语言学预设
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VI. Projection problem (预设的)投射问题
The projection problem has two sides: • One the one hand, Presuppositions of component sentences are inherited by the whole complex sentence. • One the other hand, presuppositions disappear in other contexts where one might expect them to survive.
• 语义预设是静态的,逻辑抽象的。 • 语义学家从真值条件(truth condition)出发,将预设“看做是一种 特殊的蕴涵(entailment)关系,是句子和命题之间的关系。”(王守 元、苗兴伟,2003) • 语义预设:两个命题之间存在的如下关系:当A有真值时,B必然为真, 那么A预设B. • Kepler died in misery
Pragmatic presupposition
I. Presupposition: definition
II. Distinguishing presupposition from entailment III. Cancellation of Presupposition
VI. Projection problem (预设的) 投射问题
Types of presuppositions
• A. Existential presupposition(存在预设) • B. Factive presupposition(事实预设) • C. Non-factive presupposition(非事实预 设) D. Counter-factual presupposition (反事实预设) • E. Lexical presupposition(词汇预设) • F. Structural presupposition(结构预设) • Example: pp.99
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ • • • •
3. 隐含动词(implicative verbs) 4. 改变状态动词(change of state verbs) 5. 反复词语(iteratives) 6. 判断动词(verbs of judging) ……
Constancy under negation
• This property of presupposition is generally described as constancy under negation (否定 测试检验). Basically, it means that the presupposition of a statement will remain constant (i.e. still true) even when that statement is negated. • 当对句子进行否定时,它的预设保持不变。 • This is sometimes used as a test (否定测试检验 )for a presupposition
How to distinguish them?
a entails b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is true, or b is false. a presupposes b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is still true. 语义预设和蕴涵的区别:语义预设是一种特殊的蕴涵。 语用预设和蕴涵的区别:语用预设和语境有关,蕴涵不涉 及语境;预设有言外之意,而且言外之意可以推导。
• 2.Presupposition contained in a simple structure may not survive in a complex structure containing that simple structure. (简单句中的预设在复杂句中不再存在) Example: p.96-(9)
•
句子1的意思是:“玛丽打扫了房子”。这句话本身 有一个“预设”即:“房子原来是脏的”。句子的预设有这 样的特点:否定句子本身,句子的预设保留不变。即使把 句子改为否定句、疑问句、祈使句,如“玛丽没有打扫房 子”,“玛丽打扫了房子吗?”“请打扫房子,玛丽”,这 些形式的句子都没有改变预设“房子原来是脏的”。
presupposition triggers
• 预设触发语(presupposition triggers):导致预设 的词或短语。 • 1. 有定描述语(definite descriptions) • John saw/didn’t see the man with two heads. • > There exists a man with two heads. • 2. 叙实谓词(factive verbs) • John realized/didn’t realize that he was in debt. • > John was in debt.
• • • • 语用预设,又称语用前提,是由Stalnaker (1970)最早提出的。 语用预设指的是说话人言语的语境所作的设想; 语用预设是施行一个言语行为所满足的恰当条件; 语用预设是交际双方所共有的知识,或者说是背景知识,这种共有的背景知 识在话语的发出和理解过程中起着十分重要的作用。
B、预设分类(依据预设内容)
①存在预设:用于陈述某人某事有一定性质的话语。一般都预设讨论对 象的存在。
北京市长参加了植树。
②事实预设:用于陈述事实的表态性话语,一般都预设讨论对象的事实。
我知道北京是中国的首都。
③种类预设:凡是谓词意义可以包含某集合属性的话语,一般都预设所 讨论对象属于某种范畴。
这些水果之中苹果是最好吃的。苹果属于水果
④性质预设(程度预设)。话语的语义成立对所涉及到的种种对象在性 质特征上有一定要求,这种要求就是话语的性质预设。
小王比小李高。高矮程度
⑤信念预设。有些句义的成立必须以某种信念的确认为条件,这就是信 念预设。
上帝保佑我们。基督教
II) Presupposition & entailment
• Entailment refers to the semantic relation between propositions of which one logically follows from another. • Eg • a. That person is a bachelor. • b. That person is a man. • Presupposition refers to the semantic relation between two propositions of which one is the premise or pre-condition of the other. • A.John regrets that he kissed Mary. • B.John kissed Mary.
• 1.Presupposition contained in a simple structure may survive in a complex structure containing that simple structure.(简单句的预设可以升级为复 句的预设) Example: p.96-(8)
III. Cancelation of Presupposition
导致预设消失的语境因素 语境中的语言因素和语境中的非语言因素。
语言因素:(话语因素)把一句带有前提语的话置于一定的 话语环境中,或者置于一定的上下文中,圆滑的前提便会 消失。 John didn’t manage to pass his exams. >> John tried to pass his exams. John didn’t manage to pass his exams. In fact he didn’t even try. 前提消失,因为在下文中被否定了。
Presupposition: Definition
• 语用学中的预设是一种“言外之意”,是话语之 外的某种信息,它不属于话语的基本信息。 • 语用预设也叫语用前提,往往就包含在话语的意 思之中。语用预设是交际双方都早已知道的常识, 或至少听到话语之后总能根据语境推断出来的信 息。
A、预设分类(依据依赖语境与否)
• 句子所包含的“预设”和句子本身的意义有十分密切的关 系,即句子一经形成,预设就寓于其中。例如: • • 1、 Mary cleaned the room. • 2、 Mary didn't clean the room. • 3、 Did Mary clean the room? • 4、 Clean the room, Mary.