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英语语言学第二章 Phonetics and Phonology

scope of phonetics

articulatory phonetics

auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics

articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （研究语音的产生）

当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动（vibration），形成的声音成为浊音（voicing），如[ b, z, d]。当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声音。

pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language

two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech

organs (发音器官)

英语二学历语言学的课件02 Language

Shakespeare); Onomatopoeic words seem to be exceptions, but not really. 音义结合的任意性
2019/1/4 张旭红
rose By any other name would smell as sweet. (From Romeo and Juliet by
Language
--- Chapter Two
2019/1/4
张旭红
1
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Contents
I. Definition of Language; II. Defining Features of Language;
III. Language: Unique to Humans;
IV. Two Languages in One Brain; V. Language Acquisition: VI. Functions of Language; VII. Origin of Language;
Also called speech error, it is an involuntary and inadvertent deviation from an intended utterance that often results in ungrammaticality, nonsense words, or anomaly, etc.张旭红（口误） 2019/1/4 7
2019/1/4 张旭红 8
Term citations
Langue Vs. Parole F. De. Saussure (1916) “Course in General Linguistics” “Research of speech activity includes two parts, one is

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

英语语言学教程Chapter 2 精品PPT课件

Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Questions for the students:
Do you know that human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: Let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Teaching difficulties: Manner of articulation ; (发音方法） Place of articulation ; （发音部位） The criteria of vowel description （元音的描述）; Broad and narrow transcription （宽式 / ; 窄式标音） allophone（音位变体）; minimal pairs（最小对立位）; assimilation（同化）

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

英语语言学二(2.3)

• Crystal: „Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not‟.（音系分析所依赖的原则是；某些
上近似）
• Free variants and free variation（自由变体
和自由变体现象）
Free variation
• Sometimes a phoneme may also have FREE VARIANTS. For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways: [jç Uoç ] and [jç Uo´], with the 14 diacritic “ ´ ” indicating “no audible release” in IPA symbols, i.e. the sound is not actually heard. • The difference may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of by any distribution rule. Such a phenomenon is called FREE VARIATION. Free variation is often found in regional differences. For example, most Americans pronounce the word either as [h9C?_] whereas most British people say [`HC?]. Individual differences may also determine the use of [cHqDjRm] or [c`HqDjRm] for the word direction.

简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答： The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答： A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答： a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答： (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答： (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答： (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答：( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答： (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。

英语语言学笔记（2）

⼆、⾳系学语⾔的声⾳媒介什么是语⾳学发⾳器官⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法英语语⾳的分类⾳系学和语⾳学语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴⼏条⾳系规则超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳，这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。

Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳，which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。

