语言学第八章文本文档
语言学导论第八章
Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
8语言学
奥运专题：上海特奥会、好运北京、倒计 奥运专题：上海特奥会、好运北京、 时一周年、无车日、奥运门票、祥云、 时一周年、无车日、奥运门票、祥云、奥 运测试赛、奥运火炬、微笑圈、 运测试赛、奥运火炬、微笑圈、金镶玉
2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语 2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语
综合类：和谐社会、 综合类：和谐社会、社会主义新农 青藏铁路、自主创新、 村、青藏铁路、自主创新、社会主 义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、 ）、中非合作 义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、中非合作 论坛、长征精神、消费税、 论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质 文化遗产、倒扁 文化遗产、 文化类：文博会、文化创意产业、 文化类：文博会、文化创意产业、 孔子、原生态、百家讲坛、于丹、 孔子、原生态、百家讲坛、于丹、 潜规则、易中天、草根文化、 潜规则、易中天、草根文化、恶搞
The relatedness between language and society
----There ----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language interand society. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting) The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social user’ background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo； (“snow” Eskimo； English: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on; a society's kinship system is generally reflected in its kinship vocabulary ) As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r]: more correct in New York City than in England ).
语言学教程Chapter8.LanguageinUse
5
• Sentence meaning: What does X mean? • Utterance meaning: What do you mean
by X?
– Dog! – My bag is heavy. – “Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield)
utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
3
• Speaker’s meaning
(A father is trying to get his 3year-old daughter to stop lifting up her dress to display her new underwear to the assemble.)
• Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.
13
• I do. • I name this ship Queen
Elizabeth. • I bet you sixpence it will rain
tomorrow. • I give and bequeath my watch to
– Father: We don’t DO that.
– Daughter: I KNOW, Daddy.
dresses.
You don’t WEAR
4
• Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence Meaning
• Utterance vs. Sentence
– Sentence: abstract units of the language system.
语言学 第8、9章
洋泾浜并不只出现在中国，世界上好多通商口
岸都出现过这种语言现象。只不过国外语言学 界对中国的洋泾浜发生了兴趣，根据中国人发 英语business这个词的讹音，给这个语言现象 取了一个名字，叫pidgin，皮钦语。洋泾浜是 中国的皮钦语。
皮钦语是当地人和外来的商人、水手、传教
士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外 语。这种变形首先起因于外来者，他们为了 使当地人明白自己的意思，常常在语言上作 出让步，简化自己的语言，加入一些当地的 语言成分，于是这种变了形的外语就成为当 地人模仿的榜样。
二、混合语（克里奥耳语， Créole ）
1、什么叫“ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ合语“
克里奥耳语（créole，混血儿，又叫混合
语）：指在语言接触中出现的一种可能被社 会采用为主要的交际工具，并由孩子们作为 母语来学习的语言现象。 洋泾浜在一定条件下可能被社会采用为主要 的交际工具，由孩子们作为母语来学习。这 种情况下，洋泾浜就变成了混合语。
不过，世界语毕竟是一种人造的国际辅助语，
它不能代替自然语言作为人们的母语或第一 语言。百余年的实践证明，人工设计的世界 语没有什么前途，反倒是经济上、科学上占 优势的民族的自然语言会在各国交际中起到 不同民族共同交际语的作用。
第九章 语言系统的发展
第一节
语音系统的发展 学习目标： 了解研究语音发展的途径 弄清语音演变的规律 认识语音对应关系在历史比较中的地位和作 用
很多人都记得三十年代文学作品中的中式英语词汇， 比如把丈夫称“黑漆板凳（husband），工头叫 “拿摩温”，把门人叫“抛脱（porter）”，把蠢 人叫“阿木林（amoron）”，把找机会说成“混 腔势（chance）”，把倾向、模样说成“吞头势 （tendency）”，把全部说成“搁落三姆 （grosssum）”，把一文不值者称为“瘟生 （onecent）”，又如称寿头码子、小刁码子的码 子来自“moulds”。下等平民学到几句“洋泾浜”， 也用于应付与外国人交际。如“非常感谢你 （thankyouverymuch）”说成“生发油卖来卖 去”，把“让我看看（letmesee）”说成“来脱米 西西”。
语言学8
Mechanisms of Language Acquisition
• Behaviorism vs. Generative • Language was viewed as a kind of verbal behavior, and it was proposed that children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, analogy • language is a complex cognitive system that could not be acquired by behaviorist principles
Hypotheses
• Do Children Learn through Imitation? • Do Children Learn through Correction and Reinforcement? • Do Children Learn Language through Analogy? • Do Children Learn through Structured Input? • The Innateness Hypothesis
Stage II
• Some time after the age of one, the child begins to repeatedly use the same string of sounds to mean the same thing • holophrastic or “whole phrase” stage
• Connectionism: neural network, mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units • Parallel distributed processing • No grammatical rules are stored anywhere. • Linguistic knowledge is represented by a set of neuron-like connections between different phonological forms
英语语言学：chapter 8 Language in use
conversational maxims is called the cooperative principle. ▪ Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.
