customer). The primary objectives of third part logistics providers are to lower the total cost of logistics for the supplier and improve the service level to the customer.Third Part Logistics have been growing rapidly. Cost reduction and demands for batter and cheaper services are the main drives behind the growth. A third part logistics provider will be in a position to consolidate business from several companies and offer frequent pick–ups and deliveries, whereas in–house transportation cannot. Other reasons are as follows:* The company does not specialize in logistics;* The company does not have sufficient resources;* Eager to implement better logistics operation or does not have time to develop the required capabilities in–house;* The company is venturing into a new business with totally different logistics requirements;* Merger or acquisition may make outsourcing logistics operations more attractive than to integrate logistics operations.6.Global LogisticsDeveloped countries often deal with globalization in two ways: to be more cost competitive with third world countries, and to look for new partners in other countries to manufacture components, subassemblies and even the final products. The second approach forces most developed countrie s to get into a new area called “ global logistics”.Benefits of global operations include cheap raw materials and end products, lower labor cost, better quality, increased internal competition and better customer service. Some of the disadvantages are unreliable delivery, poor communication and longer time from design to finish production. Challenges are often cultural and linguistic differences, legal requirements, logistics suppliers or manufacturers, exchange rates.There are three major flows involved in global logistics: material flow, document flow and cash flow.7.Logistics into the FutureLogistics is changing at a rapid and acceleration rate. There are two reasons are its rapid growth:Firstly, pressure to change by the development of the system itself(1) High–speed computing and data transmission can instantly transmit and react to user demand(2) More flexible and accurate logistic planning and control through computers and data processing(3) Flexible computer facilities help problem solving and increase decisions accuracy(4) Awareness of total cost measurement and management accountingSecondly, pressures for changes from the wider economy.(1) Be flexible in handling markets of different sizes for better competition(2) There is increasing specialization in markets and growth in retailing.(3) Life cycles for products are shortening. Logistics systems need to be more efficient, faster and more flexible(4) Move from mass production towards flexible manufacturing system( FMS). These systems enable a company to switch production quickly from one product to another (5) Competitive pressures lead to more efforts to improve customer service.8.The process of logistical integration can be divided into four stages:Stage 1. Began in the early 1960s in the USA and involved the integration of all activities associated with distribution. Separate distribution departments were to coordinate the management of all processes within physical distributionmanagement( PDM).Stage 2. PDM was applied to the inbound movement of materials, components, and subassemblies, generally known as “ materials management”. By the late 1970s, many firms had established “ logistics department” with overall responsibility for the movement, storage, and handling of products upstream and downstream of the production operation.Stage 3. Logistics plays an important coordinating role, as it interfaces with most other functions. With the emergence of business process re–engineering( BPR) in the early 1990s, the relationship between logistics and related functions was redefined.“ System integration” occurred. Cross–functional integration should achieve greater results.物流的定义在完成商业交易之后,物流将以最低成本和最高效益的方式执行将商品从供应商(卖方)流转到顾客(买方)的过程。
毕设外文文献+翻译1
外文翻译外文原文CHANGING ROLES OF THE CLIENTS、ARCHITECTSAND CONTRACTORS THROUGH BIMAbstract:Purpose –This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes.Design/methodology/approach–Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed.Findings –One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R).Originality/value –This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects.Keywords:Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type :General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different setof skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored. There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to man age and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Healthto obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world.The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction. The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures.A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value thatexceed the minimum client’s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client’s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc.The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client.BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings. BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops andevolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the building performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors.The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is at tached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR.How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand,collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM A ddendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary.4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; and the roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation, and planning;interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; andoptimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations andequipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much better insight in these aspects over the life-cycle period. The life-cycle sustainability criteria are included in the assignments for the design teams. Multidisciplinary designers and engineers are asked to collaborate more closely and to interact with the end-users to address life-cycle requirements. However, ensuring the building actors to engage in an integrated collaboration to generate sustainable design solutions that meet the life-cycle performance expectations is still difficult. These actors are contracted through a traditional procurement method. Their tasks are specific, their involvement is rather short-term in a certain project phase, their responsibilities and liabilities are limited, and there is no tangible incentive for integrated collaboration.From the current progress of both projects, it can be observed that the type and structure of BIM relies heavily on the choice for BIM software applications. Revit Architecture and Revit Structure by Autodesk are selected based on the argument that it has been widely used internationally and it is compatible with AutoCAD, a widely known product of the same software manufacturer. The compatibility with AutoCAD is a key consideration at MMC since the drawings of the existing buildings were created with this application. These 2D drawings were then used as the basis to generate a 3D model with the BIM software application. The architectural model generated with Revit Architecture and the structural model generated by Revit Structure can be linked directly. In case of a change in the architectural model, a message will be sent to the structural engineer. He can then adjust the structural model, or propose a change in return to the architect, so that the structural model is always consistent with the architectural one.Despite the attempt of the design team to agree on using the same software application, the MEP consultant is still not capable to use Revit; and therefore, a conversion of the model from and to Revit is still required. Another weakness of this “closed approach”, which is dependent to the use of the same software applications, may appear in the near future when the project further progresses into the construction phase. If the contractor uses another software application, considerable extra work will be needed to make the model creted during the design phase to be compatible for use in the construction phase.。
计算机外文翻译（完整）
计算机外⽂翻译（完整）毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：王成明学号：06120186外⽂出处：The History of the Internet附件： 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂；附件1：外⽂原⽂The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between onecomputer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might viewa webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leadingto the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus justby reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed2. Yahoo (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection3. Excite (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.附件2：外⽂资料翻译译⽂Internet的历史起源——ARPAnetInternet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。
外文翻译格式
外文翻译格式
外语翻译通常需要遵循一定的格式，以确保翻译内容的准确性和易读性。
以下是一个700字外文翻译的通用格式示例：
1. 标题：翻译的内容的标题，通常与原文标题保持一致，居中显示。
2. 原文：原文内容，可将原文段落编号，并保留原文格式，如段落缩进或列表。
3. 译文：相关段落的翻译内容，与原文一一对应，并保持相同的段落编号和格式。
4. 术语翻译：将翻译中使用的特定术语或固定表达进行解释和翻译，避免出现歧义。
5. 校对与审校：对翻译内容进行校对和审校，确保翻译准确无误。
6. 结论：对整个翻译内容进行总结和评价，提出自己的观点和见解。
7. 参考文献：如有需要，列出翻译过程中所参考的文献或资料。
8. 附录：如有需要，可在翻译后添加附录，补充相关资料或说明。
注意事项：
- 翻译应遵循专业的术语和语法规范，尽量保持翻译内容的准确性。
- 可根据需要调整段落的分配和序号，以符合原文和翻译内容的逻辑结构。
- 保持翻译格式的统一和美观，使用合适的字体和字号，并注意标点符号的使用。
- 翻译结束后，应进行校对和审校，以确保翻译质量的准确性和流畅性。
总之，一个700字外文翻译的格式应该清晰明了，结构合理，准确无误，并能为读者提供一个清晰且易于理解的翻译内容。
英文翻译 附原文
本科毕业设计(论文) 外文翻译（附外文原文）系 ( 院 )：资源与环境工程系课题名称：英文翻译专业(方向)：环境工程班级：2004-1班学生：3040106119指导教师：刘辉利副教授日期：2008年4月20使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿物废水中去除和回收金属离子a. 美国, 大学公园, PA 16802, 宾夕法尼亚州立大学, 能源部和Geo 环境工程学.b. 印度第80号邮箱, Mahatma Gandhi ・Marg, Lucknow 226001, 工业毒素学研究中心, 环境化学分部,于2006 年5月6 日网上获得，2006 年4月24 日接受，2006 年3月19 日;校正，2006 年2月15 日接收。
摘要酸性矿物废水(AMD), 是一个长期的重大环境问题，起因于钢硫铁矿的微生物在水和空气氧化作用, 买得起包含毒性金属离子的一种酸性解答。
这项研究的主要宗旨是通过使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿水(AMD)中去除和回收金属离子。
褐煤已被用于酸性矿水排水AMD 的处理。
经研究其能吸附亚铁, 铁, 锰、锌和钙在multi-component 含水系统中。
研究通过在不同的酸碱度里进行以找出最适宜的酸碱度。
模拟工业条件进行酸性矿物废水处理, 所有研究被进行通过单一的并且设定多专栏流动模式。
空的床接触时间(EBCT) 模型被使用为了使吸附剂用量减到最小。
金属离子的回收并且吸附剂的再生成功地达到了使用0.1 M 硝酸不用分解塔器。
关键词:吸附; 重金属; 吸附; 褐煤; 酸性矿物废水处理; 固体废料再利用; 亚铁; 铁; 锰。
文章概述1. 介绍2. 材料和方法2.1. 化学制品、材料和设备3. 吸附步骤3.1. 酸碱度最佳化3.2. 固定床研究3.2.1 单一栏3.2.2 多栏4. 结果和讨论4.1. ZPC 和渗析特征4.2 酸碱度的影响4.3. Multi-component 固定吸附床4.3.1 褐煤使用率4.4. 吸附机制4.5. 解吸附作用研究5. 结论1. 介绍酸性矿物废水(AMD) 是一个严重的环境问题起因于硫化物矿物风化, 譬如硫铁矿(FeS2) 和它的同素异形体矿物(α-FeS) 。
英文文献翻译
外文翻译（原文）Catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye (Congo red) using modified Y zeolite as catalystAbstractThe present study explores the degradation of azo dye (Congo red) by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation using Fe exchanged commercial Y zeolite as a catalyst. The effects of various operating parameters like temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on the removal of dye,color and COD from an aqueous solution were studied at atmospheric pressure. The percent removals of dye, color and COD at optimum pH07, 90◦C using 0.6 ml H 2 O2/350 ml solution and 1 g/l catalyst was 97% (in 4 h), 100% (in 45 min) and 58% (in 4 h), respectively. The % dye removal has been found to be less in comparison to % color removal at all conditions, e.g. dye removal in 45 min and at above conditions was 82%, whereas the color removal was 100%. The results indicate that the Fe exchanged Y zeolite is a promising catalyst for dye removal. Fe exchanged catalyst is characterized using XRD, SEM/EDAX, surface area analyzer and FTIR. Though the dye, color and COD removals were maximum at pH02 but as the leaching of Fe from the catalyst was more in acidic pH range, pH0 7 was taken as operating pH due to almost comparable removals as of pH0 2 and no leaching of Fe ions.© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionReactive azo dyes from textile and dyeing industries pose grave environmental problem. An estimate shows that textiles account for 14% of India’s industrial production and around 27% of its export earnings[1]. Production during 2006 registered a growth of about 3.5% at 29,500 tonnes and the textile industry accounts for the largest consumption of dyestuffs at nearly 80% [2]. The waste containing these azo dyes is non-degradable. The process of dyeing is a combination of bleaching and coloring, which generates huge quantities of wastewaters causing environmental problems. The effluents from these industries consist of large quantities of sodium, chloride, sulphate, hardness, carcinogenic dye ingredients and total dissolved solids with very high BOD and COD values over 1500 mg/l and over 5000 mg/l, respectively [3]. Various methods have been used for dye removal like adsorption, coagulation, electrocoagulation, Fenton’s reagent and combination of these processes. Though these treatment processes are efficient in dye removal, they generate adsorbed waste/sludge, etc. which further causes a secondary pollution. In wet oxidation the sludge is disposed off to a great extent by oxidizing the organic pollutant. Catalytic wet oxidation method (CWAO and CWPO) is gaining more popularity. CWPO process using H2O2, in particular has advantages like better oxidation ability thanusing oxygen,as the former is carried out at lower pressure (atmospheric pres-sure).WAO usually acts under high temperatures (200–325◦C)and pressure (50–150 bar). A comparable oxidation efficiency is obtained at a less temperature of 100–120◦C when using hydrogen peroxide as the oxi dizing agent instead of oxygen [4].WAO is capital intensive whereas WPO needs limited capital but generates little higher running costs [4].Rivas et al.