新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记

Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (Lead in)Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.Language is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing system. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:(Speech production-----------------speech transmission---------------speech perception)⏹Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）----from the speakers‟point of view, “how speakers produce speechsounds”⏹Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”⏹Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from oneto another.2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs, also known as V ocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The diagram of speech organs:1. Lips 7. Tip of tongue2. Teeth 8. Blade of tongue3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 9. Back of tongue4. Hard palate 10. V ocal cords5. Soft palate (velum) 11.Pharyngeal cavity6. Uvula 12. Nasal cavityThe important cavities:☆The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔---- the throatLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‟s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur. The larynx contains the Vocal folds, also known as Vocal cords or Vocal bands. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam‟s apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move to various positions. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, (c) totally closed.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced (V oicing): when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.☆The oral cavity 口腔---- the mouthThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification of the air stream. ([k]/[g], [t]/[d], [θ]/[δ], [f]/[v], [p]/[b])☆The nasal cavity 鼻腔---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized. If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--- broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）e.g. clear [l]Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] (Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.)E.g. : [l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic); [l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h表示送气)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:⏹V owels⏹ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤ Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥ Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [n], [η]By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]→(velar)②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the p alate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars软腭音:the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]Conclusion: Factors to describe a consonant(1) State of vocal cords (VL/VD)(2) Manner of articulation (MA)(3) Place of articulation (PA)2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.Highest Part of the tongue (front, central, back)Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:] [Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:][u] Openness of mouthRounded or unrounded lipsrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:].unrounded vowels: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.Length of the vowellong vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as [i:] and [ɑ:]short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e], [ə] and [æ].monophthongs: individual vowelsdiphthongs: produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. (集中/合口)2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsWhat does English phonetics deal with?English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how these sounds are produced and how they are described and classified.What does English phonology deal with?English phonology investigates the sound system of English. Different from English phonetics, English phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in the abstract aspects:A. the function of sounds--- whether a sound can differentiate the meanings of wordsB. their patterns of combination--- how sounds are combined to form a permissible sound sequence⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used toconvey meaning in linguistic communication.(Speaker‟s mind--- Mouth--- Ear--- Listener‟s mind)2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhoneme: minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language; a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit; not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment; the realization of phoneme in general. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‟t. For example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[t h a:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7 phones: [f],[i:],[ł], [l], [t h]. [t], [a:], but [ł] and[l] do not distinguish meaning, [t h] and [t] do not distinguish meaning as well.Allomophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme; realizations of a particular phoneme.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‟re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.E.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.E. g. mail vs. nail beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.⏹If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.⏹If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey thefollowing three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, screama) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.⏹The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ]are not to be followed by anothersibilants.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleAssimilation: articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more features.Nasalization: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/[-nasal]→ [+nasal]/_______ [+nasal]Dentalization: /ð/, /θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]V elarizatio n: /k/, /g/, / ŋ/: Word-final /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives/k, g/: ten cups; ten girls[-velar]→ [+ velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5 Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonationsegmental features（切分特征）--- the distinctive features which can only have an effect on one sound segment are called segmental features.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that involve more than single sound segments (larger than phoneme)2.3.5.1 StressWord stress⏹The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part ofspeech of a word:verb: im‟port; in‟crease; re‟bel; re‟cord …noun: …import; …increase; …rebel; …record …⏹Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the sameelements:compound: …blackbird; …greenhouse; …hotdog…noun phrase: black …bird; green …house; hot …dog…⏹The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms andnouns:modifier: …dining-room; …reading room; …sleeping bag…doer: sleeping …baby; swimming …fish; flying …plane…Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.2.3.5.2 T oneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.⏹English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used (first three types):falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the rise-fall toneHe is not ↘ there. What did you put in my ↗ drink, ↘ Jane?He is not ↗ there? What did you put in my ↘ drink, ↗ Jane?For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Ss exercise: Explain the meaning of the following words or phrases or sentences when marked with different stress or with different intonation.Assignments1. Ss complete the review questions during the classes.2. Ask students to do the exercises 1-10 on Page 30.。

英语语言学Chapter2

英语语⾔学Chapter2Chapter T woⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A refers to a strong puff of airstream in the production of speech sounds.2. A phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.3. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all bsounds.4. Of all the speech organs, the t is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.5. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of pof articulation.6. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called ass.7. S features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.8. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called srules.9. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called ntranscription.10. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i.11. P is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.12. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o cavity and the nasal cavity.13. T one are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.14. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s stress.perception.16. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are embedded in three important cavities. These three cavities are p o and n cavitythe production of them.18. Vis a feature of all vowels and some consonants. When the vocal cords do cause vibration, the sounds produced are ; otherwise they are named sounds19. Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are available, broad transcription and narrow transcription. The major difference between them is with or without .20. When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through an arrow passage in the mouth soas to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a .21. The basic unit of phonology is a phoneme. It is an abstract collection of .22. When phonemic contrast is mentioned we realize that the two sounds belong tophoneme(s), when complementary distribution is discussed, the allophones come from phoneme(s); and finally when free variation is talked about, we understand that the sounds are derived from phoneme(s).23. In English, complementary distribution of allophones is required to meet two conditions, one condition is that they never occur in the ; the other is that they shouldshare .24. In English, the study of phonology hasso far mainly found three phonological rules. They areand rule.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. Of all the speech organs, the _______is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords2. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal3. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/4. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar5. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair6. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative7. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle8. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features9. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme10. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones11. Phonetics is the study of _______.A. all the sounds that occur in the world’s languagesB. speech sounds used by human languages to representC. the differences between sounds used inhuman languages and sounds in natureD. how phonological differences can lead to misunderstanding12. /m, n/ are _______.A. fricativesB. dentalsC. glidesD. nasals13. /w, j/ belong to _______.A. fricativesB. dentalsC. glidesD. nasals14. Which of the following vowel is the rounded vowel?A. [i:]B. [u:]C. [i]D. [a:]15. In the field of phonology, which of the following does NOT belong to the suprasegmental features?A. stressB. toneC. intonationD. syllable16. Classification of vowels is made up of the following EXCEPT _______.A. the position of the tongueB. the openness of the mouthC. the shape of the lipD. the width of the vowels17. A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a ______.A. phonemeB. allophoneC. phoneD. allomorph18. /p, t, k/ are _______.A. fricativesB. affricatesC. glides19. /kuku:/ is a bird’s call. The name of such a bird is CUCKOO which is an example of ______.A. language universalsB. onomatopoeiaC. teaching grammarsD. morphs20. The vowel [u:] in [fu:d] (food) is a______ vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. central21. In English, there is only one glottal. It is ______.A. [f]B. [r]C. [h]D. [v]22. Which of the following sounds is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]23. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the _______ of that phoneme.A. minimalB. allomorphC. phonesD. allophones24. [i:], [i], [e] are all ______ vowels.A. frontB. centralC. backD. back25. Which of the following is a fricative sound?A. [m]B.[p]C.[w]26. There are _______ nasals in English.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four27. _______ are not a minimal pair in English.A. “sink” and “zinc”B. “fine” and “vine”C. “bat” and “pat”D. “teach” and “cheat”。