she left.
▪ Sometimes the first Quality maxim is violated. ▪ Ex. ▪ 1. 一切反动派都是纸老虎。 ▪ 2. He is made of iron. ▪ 3. Every nice girl loves a sailor.
▪ Sometimes the Relation maxim is violated. ▪ Ex.: ▪ A: Can you fly to Edinburgh tomorrow? ▪ B: The pilots are on strike.
▪ 2. Violation of the maxims
▪ Lies are not implicatures proper. So the cases Grice discusses are all blatant, apparent violations. The speaker has shown it clearly that some maxims are violated, yet at a deeper level the CP can still be thought to be upheld.
英语语言学Chapter 8 Lanague in Use3.8 CHAPTER EIGHT
QUALITY Try to make your contribution on that is
true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack
COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (CP) “Make your conversational contribution
such as is required , at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”(Grice 1975:45).
this summer, hasn’t it?
Violation of Manner maxims Example 1: violation of “avoid
obscurity” A: Let’s get the kids something. B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.
IMPLICATURE( 含 义 ) : the implied meaning
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
Disadvantages of felicity conditions There might be cases that one does not need
语言学课件8
Contextual Meaning
You forgot to lock it again, Idiot! What a relief! Now I don’t have to sit out here waiting for someone to come. . Shut the door! .
Please come in.
Contextual Meaning
Darling, you should have a good rest today. .
Mum, let’s go downtown to buy new skirts today. .
A lazy husband promised his wife to Get up and do housework now. do housework a few days ago, but he’ I t ’ s S u n d a y. . doesn't wake up until 10 o’clock on Sunday morning. The angrily wife shouts to him. .
Social Context:
1. Definition of Pragmatics
A general definition: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Fdon‘t DO that. I KNOW, Daddy. You don‘t WEAR dresses.
20
A little boy comes in the front door. Mother: Wipe your feet, please. He removes his muddy shoes and socks and carefully wipes his clean feet on the doormat.
语言学第八章
• Problems with felicity conditions
– No strict procedure for promising.
– I promise.
– I give my word for it. – I bequeath my watch to my brother. (T or F?)
– I go to the park every Sunday.
– I teach English.
• Performatives: utterances which are
used to perform acts, do not describe or
report anything at all; the uttering of the
• A perlocutionary act: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.
– By saying X and doing Y, I did Z. – By saying “I will come tomorrow” and making a promise, I reassure my friends. – Shoot her!
• Features of performatives
• First person singular
• Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
– The present tense – Indicative mood
– Active voice
• I promise to be there.
语言学 第八章
Cognitive theory 1) Lge development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their lge development.
Stages in child language development
pre-language
stages: 3-10 m one-word (holophrastic) stage: 1218m two-word stage: 18-20m telegraphic speech: 2-2 and half ys fluent speech stage: over 3 ys
Learning: a conscious knowledge
of a SL, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them.
a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a lge, esp. through formal instruction.
1) there is no formal instruction in FLA. 2) Children all ovesame stage in LA.
先天论:
代表人物: 乔姆斯基、 卡茨，心理学家米 勒与马克奈尔。
主要观点：1）是一种基于对刺激—反应论猛烈 批判立场上建立起的理论,是基于理性主义的理 论。语言是一种规则体系，是一种以规则为基 础的复杂系统而并非习惯的总和，儿童之所以 能掌握，是因为人类有天生的、具有受遗传因 素决定的掌握语言规则的能力，即“语言能 力”。乔姆斯基还提出了“语言运用”的概念， 即说话人和听话人对语言规则的具体运用（言 语活动）。语言运用以语言能力为基础。
语言学chapter 8 part two
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. The cooperative principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
they?