[5] showed that the addition of H2O2(as a source of free radicals) enhanced wet air oxidation of phenol, a highly non-degradable substance and found that the combined addition of H2O2 and a bivalent metal (i.e. Cu, Co or Mn) enhanced the rate of phenol removal. Various oxidation catalysts have been studied for the removal of different compounds like phenol, benzoic acid, dyes, etc. by CWPO process. Catalysts like Fe2O3/CeO2and WO3/CeO2 in the removal of phenolic solution, (Al–Fe) pillared clay named FAZA in the removal of 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, mixed (Al–Fe) pillared clays in the removal of organic compounds have been used[6–8] .Removal of dyes by CWPO process is gaining importance in recent times with a large number of catalysts. Kim and Lee [9] used Cu/Al2O3 and copper plate in treatment of dye house effluents. Liu and Sun [10] removed acid orange 52, acid orange 7 and reactive black 5 using CeO2doped Fe2O3/ -Al2O3 from dye waste water. Kim and Lee [11] reported the treatment of reactive dye solutions by using Al–Cu pillared clays as catalyst.Among these catalysts, modified zeolites are preferred for improved efficiency, lower by-product formation and less severe experimental conditions (temperatures and pressures). Theimproved efficiency of the catalyst is ascribed to its structure and large surface area with the ability of forming complex compounds. Zeolites can be ion exchanged using transition metal ions like Fe,Cu, Mn and others like Ca, Ba, etc. Zeolites are negatively charged because of the substitution of Si(IV) by Al(III) in the tetrahedral accounts for a negative charge of the structure and hence the Si/Al ratio determines the properties of zeolites like ion exchange capacity [12] . These metal ions neutralizethe negative charge on zeolites and their position, size and number determine the properties of zeolite. These metal ions are fixed to the rigid zeolite framework which prevents leaching and precipitation in various reactions[13–21] .In this work, catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of Congo red azo dye using Fe exchanged Y zeolite has been presented. Effect of variables like temperature, initial pH, peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation were examined and the optimum conditions evaluated.2.Materials and methods2.1. ChemicalsHydrogen peroxide (30% analytical grade), manganese dioxide,sodium hydroxide pellets (AR) and hydrochloric acid were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India. Congo red was obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai) and were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India.Commercial Na–Y zeolite was obtained from Sud chemie Pvt.Ltd. (Baroda), India. Commercial catalyst was iron exchanged with excess 1 M Fe(NO3)3 at 80◦C for 6 h. The process was repeated three times and the sample was thoroughly washed with distilled water and dried in oven in air at60◦C for 10-12 h. The amount of iron exchanged was 1.53 wt% estimated by A.A.S.2.2. Apparatus and procedureThe experimental studies were carried out in a 0.5 l three-necked glass reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer with heater and a total reflux (Fig. 13). Water containing Congo red dye was transferred to the three-necked glass reactor. Thereafter, the catalyst was added to the solution. The temperature of the reaction mixture was raised using heater to the desired value and maintained by a P.I.D. temperature controller, which was fitted in one of the necks through the thermocouple. The raising of the temperature of the reaction mixture to 90◦C from ambient took about 30 min.The total reflux prevents any loss of vapor and magnetic stirrer to agitate the mixture. Hydrogen peroxide was added, the runs were conducted at 90◦C and the samples were taken at periodic intervals. The samples after collection were raised to pH-11 by adding 0.1N NaOH (so that no further reaction takes place) and the residual hydrogen peroxide was removed by adding MnO2 which catalyzed the decomposition of peroxide to water and oxygen. The samples were allowed to settle for overnight or one day (or centrifuged) and filtered. The supernatant was tested for color and COD. After the completion of the run, the mixture was allowed to cool and settle overnight.2.3. CharacterizationThe determination of structure of the heterogeneous catalyst was done by X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS, Diffraktometer D8,Germany). The catalyst structure was confirm ed by using Cu Kα as a source and Ni as a filter. Goniometer speed was kept at 1cm/min and the chart speed was 1 cm/min. The range of scanning angle(2θ) was kept at 3–60◦. The intensity peaks indicate the values of2θ , where Bragg’s law is applicable. The formation of compounds was tested by comparing the XRD patternusing JCPDS files (1971).The determination of images and composition of catalyst were done by SEM/EDAX QUANTA 200 FEG. Scanning for zeolite samples was taken at various magnifications and voltage to account for the crystal structure and size. From EDAX, the composition of the elements in weight percentage and atomic percentage were obtained along with the spectra for overall compositions and particular local area compositions. BET surface area of the samples was analyzed by Micromeritics CHEMISORB 2720. The FTIR spectra of the catalyst was recorded on a FTIR Spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet, USA, Software used: NEXUS) in the 4000–480 cm−1wave number range using KBr pellets. The internal tetrahedra and external linkage of the zeolites formed are identified and confirmed by FTIR. The IR spectra data in Table 2 is taken from literature[22] .2.4. AnalysisThe amount of the dye present in the solution was analyzed by direct reading TVS 25 (A) Visible Spectrophotometer. The visible range absorbance at the characteristic wavelength of the sample at 497 nm was recorded to follow the progress of decolorization during wet peroxide oxidation.The COD of the dye solution was estimated by the Standard Dichromator Closed Reflux Method (APHA-1989) using a COD analyzer (Aqualytic, Germany). The color in Pt–Co unit was estimated using a color meter (Hanna HI93727, Hanna Instruments, Singapore) at 470 nm and the pH was measured using a Thermo Orion, USA make pH meter. The treated dye solutions were centrifuged (Model R24, Remi Instruments Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India) to obtain the supernatant free of solid MnO2.A.A.S (Avanta GBC, Australia) was used to find the amount of iron exchanged and leached.3. Results and discussionDue to the iron present after the exchange process, the Y peaks diminished along with the rise in Fe peaks. Similar phenomena has also been observed by Yee and Yaacob [23] who obtained zeolite iron oxide by adding NaOH and H2O2(drop wise) at 60◦C to Na–Y zeolite. XRD pattern ( Fig. 2) showed diminishing zeolite peaks along with evolution of peaks corresponding to y-Fe2O3 with increasing NaOH concentration. The IR assignments from FTIR (Fig. 3) remain satisfied even after iron exchanging. The EDAX data (Table 1) show clearly an increase in the value of Fe conc. after ion exchange of Y-zeolite. The BET surface area (Table 1) has been found to decrease from 433 to 423 m2/g after Fe exchange. SEM image is shown in Fig. 1 . Table 2 presents FTIR specifications of zeolites (common to all zeolites).The effect of temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye Congo red were investigated in detail.Fig. 1. SEM image of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 2. XRD of commercial and Fe-exchanged commercial Y zeolite.BET surface area (commercial Na–Y): 433.4 m2/g.BET surface area (Fe exchanged commercial Na–Y): 423 m2/g.Table 2Zeolite IR assignments (common for all zeolites) from FTIR.3.1. Effect of temperature on dye, color and COD removalThe temperatures during the experiments were varied from50◦Cto100◦C. A maximum conversion of dye of 99.1% was observed at 100◦C in 4 h (and 97% at 90◦C). The dye rem ovals at 80◦C, 70◦C, 60◦C and 50◦C and at 4 h are 56%, 52%, 42% and 30%,respectively. Fig. 4 shows that at a particular temperature, the dye concentration gradually decreases with time. The initial red color of the dye solution decreased into brown color in due course and finally the brown color disappeared into a colorless solution. Dye concentration decreases at faster rates with temperatures for initial 30 min and thereafter it decreases from 1 h to 2 h. The initial concentrations of dye did not change after a brief contact period of dye solution with the Fe-exchanged zeolite catalyst (before CWPO)confirming that there is negligible adsorption of the dye by the catalyst.Fig. 5 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and temperature. The maximum color removal (100%) is obtained at 100◦C in 30 min and also at 90◦C in 45 min. At a particular temperature, the color continuously decreases with time atFig. 3. FTIR of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 4. % dye removal as function of temperature.faster rate in first few minutes until a certain point ( t = 45 min) and then remaining almost unchanged. At 50◦C, the color removal is very low, whereas at 60◦C, there is a sudden shift towards its greater removal. The color removal is much higher at higher temperatures(70–100◦C).Fig. 6 depicts the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and temperature. A maximum COD removal of 66% was obtained at 100◦C (at 4 h) followed by 58% at 90◦C (at 4 h). Until60◦C, the rate of COD removal is less and during 70–100◦C, the rate is much faster.3.2. Effect of initial pH on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of initial pH on dye (Congo red) removal was studied at different pH (pH0 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 and 11) without any adjustment of pH during the experiments. A maximum conversion of 99% was obtained at pH0 2 followed by 97% at pH0 7. The dye removal at pH0 4, 8, 9 and 11 were 94%, 29%, 5% and 0.6%, respectively. All the runs were conducted for 4 h duration. The color of the solution is violet blue at pH0 2 (a colloidal solution) and greenish blue at pH0 4 (colloidal solution). In neutral and basic pH0(7, 8, 9 and 11) range, color of the solution did not change during treatment and was same as original solution, i.e. red color. Fe cations can leach out from zeolite structure into the solution causing secondary pollution. Leaching of Fe cations out of zeolitesFig. 5. % color removal as function of temperature.Fig. 6. %COD removal as function of temperature.Fig. 7. % color removal as function of pH0depends strongly on pH of the solution. The leaching of iron ions was enhanced at low pH values [24,25] . In order to determine dissolved Fe concentration, final pH values of the solutions were analyzed by A.A.S. At initial pH0 2 and 4, Fe detected in the solution was 7.8 ppm and 3.9 ppm, respectively. At pH0 7 and in alkaline range, there wasFig. 