(完整word版)语言学练习二第2次作业 Microsoft Word 文档

烟台南山学院2015—2016学年第一学期《英语语言学练习》二(课程代码：11120210专业：英语学习层次：本科年级：2014级)(第二次作业针对第一、二章。

试题总分100分。

本次练习只有多选题。

)一、单项选择（共40题，每小题2.5分，满分100分)Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. （2.5%×40=100%）（答题时请按照本答卷上的题号标注，每5个一行。

）1. The study of language at one point of time is a _A______ study.A. synchronicB. historicC. diachronicD. descriptive11. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be C .A. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguisticnguage is a system of arbitrary _D________ symbols used for human communication.A. culturalB. conventionalC. decodedD. vocal19. Of all the speech organs, the _C_______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20. Chomsky uses the term __D______ to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.A. langueB. competenceC. paroleD. Performance33. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop?AA. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]37.What kind of function does the sentence “How do you do?” have ?BA. DirectiveB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Evocative40.The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C_______.A. semanticsB. sociolinguisticsC. pragmaticsD. psycholinguistics41. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____A___ .A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took apsychological point of viewB. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took asociological point of viewC. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semanticpoint of viewD. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmaticpoint of viewnguage is a system of ___D______ vocal symbols used for human communication.A. unnaturalB. artificialC. superficialD. arbitrary44. A(n) ___C_____ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. allophoneC. phonemeD. sound51. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human _B_________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community52. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? AA. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang53.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is____C______.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative54. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?CA. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational55. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?CA. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness56. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.BA. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal57. ______A___ refers to the actual realization of the ideal languageuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole58. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of ___C_______.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality59. _______A__ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics60. _______C___ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics61. Pitch variation is known as ____A______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice62. Conventionally a ____C______ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme64. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ___A_______.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula65. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as ________A__ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering66. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called ___D_______.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones67. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?BA. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above68. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?AA. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]69. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?BA. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]70. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?BA. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant122. All syllables contain a _A_______.A. nucleusB. codaC. onsetD. stem123. The categories of consonant are NOT established on the basis of ______C__. A. manners of articulation B. place of articulationC. narrow transcriptionD. voicing124. In syllable, a vowel often serves as ____A____.A. peak or nucleusB. onsetC. codaD. morph129. According to F. De Saussure, _C_______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language 130. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?AA. /n/B. /m/C. /b/D. /p/140. The consonant /s/ in the word “smile” can be described as: ____A____.A. voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB. voiceless nasal bilabial liquidC. voiced oral alveolar plosiveD. voiced oral bilabial fricative141. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human _B________. A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 143.Saussure took a(n) ________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.AA. sociological... PsychologicalB. psychological... SociologicalC. applied... PragmaticD. semantic... Linguistic145. ____C____ deal with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics146. Which of the following is not a minimal pair?AA. /li:f/ /fi:l/B. /sip/ /zip/C. /sai/ /sei/D. /keit/ /feit/。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二章

Pharyngeal[færɪn'dʒɪːl] cavity — the throat; Oral cavity — the mouth; Nasal cavity — the nose.
1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Teeth ridge (alveolar[æl'vɪələ]) 4. Hard palate ['pælət] 5. Soft palate (velum ['vɪːləm]) 6. Uvula /ˈju ːvjʊlə/ 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 11. Pharyngeal cavity 12. Nasal cavity
English vowels: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Diphthongs /ˈd ɪfθɔŋ/ or gliding vowels
According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It is language-specific.