A: What do you think of the lecture? B: He’s a good cook.
Chapter 8 Language in UUAGES COLLEGE
4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner
relation
Be relevant.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
manner
Be perspicuous.
1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
2）Cancellability or DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性) The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change. 可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话人在原先的话语 上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除） 原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或 暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。
英语语言学 第八章
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
蹩脚bilge船底污水引申为肮脏的下三滥的劣质的大兴dashy浮华的华而不实的引申为假的冒牌的劣质的sale二手货贱卖引申为垃圾货形容人的品质低劣瘪三begsir乞丐先生用来形容叫花子难民逃荒者等各式穷人后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一
• Language is not always used to
exchange information as is generally
each of them chooses to use is in
part determined by one’s social background. – When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about
our origin and our background.
language live.
1. The relations between language and society
----There are many indications of the interrelationship between language and society.
《语言学概要》(叶蜚声)版 第八章 语言的接触(思维导图)
第八章 语言的接触第一节 社会接触与语言接触社会群体的接触主要分：经济贸易往来宗教文化往来军事占领殖民移民杂居语言的接触可以分为：不成系统的词汇借用语言（区域）联盟与系统感染语言替换与底层残留通用书面语、民族/国家共同语进入方言或民族语的层次洋泾浜和混合语特殊形式一般形式第二节 不成系统的词汇借用一、借词借词：也叫外来词，它指的是音与义都借自外族语或外方言的词。
音译加意译 p.210音译兼意译 p.210意译词：用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词，把外语里某个词的意义移植进来，我们不把它们看作借词。
二、借词与社会 p.212第三节 语言（区域）联盟与系统感染 p.214第四节 语言替换与底层一、语言替换：随着不同民族的接触或融合而产生的一种语言现象，指一种语言排挤和替代其他语言而成为不同民族的共同交际工具。
这是不同语言统一为一种语言的基本形式。
二、语言替换的社会原因：社会历史条件：经济文化地位高的一方排挤替代经济文化地位低的一方。
人民杂居：各族人民生活在同一地区，形成杂居局面是语言融合的客观条件。
三、自愿替换和被迫替换自愿替换：汉语替换其他语言过程中，有些民族顺乎历史发展的规律，自觉地放弃使用自己的语言，选用汉语作为共同的交际工具。
被迫替换：在汉语替换其他语言过程中，有些民族为保持本民族的语言进行了艰苦的斗争，但迫于经济、文化发展的需要，也不得不放弃自己的语言，学会汉语，实现语言的替换。
四、语言替换的过程双语或多语共存——竞争——排挤——替代五、语言换用与底层遗留双语：语言替换中强势语言替代弱势语言的桥梁。
底层：被替代的语言在胜利者语言中留下的痕迹第五节 通用书面语、民族/国家共同语进入方言或民族语的层次随着社会的发展，特别是广播电视等大众媒体充分发展之后，通用的书面语发展成为更高形式的民族共同语或国家共同语。
语言的这些高层形式通过读书识字等特别途经传播，所及之地不一定地域相邻。
因社会分化程度的不同，通用书面语或民族共同语与地方方言或民族语言的差异程度不同，对地方方言或民族语言的影响也有不同。
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Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionary force.
However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature. For example:
Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.
(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.
b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
c. Be brief.
d. Be orderly.
2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.
(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.
8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act
2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.
3. Felicity conditions of performatives:
Chapter 8 Language in Use
What is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?
Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of
3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.
4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.
(1) The maxim of quantity:
a. Make your contribution as informative as required.
b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.
8.2 The theory of conversational implicature
8.2.1 The cooperative principle
1. The cooperative principle (CP)
Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:
Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.
(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.
(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.
a. Avoid obscurity of expression.
b. Avoid ambiguity.
? In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another.
[1] A: Can you tell me the time?
B: Well, the milkman has come.
? In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.
8.1 Speech act theory
8.1.1 Performatives and constatives
1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).