8. %COD removal as function of pH0.Fig. 9. % color removal as function of peroxide concentration.Fig. 10. %COD removal as function of peroxide concentration.almost no leaching. pH0 7, therefore, was chosen to be optimum pH for future experiments. The final pH values pH f after the reaction corresponding to pH0 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 11 were 2.1, 4.2, 7.2, 7.7 and 8.7, respectively. This show that the pH f tend to reach to neutral pH for all starting pH values.Fig. 7 presents the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and pH0. A maximum color removal of 100% was obtained at pH0 2 (in 10 min) and also at pH0 7 (in 45 min). The color removal at a particular pH0 decreases at a faster rateinitially (0–1 h) and thereafter it has a slower rate. The lowest removal was observed at pH0 11 with almost no removal.Fig. 11. % color removal as function of catalyst loading.Fig. 12. %COD removal as function of catalyst loading.The results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and pH0 are shown in Fig. 8 . A maximum COD removal of 69% was obtained at pH0 2 in 4 h followed by 63% at pH0 4 and 58% at pH0 7in4h.Fig. 8 shows maximum decrease in COD value in the initial 30 mines at all pH0. The decrease in COD is not appreciable thereafter. The COD removal is more in acidic range with a maximum removal of 69%, moderate in neutral region and least in basic region.3.3. Effect of peroxide concentration on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of H2O2 concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (in the range 0–6 ml). A maximum removal of 99.02% was obtained at H2O2 concentration of 3 ml per 350 ml of solution, followed by 98.3% at 1ml and 97% at 0.6 ml. The dye removal at H2O2concentrations of 6 ml,0.3 ml and 0 ml (and at 4 h) were 94%, 82% and 8%, respectively. The dye removal rate at 90◦C temperature is gradual at all conc entrations of peroxide. At peroxide concentration of 0 ml, there is very little removal of dye, hardly 8%. Hence, it can be inferred that catalytic thermolysis (a process of effluent treatment by heating the effluent with/without catalyst) is not active and cannot be applied for dye removal.At the beginning of the reaction, the OH•radicals which are produced additionally when peroxide concentration is increased,speeds up the azo dye degradation. After a particular peroxide concentration, on further increase of the peroxide, the dye removal isFig. 13. Schematic diagram of the reactor.not increased. This may be because of the presence of excess peroxide concentration, hydroperoxyl radicals (HO2•) are produced from hydroxyl radicals that are already formed. The hydroperoxyl radicals do not contribute to the oxidative degradation of the organic substrate and are much less reactive. The degradation of the organic substrate occurs only by reaction with HO•[26] .The % color removal at a particular peroxide concentration increases at a faster rate in the initial 45 min and then at slower rates afterwards (Fig. 9). As H2O2 concentration increases, the rate of removal is much faster, reaching 100% in 45 minusing 6 ml H2O2 per 350 ml solution, whereas it is 100% in 1 h for both 0.3 ml and3ml.Fig. 10 shows the results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and H2O2 concentration. The maximum COD removal, 63% is obtained for H2O2 conc. 3 ml at 90◦C, pH0 7 and 2 h duration.3.4. Effect of catalyst loading on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of catalyst concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations (in the range 0.5–1.5 g/l). A maximum dye removal of 98.6% was observed at 1.5 g/l followed by 98.3% at 1 g/l and 87.3% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h duration. The % dye removal without catalyst was very low with only 36% dye removal in 4 h. By comparing the results for the dye removal without catalyst and1.5 g/l catalyst, the removal for 1.5 g/l is approximately three times to that of without catalyst. The rate of removal is also more for higher concentrations of catalyst and increases with it.Fig. 11 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. The maximum color removal of 100% was obtained using 1.5 g/l catalyst conc. in 1.5 h and also using 1 g/l catalyst in 3 h.Fig. 12 presents the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. A maximum COD removal of 58% was obtained at catalyst conc. 1 g/l, 51.8% at 1.5 g/l and 50.5% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h. Without catalyst, the COD removal was only 35%.4. ConclusionsThe % removals of dye, color and COD by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation obtained at 100◦C, 4 h duration using 0.6 ml H2O2/350 ml solution, 1 g/l Fe–Y catalyst and pH0 7 were 99.1%, 100% (30 min)and 66%, respectively. As at 100◦C the solution has tendency to vaporize during the operation, 90◦C was taken as operating temperature. The corresponding % removals at 90◦C were 97% dy e, 100%color (in 45 min) and 58% COD. Acidic range gave higher % removals in comparison to neutral and alkaline range. At pH0 2, the dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 10 min) and 69% were observed after 4 h duration. As at pH0 2, the leaching of Fe ions from Y zeolite catalyst is predominant,pH0 7 was taken as operating pH. Fe concentration of 7.8 ppm was observed in the solution at pH0 2. The values of removals, however,are comparable to pH0 2, with dye removal of 97%, color removal of100% (in 45 min) and COD removal of 58% in 4 h.The H2O2concentration was found to be optimum at 3 ml/350 ml solution giving dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 1 h) and 63%, respectively.The study on the effect of catalyst loading revealed 1.5 g/l as best among the catalyst concentrations studied. The results with 1 g/l and 1.5 g/l catalyst concentration were almost comparable.外文翻译（译文）使用改性Y沸石为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化偶氮染料(刚果红)摘要本研究主要探讨了使用改性Y沸石固载铁离子作为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化降解偶氮染料(刚果红)。
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)由一个单一的存储/检索机服务的多巷道自动化立体仓库存在的拣选分拣问题摘要随着现代化科技的发展，仓库式存储系统在设计与运行方面出现了巨大的改革。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS）嵌入计算机驱动正变得越来越普遍。
由于AS / RS 使用的增加对计算机控制的需要与支持也在提高。
这项研究解决了在多巷道立体仓库的拣选问题，在这种存储/检索（S / R）操作中，每种货物可以在多个存储位置被寻址到。
提出运算方法的目标是，通过S/R系统拣选货物来最大限度的减少行程时间。
我们开发的遗传式和启发式算法，以及通过比较从大量的问题中得到一个最佳的解决方案。
关键词：自动化立体仓库，AS / RS系统，拣选，遗传算法。
1.言在现今的生产环境中，库存等级保持低于过去。
那是因为这种较小的存储系统不仅降低库存量还增加了拣选货物的速度。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS），一方面通过提供快速响应，来达到高操作效率；另一方面它还有助于运作方面的系统响应时间，减少的拣选完成的总行程时间。
因此，它常被用于制造业、储存仓库和分配设备等行业中。
拣选是仓库检索功能的基本组成部分。
它的主要目的是，在预先指定的地点中选择适当数量的货物以满足客户拣选要求。
虽然拣选操作仅仅是物体在仓储中装卸操作之一，但它却是“最耗时间和花费最大的仓储功能。
许多情形下，仓储盈利的高低就在于是否能将拣选操作运行处理好”。
（Bozer和White）Ratliff和Rosenthal，他们关于自动化立体仓库系统（AS/RS）的拣选问题进行的研究，发明了基图算法，在阶梯式布局中选取最短的访问路径。
Roodbergen 和de Koster 拓展了Ratliff 和Rosenthal算法。
他们认为，在平行巷道拣选问题上，应该穿越巷道末端和中间端进行拣选，就此他们发明了一种动态的规划算法解决这问题。
就此Van den Berg 和Gademann发明了一种运输模型(TP)，它是对于指定的存储和卸载进行测算的仪器。
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
汽车专业外文翻译5
英文翻译Motor Cars1. How the Engine WorksAn engine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy is called a heat engine ,and the car engine is one type of heat engine. It derives heat from the burning or 'combustion', of a fuel and converts this heat into useful work for driving the car.The fuel used in the vast majority of car engines is petrol, which is one of the many products obtained from crude oil found in the earth. Petrol, when mixed with the right amount of air, will burn when a flame or spark is applied to it.In the car engine, air mixed with petrol is taken into a confined space and compressed. The mixture is then ignited and it burns. In burning it heats the air, which expands, and the force of expansion is then converted into a rotary movement to drive the wheels of the car.To be able to use this energy effectively we have to control the burning or combustion process and the force of expansion. Firstly, we need a tube, or 'cylinder', closed at one end, in which to compress and burn the petrol and air mixture. Then we need a piston which can slide freely in the cylinder, and which can be driven outwards by theforce of expansion. To convert the outward movement of the piston into a rotary movement we must join it by a connecting rods to a crankshaft. We need one passage for the entry of the mixture into the cylinder and another to let out the used gases. To control the entry of the mixture and the exhaust of the gases we need valves, and these are called the inlet and exhaust valves. Finally, we need some means of igniting the mixture in the top of the cylinder, the part called the combustion chamber; and for this we use a sparking plug.By timing the opening and closing of the valves and by timing the arrival of the spark we can control the whole sequence of events and make the piston move in and out over and over again.THE CYLINDERSMotor-car engines may have four, six, or eight cylinders. Look at figure 1.These cylinders are usually mounted in a cylinder block on top of the engine. Beneath the cylinder block is the crankcase, which contains two shafts, the crankshaft and the camshaft. As you have read, the crankshaft is revolved by the outward movement ofthe pistons in the cylinders. This rotary movement of the crankshaft transmits the power developed by the engine through the gearbox to the driving wheels and sets the car in motion.When the crankshaft rotates it also causes the rotation of the camshaft, which lies alongside it in the crankcase. As the camshaft rotates, it pushes up rods alongside each cylinder to open and shut the valves at the top of the cylinder.There are two valves to each cylinder. The inlet valve lets air and petrol into the combustion chamber of the cylinder when it is opened. When the exhaust valve is opened the gases formed after the combustion in the chamber are allowed to escape . These gases are led away from the car through an exhaust pipe.Let us examine the action of one of the cylinders in more detail. Look at figure 2.In (a) the piston is near the top of the cylinder with the inlet valve open and the exhaust valve closed, If the crankshaft is turned, either by hand or by the starter motor ,the piston is drawn down by the connecting rod and a charge of petrol-air mixture rushes in. When the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke the inlet valve is closed by the action of a spring. This stroke is called the induction stroke.In (b) both valves are closed and the crankshaft forces the piston up to compress the mixture in the top of the cylinder. This, then, is called the 'compression' stroke. Towards the end of the compression stroke a spark from the sparking plug causes the mixture to ignite.In (c) we see that the heat of combustion has caused a rapid rise in pressure in the combustion chamber and this has forced the piston down. Through the connecting rod the piston causes the crankshaft to continue to rotate. This stroke is called the'expansion' or 'power' stroke, and we can say now that the engine has 'fired'. At the end ofthis stroke, as the crankshaft rotates, causing the camshaft alongside it to continue to rotate, one of the cams on the camshaft pushes up the rod, which causes the exhaust valve to open, allowing the exhaust gases to escape.In (d) we see the fourth and final stroke, the 'exhaust' stroke. The exhaust valve has been forced open by the rotation of the camshaft, and the crankshaft, continuing to rotate, drives the piston back up the cylinder, forcing out the exhaust gases. At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve is closed by the action of a spring, and the camshaft, continuing to rotate, pushes up a second rod to force the inlet valve open. Now the cylinder will receive another charge of petrol-air mixture, and the sequence of four strokes, 'induction', 'compression', 'expansion' or 'power', and 'exhaust', will startagain.Because there is a four-stroke sequence, or 'cycle', in this type of internal combustion engine it is called a four-stroke engine. There are also two一stroke engines used, for example, for motor scooters, and for some motor cycles.Let us think of a car with four cylinders. Remember that it is only on the expansion stroke that power is transmitted to make the crankshaft rotate. Let us number the cylinders, 1,2,3,4. They may transmit power in this order. 