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版思维导图第五章

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版思维导图第五章本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4.Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递）；语言的功能。

本章内容索引：I.The definition of linguisticsII.The scope of linguistics1.Micro—linguistics2.Macro—linguisticsIII.Some important distinctions in linguistics1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronic3.Speech vs.Writingngue vs.ParoleThe definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。

语言学 Unit 2 The Sounds of Language

12
phones [p=] [pȹ] [l] [ł]
phonemes /p/
/l/
13
Allophone
Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme, e.g. clear [l] and dark [ł] are the allophones of the phoneme /l/
10
Phonemes
A phoneme is a sound or group of sounds that is functionally distinctive in a language system.
11
minimal pair
Substitution test: whether substituting one
A syllable must contain a vowel sound. The most common type of syllable in L also has a consonant before the vowel, often represented as CV. The basic elements of the syllable are the onset (one or more consonants) and the rime. The rhyme consists of the vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any following consonants, treated as the coda.

英语语言学2已做

一、单选题（共 20 道试题，共 60 分。

）V1. _____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication throughA. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto满分：3 分2. The term ______ is used for less drastic difference which is restricted to variation in pronunciation.A. sociolectB. dialectC. geographical dialectD. accent满分：3 分3. The road was （enlarged）last year. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分4. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分5. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound满分：3 分6. edits （为下列单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分7. _____ is a variety of a language used by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分8. The motivation that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importanceA. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them满分：3 分9. The study of language in general is often termed ____.A. modern linguisticsB. general linguisticsC. functional linguisticsD. pragmatics满分：3 分10. The following dialogue flout ________ maxis of the cooperative principle.A: Do you know the great writeA. QualityB. QuantityC. RelationD. Manner满分：3 分11. A(n)________ is the minimal or the smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.A. phonetic symbolB. alphabetC. phonemeD. allophone满分：3 分12. I like to have （brunch）quite often. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分13. ______ is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分14. （EEC ）is an important organization in the world. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. DerivationB. BlendingC. BackformationD. Acronym满分：3 分15. He is （watering ）flowers. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分16. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice (1975) as ______A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes满分：3 分17. ________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast withA. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分18. ____ is the study of sound systems and patterns.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. MorphologyD. Syntax满分：3 分19. _______ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words .A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme满分：3 分20. ______ are the features found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation满分：3 分V1. Sodium Chloride and salt, which denote the same substance, differ in register ofcommunication.满分：2. “He sat alone by himself” is a statement of tautology.3. Linguists attempt to discover the universals of human language.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分4. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分5. Words like dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid, are meaningful but they identifyno entities in the real world.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分6. Tone is a distinctive feature.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分7. Prototype refers to the process by which people use language to classify the worldaround and inside them.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分8. John explained the theory is a material process according to Halliday.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分9. Back-channel signals are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分10. Voiced refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分11. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features .A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分12. Dialect is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to varieties according touse.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分13. It is the interpersonal function of language, in a sense, that brings the world into ourmind.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分14. A functional variety is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分15. The structural syllabus takes the text as the basic teaching unit.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分16. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分17. Preferred second parts refer to having the right to speak by turns.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分18. Social contexts strongly influence second language acquisition. (T) 20. Field isconcerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communications.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分19. Morphology is defined as the study of meaning.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分20. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by sea/sea.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分8、这个世界并不是掌握在那些嘲笑者的手中，而恰恰掌握在能够经受得住嘲笑与批忍不断往前走的人手中。