1,2,4,3. This means that when number 1 cylinder is on the expansion stroke, number 2 is on the compression stroke, number 4 is on the induction stroke, and number 3 cylinder is on the exhaust stroke. The four pistons, moving up and down inside their cylinders in this order, push down rods connected to the crankshaft at different times and at different points along its shaft. This keeps the crankshaft revolving and the crankshaft, when the gears are engaged, keeps the car moving.2. The Fuel and Ignition SystemsThe fuel system includes a fuel tank, a fuel pump, and a carburetor.The fuel pump may be operated either mechanically from the engine camshaft or electrically. Its function is to pump petrol from the petrol tank and deliver it to the carburetor. It contains a fine filler to exclude particles of dust or dirt which may have found their way into the tank.The carburetor is mounted on the inlet pipe, or inlet 'manifold', which leads to the inlet valves of each cylinder. Its function is to 'carburet', or mix, the required amounts of petrol and air for combustion in the cylinders. It regulates automatically the proportions of petrol and air and also allows the driver to control the rate of delivery of the mixture, and so vary the speed of the engine.See figure 3. This is a simple type of carburetor. It makes use of a fuel reservoir or "float chamber" to which petrol is pumped by the petrol pump. The level of the petrol in. the chamber is kept constant by the action of a float which, as it rises with the petrol, closes a needle valve when the correct level is reached. The petrol from the float chamber flows to a small jet situated in a narrow tube called the choke tube. When the engine is running, i.e. when the pistons are moving up and down in the cylinders, air is drawn in and passes through the choke tube. Here it mixes with the petrol and passes out into the inlet manifold of the engine. The amount of mixture allowed to pass is controlled by a butterfly valve, or ’throttle', situated in the carburetor outlet. This valve is operated by the accelerator pedal. An air cleaner may be connected to the air inlet to remove dust from the air and prevent it getting into thecylinders and down into the engine lubricating oil, where it can cause increased engine wear.The proportion of air and petrol required at varying engine speeds is controlled automatically. When starting a cold engine a much richer mixture, one with a higher proportion of petrol to air, is required. This is obtained by restricting the amount of air entering the carburetor. In most cars the driver does this by pulling out a knob called the choke and this partly closes the tube carrying air to the cylinders. The driver must remember to push the choke in again as soon as possible after starting to avoid damage to the engine and waste of fuel.THE IGNITION SYSTEMThe function of the ignition system is to provide the spark in the combustion chamber to ignite the mixture of petrol and air at the right instant. The system nor many comprises a coil, a distributor, and sparking plugs.The coil produces the high-voltage impulse required to make the spark at the sparking plugs. It really consists of two coils of insulated wire wound one around the other so that the number of turns in the inner, 'secondary', coil is much greater than that in the outer, 'primary', coil.A low voltage is supplied to the primary coil and suddenly interrupted. At that moment an impulse at very much higher voltage is induced in the secondary coil.V oltages of 6 or 12 volts supplied to the primary, low一tension, coil result in voltages of 10,000 volts or more being obtained from the secondary, high tension, coil. When the car is started the low-tension supply is provided by the car's battery.Remember that the low-tension supply must be broken suddenly to produce the high-tension supply from the secondary coil. This is done in an instrument called the distributor. The distributor is placed between the coil and the sparking plugs.Inside the distributor are contact points. The contact between them is broken by a revolving cam, which forces them apart. Then they are forced together again by a spring pressing against the arm holding one contact. It is when the contact points are forced apart that the low一tension supply, going through a lead to the coil, is suddenly interrupted.A second lead, going from the coil back to the distributor, conveys the high-tension (H.T.) supply to the distributor head. From there other leads distribute the H. T. supply to each of the sparking plugs in turn.You will remember that each cylinder of the car has a sparking plug. The metal part of the sparking plug is screwed into the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Theplug contains two electrodes with a small gap between them. When the plug receives a high-tension impulse from the distributor a spark is caused as the impulse jumps the gap between the two electrodes. This spark ignites the petrol-air mixture in the combustion chamber.3. Cooling and Lubricating the EngineThe combustion of the mixture in the engine naturally makes a great deal of heat and the engine must not be allowed to become overheated. The function of the cooling system is to control this heat.The engine may be either water or air cooled, but the vast majority is water cooled. Water in the water jacket surrounding the cylinders picks up the surplus heat from the engine and the heated water rises. It then circulates through the radiator, where it is cooled by the passage of air past the radiator tubes, and returns to the bottom of the water jacket. A fan, which is driven from the engine crankshaft, assists cooling by increasing the draught through the radiator at low speeds. A pump may be used to help in circulating the water.The engine must also be prevented from running too cool and therefore the temperature of the water is normally controlled within certain limits by the action of a device known as a thermostat. This has the effect of varying the circulation of the water so that, for instance, when the engine is first started less water is allowed to circulate and the engine warms up quickly.The cooling system can, of course, freeze up in very cold weather, and this can cause considerable damage. For this reason it is advisable to add good antifreeze solution, on that can be left in throughout the summer, which will prevent freezing in winter and protect the system from corrosion all the year round.THE LUBRICATION SYSTEMLubrication is necessary for two main reasons to reduce friction and wear in the engine, and to help carry away was to heat from the bearings, in which the crankshaft and camshaft revolve inside the crankcase, from the pistons, and from the other working parts. In addition, it helps the piston rings to seal in the combustion gases, to prevent them escaping down into the cylinders. (These piston rings are rings fitted into grooves around the top of each piston.)The majority of engines have what is known as a 'force feed', or pressure, lubricating system. The bottom of the crankcase is enclosed by a sheet-metal pan, or 'sump'. This holds the engine lubricating oil and has a drain plug through which used oil may be drained off. A pump draws oil from the sump and pumps it through a filterand then through channels, called 'oil ways', to the bearings of the crankshaft and camshaft, and also to the valve gear. At the same time, oil flowing from the bearings forms an oil mist in the crankcase and this mist lubricates the cylinder walls.A warning light or oil gauge, controlled by the pressure of the oil in the system, is usually provided so that the driver will know when the system is not functioning and the oil is not circulating properly. If the system is not functioning properly the working parts may seize up and cause serious damage to the car engine. It is, therefore, essential for the driver to stop the engine as soon as he sees his warning light come on.4. The BrakesThe brakes function by absorbing in friction the energy possessed by the moving car. In so doing they convert the energy into heat.There are two types of brakes, the drum brake and the disc brake. Either or both types may be fitted, but where both types are used it is usual for the disc brakes to be fitted to the front wheels.DRUM BRAKESThe drum brake consists of a pair of semicircular brake shoes mounted on a fixed back plate and situated inside a drum. This drum is fixed to the road wheel and rotates with it. One end of each shoe is on a pivot and a spring holds the other end in contact with the piston of a hydraulic cylinder. (In front brakes it is usual to use two hydraulic cylinders in order to equalize the pressures exerted by the shoes. See figure 4.) Each shoe is faced with material, known as brake lining, which produces high, frictional resistance.The hydraulic system comprises a master cylinder and the slave cylinders, which are the cylinders on the road wheels. The slave cylinders are connected to the master cylinder by tubing and the whole system is filled with hydraulic fluid. A piston in the master cylinder is connected to the brake pedal, so that when the driver depresses. The pedal the fluid is forced out to each slave cylinder and operates their pistons. The fluid pushes the pistons out of their cylinders. They, in turn, push against the inner ends of the brake shoes and force them against the brake drums in each wheel. We say that the brakes are on. This friction of the shoes against the drums, which are fixed to the road wheels, slows down or stops the car. As the brake pedal is allowed to come up, the hydraulic fluid returns to its original position, the pistons retract, and a spring attached to each brake shoe returns it also to its original position, free of the brake drum. Now we say that the brakes are off.The brakes may also be operated by mechanical linkages from the foot pedal and handbrake lever. Common practice is to operate both from and rear brakes hydraulically with a secondary mechanical system operating the rear brakes only from the hand lever. One of the great advantages of hydraulic operation is that the system is self-balancing, which means that the same pressure is automatically produced at all four brakes, whereas mechanical linkages have to be very carefully adjusted for balance. Of course, if more pressure is put on one of the brakes than on the others there-is a danger that the car will skid.The mechanical linkage operating on the rear brakes is a system of rods or cables connecting the handbrake lever to the brake-shoe mechanisms, which work entirely Independently of the hydraulic system.Drum brakes are prone to a reduction in the braking effort, known as 'fade', caused by the overheating of the linings and the drum. Fade can affect all or only some of the brakes at a time, but it is not permanent, and full efficiency returns as soon as the brakes have cooled down. However, fading is unlikely to occur except after the brakes have been used repeatedly in slowing the car from a high speed or after braking continuously down a steep hill. Descending such a hill, it would have been preferable to use engine braking by changing down into a lower gear. Drum brakes can be made less prone to fade by improving the cooling arrangements, by arranging for more air to be deflected over them, for example.DISC BRAKESThe disc brake consists of a steel disc with friction pads operated by slave hydraulic cylinders. The steel disc is attached to the road wheel and rotates with it. Part of this steel disc is enclosed in a caliper. (See figure 5) This caliper contains two friction pads, one on each side of the disc, and two hydraulic cylinders, one outside each pad. The pads are normally held apart by a spring, but when the driver depresses the brake pedal, pistons from the hydraulic cylinders force the pads against the sides of the disc. Because the disc is not enclosed all the way round, the heat generated when the brakes are applied is dissipated very much more quickly than it is from brake shoes which are entirely enclosed inside a drum. This means that disc brakes are less prone to fade than drum brakes.汽车1. 发动机如何工作一个把热能源转换成机械的能源的发动机叫做一个热发动机，而且汽车发动机是热发动机的一个类型。
外文翻译及外文原文(参考格式)
外文翻译要求：1、外文资料与毕业设计（论文）选题密切相关，译文准确、质量好。
2、阅读2篇幅以上（10000字符左右）的外文资料，完成2篇不同文章的共2000汉字以上的英译汉翻译3、外文资料可以由指导教师提供，外文资料原则上应是外国作者。
严禁采用专业外语教材文章。
4、排序：“一篇中文译文、一篇外文原文、一篇中文译文、一篇外文原文”。
插图内文字及图名也译成中文。
5、标题与译文格式（字体、字号、行距、页边距等）与论文格式要求相同。
下页附：外文翻译与原文参考格式2英文翻译 (黑体、四号、顶格)外文原文出处：(译文前列出外文原文出处、作者、国籍，译文后附上外文原文)《ASHRAE Handbook —Refrigeration 》.CHAPTER3 .SYSTEM Practices for ammonia 3.1 System Selection 3.2 Equipment3.10 Reciprocating Compressors第3章 氨制冷系统的实施3.1 系统选择在选择一个氨制冷系统设计时，须要考虑一些设计决策要素，包括是否采用（1）单级压缩（2）带经济器的压缩（3）多级压缩（4）直接蒸发（5）满液式（6）液体再循环（7）载冷剂。
单级压缩系统基本的单级压缩系统由蒸发器、压缩机、冷凝器、储液器（假如用的话）和制冷剂控制装置（膨胀阀、浮球阀等）。
1997 ASHRAE 手册——“原理篇”中的第一章讨论了压缩制冷循环。
图1.壳管式经济器的布置外文翻译的标题与译文中的字体、字号、行距、页边距等与论文格式相同。
英文原文(黑体、四号、顶格)英文翻译2（黑体，四号，顶格）外文原文出处：（黑体，四号，顶格）P. Fanning. Nonlinear Models of Reinforced and Post-tensioned Concrete Beams. Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin. Received 16 Jul 2001.非线形模型钢筋和后张法预应力混凝土梁摘要:商业有限元软件一般包括混凝土在荷载做用下非线性反应的专用数值模型。
外文翻译原文
DATA CLASSIFICATION USING SUPPORT VECTORMACHINE1DURGESH K. SRIVASTAVA, 2LEKHA BHAMBHU1Ass. Prof., Department of CSE/IT, BRCM CET, Bahal, Bhiwani, Haryana, India-1270282Ass. Prof, Department of CSE/IT, BRCM CET, Bahal, Bhiwani, Haryana, India-127028ABSTRACTClassification is one of the most important tasks for different application such as text categorization, tone recognition, image classification, micro-array gene expression, proteins structure predictions, data Classification etc. Most of the existing supervised classification methods are based on traditional statistics, which can provide ideal results when sample size is tending to infinity. However, only finite samples can be acquired in practice. In this paper, a novel learning method, Support Vector Machine (SVM), is applied on different data (Diabetes data, Heart Data, Satellite Data and Shuttle data) which have two or multi class. SVM, a powerful machine method developed from statistical learning and has made significant achievement in some field. Introduced in the early 90’s, they led to an explosion of interest in machine learning. The foundations of SVM have been developed by Vapnik and are gaining popularity in field of machine learning due to many attractive features and promising empirical performance. SVM method does not suffer the limitations of data dimensionality and limited samples [1] & [2].In our experiment, the support vectors, which are critical for classification, are obtained by learning from the training samples. In this paper we have shown the comparative results using different kernel functions for all data samples.Keywords: Classification, SVM, Kernel functions, Grid search.1.INTRODUCTIONThe Support Vector Machine (SVM) was first proposed by Vapnik and has since attracted a high degree of interest in the machine learning research community [2]. Several recent studies have reported that the SVM (support vector machines) generally are capable of delivering higher performance in terms of classification accuracy than the other data classification algorithms. Sims have been employed in a wide range of real world problems such as text categorization, hand-written digit recognition, tone recognition, image classification and object detection, micro-array gene expression data analysis, data classification. It has been shown that Sims is consistently superior to other supervised learning methods. However, for some datasets, the performance of SVM is very sensitive to how the cost parameter and kernel parameters are set. As a result, the user normally needs to conduct extensive cross validation in order to figure out the optimal parameter setting. This process is commonly referred to as model selection. One practical issue with model selection is that this process is very time consuming. We have experimented with a number of parameters associated with the use of the SVM algorithm that can impact the results. These parameters include choice of kernel functions, the standard deviation of the Gaussian kernel, relative weights associated with slack variables to account for the non-uniform distribution of labeled data, and the number of training examples.For example, we have taken four different applications data set such as diabetes data, heart data and satellite data which all have different features, classes, number of training data and different number of testing data. These all data taken from RSES data set and /~mlearn/MLRepository.html [5]. This paper is organized as follows. In next section, we introduce some related backgroundincluding some basic concepts of SVM, kernel function selection, and model selection (parameters selection) of SVM. In Section 3, we detail all experiments results. Finally, we have some conclusions and feature direction in Section 4.2. SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINEIn this section we introduce some basic concepts of SVM, different kernel function, and model selection (parameters selection) of SVM.2.1 OVERVIEW OF SVMSVMs are set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression [2]. They belong to a family of generalized linear classification. A special property of SVM is , SVM simultaneously minimize the empiricalclassification error and maximize the geometric margin. So SVM called Maximum Margin Classifiers. SVM is based on the Structural risk Minimization (SRM). SVM map input vector to a higher dimensional space where a maximal separating hyperplane is constructed. Two parallel hyperplanes are constructed on each side of the hyperplane that separate the data. The separating hyperplane is the hyperplane that maximize the distance between the two parallel hyperplanes. An assumption is made that the larger the margin or distance between these parallel hyperplanes the better the generalization error of the classifier will be [2].We consider data points of the form{(x 1,y 1),(x 2,y 2),(x 3,y 3),(x 4,y 4)……….,(x n , y n )}.Where y n =1 / -1 , a constant denoting the class towhich that point xn belongs. n = number ofsample. Each x n is p-dimensional real vector. Thescaling is important to guard against variable(attributes) with larger varience. We can view thisTraining data , by means of the dividing (orseperating) hyperplane , which takesw . x + b = o ----- (1)Where b is scalar and w is p-dimensional Vector.The vector w points perpendicular to the separatinghyperplane . Adding the offset parameter b allowsus to increase the margin. Absent of b, thehyperplane is forsed to pass through the origin ,restricting the solution. As we are interesting in themaximum margin , we are interested SVM and theparallel hyperplanes. Parallel hyperplanes can be described by equationw.x + b = 1w.x + b = -1 If the training data are linearly separable, we can select these hyperplanes so that there are no points between them and then try to maximize their distance. By geometry, We find the distancebetween the hyperplane is 2 / │w │. So we want to minimize │w │. To excite data points, we need to ensure that for all I either w. x i – b ≥ 1 or w. x i – b ≤ -1This can be written asy i ( w. x i – b) ≥1 , 1 ≤i ≤ n ------(2) Figure.1 Maximum margin hyperplanes for aSVM trained with samples from two classesSamples along the hyperplanes are calledSupport Vectors (SVs). A separating hyperplanewith the largest margin defined by M = 2 / │w │that is specifies support vectors means trainingdata points closets to it. Which satisfy?y j [w T . x j + b] = 1 , i =1 -----(3)Optimal Canonical Hyperplane (OCH) is acanonical Hyperplane having a maximum margin.For all the data, OCH should satisfy the followingconstraintsy i [w T . x i + b] ≥1 ; i =1,2…l ------(4)Where l is Number of Training data point. In order to find the optimal separating hyperplane having a maximul margin, A learning macine should minimize ║w ║2 subject to the inequality constraintsy i [w T. x i + b] ≥ 1 ; i =1,2…….l This optimization problem solved by the saddlepoints of the Lagrange’s Function l L P = L (w, b, α) = 1/2║w ║2 -∑ αi (y i (w Tx i + b )-1) i=1l= 1/2 w T w -∑ αi (y i (w T x i + b )-1) ---(5)i=1Where αi is a Lagranges multiplier .The search for an optimal saddle points ( w 0, b 0, α0 ) is necessary because Lagranges must be minimized with respect to w and b and has to be maximized with respect to nonnegative αi (αi ≥ 0). This problem can besolved either in primal form (which is the form ofw & b) or in a dual form (which is the form of αi).Equation number (4) and (5) are convex and KKTconditions, which are necessary and sufficientconditions for a maximum of equation (4).Partially differentiate equation (5) with respect tosaddle points ( w 0, b 0, α0 ).∂L / ∂w 0 = 0li .e w 0 = ∑ αi y i x i -----------(6)i =1And ∂L / ∂b 0 = 0li .e ∑ αi y i = 0 -----------(7)i =1Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (5).We change the primal form into dual form.lL d (α) = ∑ αi - 1/2 ∑ αi αj y i y j x i T x j -------(8)i =1In order to find the optimal hyperplane, a dual lagrangian (L d ) has to be maximized with respect to nonnegative αi (i .e. αi must be in thenonnegative quadrant) and with respect to the equality constraints as followαi ≥ 0 , i = 1,2…...ll∑ αi y i = 0i =1Note that the dual Lagrangian L d (α) is expressed in terms of training data and depends only on the scalar products of input patterns (x i T x j ).More detailed information on SVM can be found inReference no.[1]&[2]. 2.2 KERNEL SELECTION OF SVMTraining vectors x i are mapped into a higher (may be infinite) dimensional space by the function Ф. Then SVM finds a linear separatinghyperplane with the maximal margin in this higherdimension space .C > 0 is the penality parameter of the error term. Furthermore, K(x i , x j ) ≡ Ф(x i )T Ф(x j ) is called the kernel function[2]. There are many kernel functions in SVM, so how to select a good kernel function is also a research issue.However, for general purposes, there are some popular kernel functions [2] & [3]: • Linear kernel: K (x i , x j ) = x i T x j .• Polynomial kernel:K (x i , x j ) = (γ x i T x j + r)d , γ > 0• RBF kernel : K (x i , x j ) = exp(-γ ║x i - x j ║2) , γ > 0 • Sigmoid kernel: K (x i , x j ) = tanh(γ x i T x j + r) Here, γ, r and d are kernel parameters. In these popular kernel functions, RBF is the main kernel function because of following reasons [2]: 1. The RBF kernel nonlinearly maps samples into a higher dimensional space unlike to linear kernel. 2. The RBF kernel has less hyperparameters than the polynomial kernel. 3. The RBF kernel has less numerical difficulties. 2.3 MODEL SELECTION OF SVMModel selection is also an important issue in SVM. Recently, SVM have shown goodperformance in data classification. Its success depends on the tuning of several parameters which affect the generalization error. We often call this parameter tuning procedure as the model selection. If you use the linear SVM, you only need to tune the cost parameter C. Unfortunately , linear SVM are often applied to linearly separable problems.Many problems are non-linearly separable. For example, Satellite data and Shuttle data are not linearly separable. Therefore, we often apply nonlinear kernel to solve classification problems, so we need to select the cost parameter (C) and kernel parameters (γ, d) [4] & [5].We usually use the grid-search method in cross validation to select the best parameter set. Then apply this parameter set to the training dataset and then get the classifier. After that, use the classifier to classify the testing dataset to get the generalization accuracy.3.INTRODUCTION OF ROUGH SETRough set is a new mathematic tool to deal with un-integrality and uncertain knowledge. It can effectively .analyze and deal with all kinds of fuzzy, conflicting and incomplete information, and finds out the connotative knowledge from it, and reveals its underlying rules. It was first put forward by Z.Pawlak, a Polish mathematician, in 1982. In recent years, rough set theory is widely emphasized for the application in the fields of data mining and artificial intelligence.3.1THE BASIC DEFINITIONS OF ROUGHSETLet S be an information system formed of 4 elementsS = (U, Q, V, f) whereU - is a finite set of objectsQ - is a finite set of attributesV- is a finite set of values of the attributesf- is the information function so that:f : U × Q - V.Let P be a subset of Q, P ⊆ Q, i.e. a subset of attributes. The indiscernibility relation noted by IND(P) is a relation defined as followsIND(P) = {< x, y > ∈ U × U: f(x, a) = f(y, a), for all a ∈ P}If < x, y > ∈ IND(P), then we can say that x and y are indiscernible for the subset of P attributes. U/IND(P) indicate the object sets that are indiscernible for the subset of P attributes.U / IND(P) = { U1, U2, …….U m }Where U i∈ U, i = 1 to m is a set of indiscernible objects for the subset of P attributes and Ui ∩ Uj = Ф, i ,j = 1to m and i≠ j. Ui can be also called the equivalency class for the indiscernibility relation. For X ⊆ U and P inferior approximation P1 and superior approximation P1 are defined as followsP1(X) = U{Y ∈ U/ IND(P): Y ⊆ Xl}P1(X= U{Y ∈ U / INE(P): Y ∩ X ≠Ф }Rough Set Theory is successfully used in feature selection and is based on finding a reduct from the original set of attributes. Data mining algorithms will not run on the original set of attributes, but on this reduct that will be equivalent with the original set. The set of attributes Q from the informational system S = (U, Q, V, f) can be divided into two subsets: C and D, so that C ⊂Q, D ⊂ Q, C ∩ D =Ф. Subset C will contain the attributes of condition, while subset D those of decision. Equivalency classes U/IND(C) and U/IND(D) are called condition classes and decision classesThe degree of dependency of the set of attributes of decision D as compared to the set of attributes of condition C is marked with γc (D) and is defined byPOS C (D) contains the objects from U which can be classified as belonging to one of the classes of equivalency U/IND(D), using only the attributes in C. if γc (D) = 1 then C determines D functionally. Data set U is called consistent if γc (D) = 1. POS C(D) is called the positive region of decision classes U/IND(D), bearing in mind the attributes of condition from C.Subset R ⊂ C is a D-reduct of C if POS R (D) = POS C(D) and R has no R' subset, R' ⊂ R so that POS R’.(D) = POS R(D) . Namely, a reduct is a minimal set of attributes that maintains the positive region of decision classes U/IND(D) bearing in mind the attributes of condition from C. Each reduct has the property that no attribute can be extracted from it without modifying the relation of indiscernibility. For the set of attributes C there might exist several reducts.The set of attributes that belongs to the intersection of all reducts of C set is called the core of C.An attribute a is indispensable for C if POS C (D) ≠ POS C[a] (D). The core of C is the union of all indispensable attributes in C. The core has two equivalent definitions. More detailed information on RSES can be found in .