英语语言学2已做

一、单选题（共 20 道试题，共 60 分。

）V1. _____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication throughA. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto满分：3 分2. The term ______ is used for less drastic difference which is restricted to variation in pronunciation.A. sociolectB. dialectC. geographical dialectD. accent满分：3 分3. The road was （enlarged）last year. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分4. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分5. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound满分：3 分6. edits （为下列单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分7. _____ is a variety of a language used by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分8. The motivation that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importanceA. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them满分：3 分9. The study of language in general is often termed ____.A. modern linguisticsB. general linguisticsC. functional linguisticsD. pragmatics满分：3 分10. The following dialogue flout ________ maxis of the cooperative principle.A: Do you know the great writeA. QualityB. QuantityC. RelationD. Manner满分：3 分11. A(n)________ is the minimal or the smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.A. phonetic symbolB. alphabetC. phonemeD. allophone满分：3 分12. I like to have （brunch）quite often. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分13. ______ is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分14. （EEC ）is an important organization in the world. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. DerivationB. BlendingC. BackformationD. Acronym满分：3 分15. He is （watering ）flowers. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分16. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice (1975) as ______A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes满分：3 分17. ________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast withA. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分18. ____ is the study of sound systems and patterns.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. MorphologyD. Syntax 满分：3 分19. _______ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words .A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme 满分：3 分20. ______ are the features found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation 满分：3 分V1. Sodium Chloride and salt, which denote the same substance, differ in register ofcommunication.满分：2. “He sat alone by himself” is a statement of tautology.3. Linguists attempt to discover the universals of human language.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分4. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分5. Words like dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid, are meaningful but they identifyno entities in the real world.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分6. Tone is a distinctive feature.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分7. Prototype refers to the process by which people use language to classify the worldaround and inside them.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分8. John explained the theory is a material process according to Halliday.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分9. Back-channel signals are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分10. Voiced refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分11. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features .A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分12. Dialect is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to varieties according touse.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分13. It is the interpersonal function of language, in a sense, that brings the world into ourmind.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分14. A functional variety is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分15. The structural syllabus takes the text as the basic teaching unit.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分16. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分17. Preferred second parts refer to having the right to speak by turns.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分18. Social contexts strongly influence second language acquisition. (T) 20. Field isconcerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communications.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分19. Morphology is defined as the study of meaning.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分20. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by sea/sea.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分。

新编简明英语语言学教程Unit2

新编简明英语语⾔学教程Unit2PHONOLOGY1.Phonetics定义：①Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.②A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.e.g. [p] bilabial, stop2.分为哪⼏个Cavity?---Speech organs①The pharyngeal cavity-the throat ②The oral cavity-the mouth ③The nasal cavity- thenose[m],[n],[?]3.The speech organs: ①lips唇; ②teeth齿;③teeth ridge(alveolus)齿龈;④hard palate硬腭;⑤soft palate（velum）软腭; ⑥uvula⼩⾆;⑦tip of tongue⾆尖; ⑧blade of tongue⾆⾯; ⑨back of tongue⾆根; ⑩vocal cords声带; 11pharyngeal cavity咽部; 12 nasal cavity⿐腔4.Broad transcription: used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes, withoutdiacritics.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.e.g. clear[ pit ]Narrow transcription: used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]5.P206.P21The feature ‘unrounded ’ is usually omitted since all front vowels in English are unrounded. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels. 7. P22Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonology 对⽐⾳位学和语⾳学Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 8. P23A phone ⾳素---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t . e.g. /p/: [p h ] [p]A phoneme ⾳位---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context. ?Allophones ⾳位变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic[i:] [l] [?][e][?] [a][?][a:][u][u:] [??] [??] [?]environments.9.P24Phonemic contrast⾳位对⽐----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution互补分布----allophones of the same phoneme are incomplementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p]Minimal pair最⼩对⽴集----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every wayexcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.10.P25Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language,e.g. in English, ‘k,b,i, I’might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilbIf a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combinationshould obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.a) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.10.. Suprasegmental features-超⾳段特征---the phonemic features that occur above the level ofthe segments ( larger than phoneme)11.P27The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word.Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting ofthe same elements.复合词和名词词组之间的区别Compound: ‘blackbird; ‘greenhouse; ‘hotdog…noun phrase: black ‘bird; green ‘house; hot ‘dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier:修饰语‘dining-room; ‘reading glasses;doer: ⾏为者swimming ‘fish; flying ‘plane…Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence.12.P28⾳调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. English is not a tone language. Our mother tongue Chinese is a typical tone language.e.g.ma 妈(level) ma ⿇(the second rise) ma 马(the third rise) ma 骂(the fourth fall)。

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一、单选题（共 20 道试题，共 60 分。

英语语言学2已做.

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英语语言学2已做

英语语言学2已做

新编简明英语语言学教程Unit2

英语语言学第二章 Phonetics and Phonology

英语二学历语言学的课件02 Language