[1]&[2].4RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTSThe classification experiments are conducted on different data like Heart data, Diabetes data, Satellite data and Shuttle data. These data taken from/~mlearn/MLRepository.html and RSES data sets . In these experiments, we done both method on different data set. Firstly, Use LIBSVM with different kernel linear , polinomial , sigmoid and RBF[5]. RBF kernel is employed. Accordingly, there are two parameters, the RBF kernel parameter γ and the cost parameter C, to be set. Table 1 lists the main characteristics of the three datasets used in the experiments. All three data sets, diabetes , heart, and satellite, are from the machine learning repository collection. In these experiments, 5-fold cross validation is conducted to determine the best value of different parameter C and γ .The combinations of (C, γ) is the most appropriate for the given data classification problem with respect to prediction accuracy. The value of (C , γ) for all data set are shown in Table 1. Second, RSES Tool set is used for data classification with all data set using different classifier technique as Rule Based classifier, Rule Based classifier with Discretization, K-NN classifier and LTF (Local Transfer Function) Classifier. The hardware platform used in the experiments is a workstation with Pentium-IV-1GHz CPU, 256MB RAM, and the Windows XP(using MS-DOS Prompt).The following three tables represent the different experiments results. Table 1 shows the best value of different RBF parameter value (C , γ) and cross validation rate with 5-fold cross validation using grid search method[5]&[6]. . Table 2 shows the Total execution time for all data to predict the accuracy in seconds.Table 1Fig. 2, 3 shows, Accuracy comparison of Diabetes data Set after taking different training set and all testing set for both technique (SVM & RSES) using RBF kernel function for SVM and Rule Base Classifier for RSES.Fig :2 Accuracy of Heart data with SVM & RSES Applicat-ions TrainingdataTestingdataBest c and g withfive foldCrossvalidationrateC γDiabetes data500 200211=20482- 7=.007812575.6HeartData200 7025=32 2-7 =.007812582.5Satellite Data4435 200021=2 21=291.725ShuttleData435014435 215=3276821=2 99.92Applications Total Execution Time toPredictSVM RSES Heart data71 14Diabetes data22 7. 5Satellite data74749 85 Shuttle Data252132.1 220Fig: 3 Accuracy of Diabetes data with SVM & RSESTable 3: Compare with Rough Set Classifiers5 CONCLUSIONIn this paper, we have shown the comparative results using different kernel functions. Fig 2 and3 shows the comparative results of different datasamples using different kernels linear,polynomial, sigmoid and RBF. The experimentresults are encouraging .It can be seen that thechoice of kernel function and best value ofparameters for particular kernel is critical for agiven amount of data. Fig 3 shows that the bestkernel is RBF for infinite data and multi class.REFERENCES:[1] Boser, B. E., I. Guyon, and V. Vapnik (1992).A training algorithm for optimal marginclassifiers . In Proceedings of the FifthAnnual Workshop on ComputationalLearning Theory, pages. 144 -152. ACM Press 1992.[2] V. Vapnik. The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory. NY: Springer-Verlag. 1995.[3] Chih-Wei Hsu, Chih-Chung Chang, and Chih- Jen Lin. “A Practical Guide to Support Vector Classification” . Deptt of Computer Sci.National Taiwan Uni, Taipei, 106, Taiwan.tw/~cjlin 2007 [4] C.-W. Hsu and C. J. Lin. A comparison ofmethods for multi-class support vectormachines. IEEE Transactions on NeuralNetworks, 13(2):415-425, 2002.[5] Chang, C.-C. and C. J. Lin (2001). LIBSVM:a library for support vector machines..tw/~cjlin/libsvm . [6] Li Maokuan, Cheng Yusheng, Zhao Honghai ”Unlabeleddata classification via SVM and k- means Clustering”. Proceeding of theInternational Conference on ComputerGraphics, Image andVisualization (CGIV04), 2004 IEEE.[7] Z. Pawlak, Rough sets and intelligent dataanalysis, Information Sciences 147 (2002) 1– 12.[8] RSES 2.2 User’s Guide Warsaw University .pl/»rses ,January 19, 2005[9] Eva Kovacs, Losif Ignat, “Reduct Equivalent Rule Induction Based On Rough Set Theory”, Technical University ofCluj-Napoca.[9] RSES Home page.pl/»rsesApplications Trainingdata TestingdataFeature No. OfClassesUsingSVM(withRBFkernel)Using RSES with Different classifierRuleBasedClassifierRule BasedClassifierwithDiscretizationK-NNClassifierLTFClassifierHeart data 200 70 13 2 82.8571 82.9 81.4 75.7 44.3 Diabetesdata500 200 8 2 80.5 67.8 67.5 70.0 78.0Satellitedata4435 2000 36 7 91.8 87.5 89.43 90.4 89.7 Shuttle Data 43500 14435 9 7 99.9241 94.5 97.43 94.3 99.8BIOGRAPHY:Mr Durgesh K. Sriavastava received the degree in Information & Technology (IT) from MIET, Meerut, UP, INDIA in 2006. He was a research student of Birla Institute of Technology (BIT), Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA) in 2008. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor (AP) at BRCM CET, Bahal, Bhiwani, Haryana, INDIA. His interests are in Software engineering & modeling and design, Machine Learning.Mrs Lekha Bhambhureceived the degree in Computer Science & Engineering from BRCM CET, Bahal, Bhiwani, Haryana, INDIA. she was a research student of CDLU, Sirsa, Haryana, INDIA. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor (AP) at BRCM CET, Bahal, Bhiwani, Haryana, INDIA. Her interests are in Operating System, Software engineering.。
外文翻译--蓄电池
外文原文：Batteries一.1Application of products1．Power Station, Substation；2．Telecommunication & Communication；3．Uninterruptible Power Supply；4．Emergency Power Supply；5．Solar Power Energy Storage System；6．Nuclear Power Station, Hydroelectric Power Station；7．Wind Power Discharge Energy Storage；8．Microwave Relay Station；9．Railway Passenger Coach Illumination；10．Electric Automobile and Electric Bicycle ；11．Boat Electricity Powered Yacht and Electric Ship；12．Street Lamps and urban Road Lighting Project；13．Navigation market, Signal lamp；14．Navigation market, Signal lamp ；15．Safety and Explosion Protection in Underground collie ries；16．Battery Cars and Forklift；17．Starting and Illumination of Automobiles；18．Fire Prevention, Alarm and Safety System ；19．Portable Power Source；20．Portable Electric Instrument；21．All DC Power Supply System；22．All AC Inverter System .二、Introduce of products1．Valve-Regulated Sealed Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries1.1 Life performance：Utilizing of floating charge(2.23±0.05 v/cell·25℃), Life battery: than 20years (Figure 1 )Utilizing of cycling(discharge depth of 80%),Life of battery:more than of 1,500 times. (Figure2)Charging and Discharge Curves of Cells Figure(Figure3、4)1.2 CheckinsChecking can be carried out if batteries are in conformity with following conditions when they are delivered to customers:(1)No physical damage in battery case, top cap and terminal.(2)No leakage of acid.(3)Capacity of batteries can reach 100% of its rated capacity when they are fully charged.(4)Open Circuit voltage △∪≤0.035V/cell.(5)Adoption of 2.23V/cell·25℃(constant voltage)Floating charge voltage △∪≤±0.05V/cell within 6 months of float charging.(6)No heating and leakage of acid when batteries are in float charging.1.3 Installation(1)Batteries of GFM series can be installed either upright or horizontally.(2)Beware of short circuit during processes of transporting and installing since batteries are usually charged when they are manufactured.(3)Please specify the pack number when several battery packs are installed.(4)In case of electric shock, insulation Instrument is recommended when installation, utilization or maintenance is under way.(5)Electric instrument shall reach ±1% of voltage regulation precision when range of variation of the negative is between 0~100%.(6)pole terminals shall take on an expression of metallic luster when they are brushed with filament steel before batteries are connected.(7)Jumper cables shall be as short as possible in order not to produce too much pressure drop.(8)Before terminals and battery system are conducted, please check the total voltage of the battery system and both positive and negative polarity so as to guarantee a right installation.1.4 Maintenance(1)When floating charge voltage outnumbers 2.23±0.05V/cell, please adjust it, or it will affect life of batteries.(2)Please check and keep a record of floating charge voltage of each battery once a month. After 6 months running, if floating charge voltage outnumbers 2.23±0.05V/cell, please contact the manufacturer. Technicians will be sent to deal with it.(3) The joining part shall be inspectel every year to see whether there are loose parts, when there does exist looseness,deal with it in time.(4)Longer life perfoimance can be maintained when the optimum environment temperature is between 15℃and 25℃(batteries of GFM series can function well under the temperature of -50℃ and +60℃).(5)Avoid overdischarge (discharge voltage is less than final voltage) and overcharge (charging voltage is above floating charge voltage for a long time, or charging voltage is 1.5times more than total amount of discharge),batteries shall be charged as soon as possible after their discharge, or the life of batteries will be affected.(6)Take a record of time, voltage, current and temperature of batteries each time they are discharged.(7)Please contact the manufacturer in advance if customers want to have a parallel connection of two or more batteries.(8)Use soapy rather than organic solvent to clean batteries;don't use dry cloth, for it can easily generate static electricity when batteries are mopped with it.(9)Batteries shall be kept in cool, dry and ventilated environment, with joining parts of batteries and charging equipment being disconnected.2．2 Valve-Regulated Sealed Stationary BatteriesTechnical Features2.1 Valve-regulated and sealed construction:(1)Valve-regulated and sealed cons truction, using unique recombin ation technology and no water topping is required during the whole process of operation.(2)The electrolyte of sulphuric acid is fixed by silica gel without flooded electrolyte, the batteries can be installed either in vertical or in horizontal po-sition.(3)Voltage uniformity across a series strmg of battevies is better than that of AGM type.(4)Tubular positive plates with high-pressure die-cast spines of antimony-free alloy, and excellent corrosion-resistant performance, pasted negative plates.(5)Using imported sealing compound from Germany.(6)No electrolyte stratification, no equalizing charge is required.2.2 Long lifeExpected service life of 20-25 years during float charge peration(25℃).2.3 Containers and covers(1)Imported batteres containers and covers from ltaly.They are made of opaque ABS plastics.(2)No gas permeation from containors and covers and the gasre-combination efficiency exceeds 99%.2.4 Execll(1)Imported Amer-Sil separators from Luxemburg. Which are characterized by high quality, high porosity, low resistance and corrosion protection. (2)Excellenthigh-rate discharge performance.2.5 SeparatorsImported valves from Germany to prevent cell container bulge, crack and electrolyte dry-out.2.6 Safety terminals and Poles(1)The battery fitted with the terminals with specially treated copper inserts.(2)Voltage dropacross battery is ≤10mV.(3)HAGEN PATENTPOL TERMINALS.2.7 Float charge voltage2.23V/cell at 20℃.2.8 High-performance(1)The battery have excellent discharge performance by comparision to normal stationary batteries.(2)The battery have high performance at discharge rates for short period by comparision to GFD type.(3)The rate of self-discharge is extremely low, it is less than 30% of the rated capacity when put the battery in storage for two years at 10℃.(4)The battery have excellent deep discharge recovery and can be recharged to 100% capacity within 12 hours.(5)Installation space and requirement of ventilation can be minimised and no washing equipment is needed.2.9 Charge voltageGFMD batteries must only be charged with regulated chargers usually used for sealed lead batteries. At 20℃ the floatcharge voltage is 2.23V/battey. If the mean ambient temperature differs substantially from 20℃ for long periods, the set float voltage should be adjusted in accordance with the graph in Figure 5.2.10 Charge currentThe maximum charge current at 20℃ is 2.5I10A up to a cell voltage of 2.4 volts. The recharging time of the battery depends upon the charger voltage and the current limit, see Figure 6.2.11 Deep discharge protectionGFMD batteries have excellnt deep discharge recovery. The batteries can be recharged to 100% capacity in 12 hours, even following 30 days connected toa load in the discharged state.2.12 Low self-dischargeThe rate of self-discharge by the GFMD batteries is extremely low by omparision to normal lead batteries. Figure 7 indicates the available capacity and storage times atvarious temperatures.中文译文：蓄电池一、产品应用1．发电厂、变电所；2．电信、通讯；3．UPS不间断电源；4．EPS不间断电源；5；太阳能蓄能系统；6；核电站、水电站；7；风力发电蓄能；8微波中继站；9铁路客车照明；10电动汽车、电动自行车；11船舶、电动游艇、电动船12路灯及城市亮化工程；13航标灯、信号灯；14应急照明；15煤矿井下安全防爆；16电瓶车、叉车；17汽车起动、照明；18防火、警报、安全系统；19手提式电源；20可携式电动器具；21所有直流电源系统；22所有交直流电源系统。
毕业设计英文翻译
沈阳工业大学化工装备学院毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计（论文）题目：含硫氨污水冷却器外文题目：Head processing technology译文题目：封头加工工艺院（系）：化工装备学院专业班级：过控0802班学生姓名：孙鹏博指导教师：闫小波2012年3月11日Head processing technology1.welding process1.1welding operationOur factory common welding methods are: manual welding, argon arc welding, submerged arc welding.(1) manual welding is mainly used for carbon steel 3-6mm plate welding.(2) submerged arc welding to more than 8mm carbon steel stainless steel sheet welding mainly.(3)3-6mm stainless steel argon arc welding with welding mainly. Commonly used stainless steel wire ER304and ER316L steel wire, commonly used to J422and J507and J426and J427low-temperature welding consumables. Flux of carbon steel used is the HJ431, stainless steel commonly used is HJ260,.As a result of welding wire flux can be easily affected with damp, stored in the infrared drying machine, flux HJ431and HJ260drying temperature is 250-300℃. Welding wire J422and J350drying temperature were 150℃ and 300 ℃Welding process is completely in accordance with the" welding" execution, sheet thickness determines the welding to welding or double sided arc welding in welding, after the weld seam inspection ( RT X ray ) judgment without pores, cracks and other defects, such as found in the above deficiencies, to the repair, until the filming.1.2 welding operation standard(1) welding procedure card after receiving process, affirm the process card and physical material, quantity, unit number, specifications, size instruction number is consistent, whether there is debris around the wafer, wafer splashes whether clean removal, such as treatment is not clean, will use the grinding clean.(2) there is no welding test plate, groove cutting quality can meet the requirement, material surface without obvious defects, such as abnormal response.(3) according to the" Regulations" welding procedure card check of welding groove type and dimensions correspond to.(4) on each side of groove surface grinding, butt edge offset is not greater than the10% thickness, and not more than1.5mm.(5) point fixed the first weld layer terminal welding length not less than 50mm, arc board specifications should be 150*150mm and a mask having R arc, team rounds should be given within 8 hours of welding, or to use flame to the moisture inside the baking groove.(6) the welder holds" welding" and" welding records" for welding consumables, welding two class library for registration, using flux field volume should not exceed 4 hours, or to continue to back into the oven drying.(7) a, preheating plate thickness not less than 30mm carbon steel, low alloy steel, the preheating temperature of welding process by" card"," standard" provisions of the welding technology.B, preheating range width not less than 4mm and no less than 100mm. C, in the process of welding groove at any time temperature shall not be less than the prescribed temperature.D, when welding temperature is below 0 ℃( arbitrary thickness) must be heated to 15 ℃or above in order to welding.(8) a before welding, welding to welding equipment inspection, examination was normal before welding facilities.According to B,"" the requirements of welding process welding, welding and fill in the recordsC, welding, welding layers shall be in accordance with" welding" requirements, welding shall not be a large current, less layers. (9) removal of the root a, stainless steel cleaning before the root groove sides, within the range of 300mm, splashing paint coating.B, using carbon arc air gouging, should be selected according to the request carbon rod diameter.C, root cleaning, grinding cleaning groove and two side the existence of carburized layer, oxide, slag and other sundries. Grinding width: manual welding, rust, oxide above 20mm, oil30mm above, automatic welding, rust, grease, oxides 25mm50mm groove inner grinding requirements, carbon steel, low alloy steelδn ≤10mm weld, its two ends within the range of 300mm carburized layer must be completely removed, the rest part allows the removal of more than 50%. Other non-ferrous metals must be completely clear. [3]D, root cleaning, composite steel Cr-Mo, manual welding and the thicknessofδn ≥30mm welds shall be examined by PT.(10) during the process of welding defect repair by welding repair welding repair monitor instruction experienced welders as. Repair welding process should eliminate soldering phenomenon, or polished after welding, the following defects must be removed before welding to welding crack,①partial②③pits the stomaA shall not be lower than the parent material, weld.B, there shall be no undercutting.C, without removing the residual high seam. The surface shall not have cracks, pores, crater, undercut and slag inclusions, and may not retain the slag and spatter.D, removal of residual high weld inspection shall not have any defect display PT.E, such as the defects of carbon steel, low-alloy steel repair procedures: a grinding wheel or a carbon arc gouging polishing cleaning→ PT check grinder grinding out the welding groove, welding, PT, stainless steel repair procedures: a grinding wheel or a carbon arc gouging polishing cleaning→PT (δ n≥ 2mm need )→grinder polished to a welding groove welding→ PT examination. [4](12) welded internal rework, repair procedures: location of defect, defect removal→ PT→→removal check welding weld→ PT examination. [5] (13) according to RT film, RT staff and the welders in welding seam together determine the location of defects, including the following requirements when using UT to determine the defect position, the first repairδ n≥ 30mm use UT to determine the location of defects, two or three repairδ n≥ 20mm using UT to determine the defect position, UT positioning by RT after class. The position and depth of defect ( calibration side shall be the depth of defect≤1/2 side).(14) after the welding inspector or monitor by confirmed, in the process card signed your name and object together with transfer to the next process, by the next process responsibility recognition can.2.stamping process2.1stamping operationStamping operation is small head forming an important operation. The same stamping is also head of the cracking, thinning appeared most processsection.2.2punching machine.(1) the master cylinder is mainly used to connect the die head, is the head forming the necessary parts.(2) side cylinder used for pressing die ring, fixing the upper and lower mold ring of head disk. The head in the pressing process is to prevent the crease, as an important part of the drum kit.(3) the overflow valve used for controlling the compressor overall pressure, prevent the wafer during the pressing process of tears. (4) stamping valve in pressure, stamping valve on pressure relief, achieve average pressure effect.In addition, circuit boards, motors, circuit boards, storage tank, operation platform, pedestal are stamping machine components.2.3.3 stamping operation steps(1) first of all to undertake a blanking process card, find a good wafer.(2) the control process card on the technological requirements, put ona set of corresponding die, and with the use of gauges to determine the selected die size and to suppress the wafer size.(3) the wafer is clamped on the upper and lower mold inside the circle, and determine the die head of the center point and the center point of the wafer in a straight line.(4) the operation ring mold and die relative motion, pressure test, according to the control rod rebound to judge the size of the pressure, thereby regulating pressure size.(5) pressure test end, pressed wafer, stamping.2.3the stamping operation standard(1) the control task orders, confirm physical and process card is consistent, according to the process card confirming workpiece number, material, specification, batch number and other factors, at the same time check wafer end there is no crack, burr, polished wafer whether it meets the requirements, whether chamfer, is facing the good, there are special requirements when the problem is found, in time to contact.(2) according to the process card correct selection of die mold surface, inspection, found bruises and serious injury must be polished, but must be clean mold surface corrosion and dirt.(3) according to the technology card size, shape, texture, straight edge higher to suppress.(4) the warm-stamping ( according to requirement sheet property is heated to a certain temperature, and then stamping process ), to prepare a baking gun, gas, oxygen, percussion with head shall prepare the corresponding template, double-sided film to the wafer edge of both sides in a range of about 200-300mm template removal, and clear the film surface. [6] (5) mounted on the lower die, as the case to join the die pad, the wafer inside and outside surface coated with oil, applied range of top to200-300mm, smear should be uniform, the upper and lower mold are evenly coated.(6) the first gold stamping head, hanging out with a model head, check section shape, at the same time, check whether the drum kit, and there is no thinning, and check the surface has no scratch, hoop printing, such as none of the above abnormalities can continue to stamping, head forming, sealing surfaces such as scratches are timely grinding, and confirm the minimum board thickness, confirm whether a scratch, strain, curved peel, orange peel, drum kits, wrinkle, hoop printing etc..(7) such as a head drum kit fold phenomenon should be together with the card with the move to rework process technology.(8) each head should be able to see the instruction, piece number, material, or to transplantation, each product specifications after testing, the process card ( to sign the name ) together to the next process, by the next process validation.3.pressure drum process3.1pressure drum operationPressure drum process and stamping processes are the same steps in the process, stamping process range of φ 159- φ1900mm and pressure drum process is in the range of φ 1600- φ4800mm. And stamping is different pressure drum mostly the head generally forming, eventually forming is completed by spinning, stamping without the special requirements of customers, eventually forming step is not required. φ 1600- φ1900mm heads the two processes is needed.3.2pressure drum machine.(1) the main cylinder is provided with an upper die head is pressed drumexecution as long as part of.(2) supporting seat fixed lower die and upper die head center in a straight line.(3) supporting frame1is provided with a rolling wheel, a position adjusting before and after.(4) supporting frame is provided with a rolling wheel rotating disk II. In addition, there are hydraulic system, the motor, oil pump, oil tank, and a control console.3.3pressure drum machine operation steps(1) first of all to undertake a blanking process card, find a good wafer.(2) the control process card on the technological requirements, put ona set of corresponding die, and with the use of gauges to determine the selected die size and to suppress the wafer size.(3) and stamping machine is different from the original film is not pressure drum center began to suppress, but from the wafer edge, as long as the die and wafer alignment on the line.(4) the pressing process is continuously by controlling the rotation wheel is driven by the rotation of a wafer rotating, according to a certain order to suppress.(5) in after the pressing process, prepared template matching. If a deviation to make further adjustments.3.4pressure drum operation standard(1) die on the quality of the products and the smooth pressure drum forming crucial. Therefore, require that the operator must according to the processing situation of choice for mold and timely adjust shim plate.(2) the operator receives the process card, see process card, according to the process card check objects, to confirm the real instruction, one-piece, material. Number, batch number etc.. According to the choice of mold process card.(3) for EHA, EHB head shapes have adopted the 0.82*D standard selection, for DHB, PSH, MD and other special products according to technology card selection of mold, but in principle according to P*0.82/1.15or P*0.82/1.2 standard selection. [1](4) pressing carefully before inspection wafer quality, no seam wafer end is smooth, there is no gap, surface has no cutting slag and defects.(5) a weld in addition to carefully check the end of the wafer wafer defects, at the same time should be checked for weld seam is higher than that of base metal, weld ends of are welding spatter, weld end grinding smooth, there is no crack notch.(6) two or two or more superimposed when pressed, each slice of the joint surface should be clean, according to the circumstances must entrust welding class, the wafer is welded together to suppress.(7) detection of wafer thickness ( the thickest, most thin, whether and process card, measurement of wafer size and process card.(8) suppression must be removed before the inside and outside surface of all debris, to prevent pitting appeared.(9) for general stainless steel materials ( more than 5mm plate ) using Teflon plate mold and the lower mold dressing on surface polished smooth ( necessary nowadays mold to Teflon plate. ) to ensure the surface quality of the workpiece, while in the process of the pressing need to avoid debris into molds and semi-finished products. [6](10) the pressing process, when the wafer is a R shape, must use the corresponding R model measurement, the pressing process should be considered to adjust the pressure deformation degree.(11) pressing is finished, the measurement of plate thickness, measuring arc length. Check surface quality, check end and weld end is smooth ( necessary to polish out the ceremony ).(12) to check the semi-finished product with process card is on the move to the next process ( and sign the name ) by the next process to confirm acceptance before.4.spinning process4.1spinning operationThe spinning process is pressed after the drum head molding process, mainly for large head R and straight edge formation.4.2spinning machine.(1) forming wheel is connected to the corresponding mold, forming in the head inside, mold top with half formed head R and straight edge is tangent to tangent.(2) supporting wheel is also connected and molded wheel mold, forming in the head outside, and a forming wheel tangent.(3) base for fixing head, and the bottom according to head size before and after moving, the head should be installed so that the center of the base and the head of the center in a straight line.(4) the center rod is used for fixing head, and the center and the center of the base is in a straight line.In addition to the motor, a circuit board, is connected to the shaft, anda control console.4.3spinning procedure(1) to undertake pressure drum process card, according to the card to determine the corresponding head spinning.(2) according to the head of the diameter, select the corresponding upper and lower mold.(3) the clamping head, ensure that the head of the center point and the center of the base point in a straight line.(4) to adjust the molding wheel and the head of tangent, then according to the forming wheel position adjustment roller.(5) in the spinning process to observe the forming roller and the supporting roller relative position, and continue to use the template on the line alignment. Until the R reaches the requirements.4.4spinning operation standard(1) spinning wheel material for steel bearings or ductile iron, mold on the quality of the products and can spin forming closely related, therefore the operator must be processed according to choose suitable mold, at the same time, because of the shape of the mold and the surface condition of the quality of the workpiece has a great influence, therefore, before processing and machining process must on the mold for full inspection.(2) according to the process card requirements, confirm wafer, pressure drum or preload semi-finished instruction number, specifications, quantity of material, compliance, and check the quality of surface and end with no defect, abnormal timely and on the procedures of contact, and in a timely manner(3) check the semi-finished end is smooth, with or without notch, crack, surface has no cutting or welding slag, and shall inspect the weld seam is higher than that of base metal, weld ends whether spatter, weld end grinding smooth, there is no crack. [7](4) pressure drum or to the press after the finished product, must checkfor folding, cracking, crack is not conducive to the spinning processing defects.(5) for stainless steel workpiece, through to the pickling method of decontamination.(6) according to the process card selection of mold, general small arc r size requirements as a basis for selecting the internal wheel. (7) according to the different material, thickness of plate and sheet rebound, selection is slightly smaller than the internal wheel circular arc R.(8) for the special requirements of the product, according to its shape design inside the wheel, confirm the mold surface, good polishing processing.(9) spinning processing, in order to prevent scratching and improve the processing performance, suitable lubricant ( grease ) to prevent process heating head appears on the surface of hot cracks and scratches, can also prolong the service life of die.(10) the spinning process, should be considered a workpiece shaping and timely for pressure adjustment.(11) after the molding process, deal with the size, shape, thickness, surface quality inspections, confirmation.(12) molded product with the card with the transfer process to the next process ( in the process card signed their name ) by the procedures under the inspector or monitor check before.5.groove processThe 5.1groove Essentials(1) groove process is a head of the data ( including circumference, total height) to achieve JB/T4746 standard key process. [1](2) groove is in order and cylinder head connection time, make welding more thoroughly.(3) the main groove cutting process and cutting process tools, is the use of plasma cutting.(4) cutting, according to the card on the technological requirements, determine groove type ( inner groove, outside the mouth, X groove ) and determine the groove angle.(5) the groove before the head splashing agent applicator.(6) groove when the first test slope, then a protractor measuring angle, identified in the tolerance range, after adjustment, the whole slope. The 5.2groove operation standard(1) according to the process card to find real, order confirmation No., specification, material, batch number, quantity and check whether the workpiece has a drum kit, crack, delamination, wrinkle, and whether the loss of a round, found problems in a timely manner to contact, processing, the plate thickness of more than 8mm, is suggested to lose the round groove, the following 6mm, tooling plate pressure is groove.(2) stainless steel head, should be in the groove wall smearing splash front head agent, prevent groove, slag spout to head on the wall. (3) head onto the beveling machine before, first confirm the head weight, based on the weight of suitable sling, sling safety inspection.(4) head onto the groove machine, beveling rotary table adjustment screw rod, with a center adjusting position, rotating table, is aligned to the center.(5) groove, according to technology card height and height tolerance groove height ruler to draw lines, confirm the high line, the slope slope, should first slope flat groove, and then the slope groove.(6) outside the mouth or the inner groove angle should be controlled within ± 2.5 tolerance.(7) groove after, should check the head circumference, height, straight edge, angle, if not qualified to repair process, repair.(8) qualified head will remove and clean the slag grinding head internal slag, together with card transfer to the next process ( and sign their name ) by the next process inspector confirmation can be.6.polishing process6.1 polishing process steps(1) according to the card process requirements, identify the need for polishing head.(2) the head rotating table, determine the level of, the clamping head.(3) polishing from edge to center, or from the center to the edge; according to the diameter size determine the head beam, lower speed and working stage, after moving speed.(4) check the polishing condition, appropriate for rework.The 6.2polishing operation standard(1) according to the process card and materials to confirm the product instruction number, specifications, material, batch number, quantity, and check whether the workpiece has a drum kit, crack, delamination defects, and whether the loss of a round, found problems in a timely manner to contact, processing, check the appearance, to determine the need for manual processing, the polishing before hook head to mark.(2) according to the requirements of the choice of using a polishing, polishing pads, and the necessary auxiliary tool.(3) confirm the head weight, based on the weight of suitable sling, and check whether the safety hanger.(4) the head hanging onto a work table, adjust the center, at the same time to ensure that the head is in the basic level (0-5 deviations ).(5) people in the scene when polishing polishing, attention, especially the left centre, speed fast, or outward from a center left, a little pressure to increase, from the edge to the center of pressure during polishing, to a little decrease in polishing head, thin wall, as the case may be mounted shockproof wheel, at the same time attention to mechanical work has no abnormal.(6) after the completion of inspection head polishing, with or without defect, and the necessary contact.(7) the Polish well head with coated packaging, in the process card signed their names, together with the head and process the card with the circulation storage, and by the next inspection approval.封头加工工艺1.焊接工序1.1 焊接操作我们厂常用的焊接方法有：手工焊、氩弧焊、埋弧焊。
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译文一：CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯水平电磁连铸的研究Yan Zhiming a,b, Li Xintao a,c, Qi Kai a,b, Cao Zhiqiang a,b, Zhang Xiaoli a,b, Li Tingju a,b,*a School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116085, Chinab State Key Laboratory for Materials Modification by Laser, Ion and Electron Beams, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116085, Chinac Gaoxin Zhangtong Co. Ltd., Zhangjiagang 215600, China摘要：旋转磁场用于商业频率试验CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯电磁连铸水平。
对于低倍组织下旋转磁场的凝固的影响，元素的分布和力学性能进行了研究。
结果表明，在旋转磁场的应用下，非宏观结构转变为宏观均匀柱状晶粒结构。
平均粒径降低从6.1到0.56毫米。
元素偏析也受到限制。
薄板的拉伸强度和伸长率增加20.3%，改进65.7%要高于没有旋转磁场。
此外，对于旋转磁场的作用机理进行讨论从而解释它的效果对提高凝固宏观结构，分析元素的分布和力学性能有所帮助。
关键词：有色金属及合金铸造金相1．介绍CuNi10Fe1Mn合金是一种铜合金材料,广泛作为冷却条件应用于海运方面，除了海水和海上电力行业。
如今，CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯连续铸造通常产生坯穿孔、劈去。
以前这个过程很复杂，而且是个产量低，没有竞争力的市场。
如果可以使用空心铸坯直接，这个程序将会缩短时间，增加产量,大大降低了成本。
通过研究人员和生产工厂,使得更多的注意力集中在水平连续铸造，因为它的中间包函结晶器，从而防止次生氧化和获得清晰的熔体，获得高质量铸件，提高利用率和适应金属使用短程序。
得到网形铸件来节约能源。
MHD是一门近年来广泛应用于冶金行业和研究电液在电磁场的运动律法的课程。
电磁场也用在水平连铸坯的空洞。
罗德里奎兹用交变磁场的商业频率来制造30毫米~6毫米的水平连续铸造铜空心坯。
起到了明显细化金属凝固组织的作用。
李和他的研究小组把商业频率和平均频率应用到生产工艺上,使铜合金空心坯取得了明显的进步。
本文探讨了电磁连铸的工艺水平在83毫米~21毫米的CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯。
研究了旋转磁场商业频率对于低倍组织凝固的影响，研究元素的分布和力学性能并探讨其作用机理。
2．实验2.1．实验仪器在实验室里建立一个试用的电磁连铸水平尺度系统。
图1显示的实验仪器,中间包，包含商业频率，结晶器，绘制系统、电磁系统。
图1.实验装置：(1)线圈；(2)冷却系统；(3)图系统；(4)石墨内模沙土；(5)冷却水；(6)中间包；(7)熔融金属结晶器是由石墨内模以及铜外的夹克组成。
石墨的长度为385毫米,内模沙土内芯的锥度是1°。
这是由RMF三相感应线圈外三杆石墨内模组成。
2.2.实验材料和工艺表1 CuNi10Fe1Mn标称成分的合金(wt. %)内模沙土以外的石墨距离(mm)图2.在石墨内模以及凝固壳RMF再不同频率的衰减曲线当频率为50Hz,穿越屏蔽石墨和凝固壳内模沙土的磁通密度仍然是63.3%；然而当频率为1000Hz时，磁通密度只剩下12.9%。
频率提高,它越被减弱，就像图2显示的。
所以为了在融化时加强磁通密度，频率选择50Hz。
在商业频率下加工玻璃，直到1230°才融化。
针对CuNi10Fe1Mn合金的特点，选择的铸造工艺是绘画-停留-换向-停止。
水平电磁连铸坯CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心参数显示在表3。
表3 水平电磁连铸坯CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心参数3. 结果和讨论3.1. RMF在凝固宏观结构上的影响在水平连铸时，只有在自由对流存在的情况下，高温度梯度高导致玻璃径向方向和柱状生长。
在底部区域,由于石墨的内部墙壁内模以自己的重力，空心坯基于较低的区域,因此允许良好的散热。
在最上面的区域，由于凝固壳和石墨内模沙土之间的差距形成初始收缩，影响散热。
因此，在横断面上的是非均匀凝固宏观结构，体现了一个细柱状粒的顶级区域划分，在底部区域有些地方由于空心坯非均匀散热导致出现粗的柱状颗粒,如图3所示。
从冷冻表面到中心的柱状颗粒的成长方向近乎平行于热流动的方向。
加入RMF之后，原非均匀宏观结构转变为均匀宏观结构柱状晶粒,如图3 b显示。
图3. RMF对CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心铸坯的宏观组织在凝固过程的影响:(a)没有RMF(b)有RMF,I=120图4.平均粒径对RMF CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯的影响图4显示了输入电流强度不同，平均晶粒尺寸不同对不同地区的合金空心坯CuNi10Fe1Mn周长的影响。
在空心坯周长上平均粒度参差不齐。
随输入电流强度的改变，宏观结构凝固的更加精细，相应的周长甚至变得更长。
当I=120A,平均晶粒尺寸约0.56毫米，与没有相比RMF少了6.1毫米。
然而，当I=140A,一些核核心产生的焦耳热会引起涡流，所以,平均晶粒尺寸较大。
当限制交流电时,产生的旋转电磁场使线圈融化。
这个领域，从另一方面说，熔体在通以交流电时，会产生一个相位相反感应涡流。
结果，熔体受到电磁身体力量的相互作用引起涡流和旋转磁场。
可以以如下表达：F=J×B=(1／μ)(▽×B)×B (2)J是诱发的涡流，B和μ分别代表磁通量密度和磁导率，▽是哈密顿算符。
由于冷却水寒冷，石墨内部墙内模到出口温度边界层,其中有一个深过冷程度。
在石墨内模沙土熔体产生异质核化的基础上，需要更少的形核密度以及成核的工作。
由于地心引力和凝固收缩而产生的非均匀散热效果，树枝晶日益增长的速度是不同的，在底部区域树枝晶生长快,顶部的树枝晶生长慢。
因此树枝晶从下到上贯穿整个空心坯的一侧。
因为不同的树枝晶长短变化的运动方向不同,强制对流驱动RMF诱导融化从边缘到中心的,然后再从中心到边。
所以由于高度梯度对接追踪的强制对流是螺旋的。
因此沿着石墨内核，熔体产生一个以径向和轴向的强制循环运动旋涡回流。
虚拟模型对熔体内流石墨内模强制与RMF被显示在图5。
图5.虚拟模型对熔体内流石墨内模强制与RMF低温熔体的边缘附近用电磁场把石墨内模带进中心空心坯，伴随着熔体温度降低。
熔体二次产生树枝晶地区温度波动所产生的磁场倾向于接近树干的主要枝干。
强制对流造成RMF产生的剪切力, 使大量的树枝晶是断裂。
那些融合或者折断的枝状突起在熔体内RMF均匀分布,成为核芯，所以成核速率增加。
温度和浓度波动,及在成核的界面的成分过冷温度梯度，以至于在这样的温度和浓度场下抑制晶体的生长从而均匀的内部消化。
RMF的应用，成核速率随温度梯度的转化增加而降低,促进树枝晶粒生长和晶粒均匀状态。
在存在剪切力的情况下,旋转晶粒消除剪切力的增长。
抑制生长的对接，提高固液界面的稳定性和促进成核芯继续呈球形有利于获得球形结构。
由于大量的晶粒颗粒形成，结晶发生同时,在整个横断面形成一个均匀结构。
3.2.RMF对元素的分布和力学性能的影响电子探针做定性分析时,揭示RMF对镍、铁、锰元素的分布的影响，如图6。
结果表明,无RMF，镍、铁、锰元素存在着明显的分布隔离，而RMF可以有效的抑制这种隔离。
图6.由电子探针分析得出RMF对CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯元素分布的影响，红线、棕色路线、绿线,蓝色线分别代表了铜、镍、铁、锰元素(a)没有RMF(b)有RMF,I=120A。
元素的分布是原子扩散的过程,可以设定α来表示扩散程度，如下所示：α=Dτ／ι² （3）D是溶质扩散系数,τ是扩散时间，即部分凝固时间,ι是扩散长度。
根据阿伦尼斯方程,D也可以表达为：D=D0exp（-Q／RT）（4）D0是扩散常数，R是气体常数，Q是活化能，T是绝对温度。
RMF的应用，颗粒系数精确地减少ι，所以隔离距离和范围范围的减少，元素化学成分偏析受到限制。
取自CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯顶部和底部的样品，与没有RMF作用的样品，进行拉伸试验的对比。
图7揭示了输入电流强度对CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯的力学性能的影响。
在圆周方向上，两个最终拉伸强度和伸长率都不一样。
随着输入的电流强度的加强，他们的数值跟着增加和方向逐渐统一。
然而，在I=120A时可以找到一个转折点，力学性能开始减少。
图7.RMF对CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯的力学性能的影响:(a)抗拉强度(b)伸长率图8.利用扫面电镜观察到的CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯拉伸断口形貌:(a)没有RMF(b)有RMF,I=120A。
图8显示了在I=120A，以及是否存在RMF的情况下使用扫描电镜对空心坯表面拉伸断口形貌的观察。
没有存在RMF时，凹痕小而浅，当存在RMF时，凹痕又大又深，显示了良好的延展性。
与拉伸试验相符。
在颗粒细数精确之后，相邻颗粒的变形协调可以改善或者提高力学性能。
拉伸断口的凹痕的大小和深浅反映了塑性变形的能力，数量和分布沉淀阶段。
扫描电镜观察形貌和断口证明拉伸的作用,RMF对提高凝固结构元素的分布及其均匀性，提高力学性能的作用。
4.结论RMF在水平连续铸造CuNi10Fe1Mn合金空心坯的应用，熔体内树枝晶融为一体,然后断裂。
温度和浓度场使晶粒均匀的内部熔化，有利于形成颗粒。
原非均匀柱状孔结构化为晶粒宏观结构, 平均粒度从6.1毫米降低到0.56毫米，和有效地抑制了元素偏析。
与没有应用RMF相比，最终拉伸强度提高20.3%,伸长率提高了65.7%。
致谢感谢国家自然科学基金的支持(No. 50274017).指导教师评语：张海鹏同学在指定时间内认真翻译了铜合金制备工艺及材料检测技术领域的外文文献，了解了材料的制备工艺和检测设备的性能，掌握了当前人们在该领域所作的工作，为接下来文献综述的撰写奠定了基础。
该生具有较强的翻译外文资料的能力，译文的内容与原文较为相符，翻译的专业词汇较为贴切，语句通顺。
成绩：教师签名：。