语言学第四单元课后问题详解syntax树状图thesrule
语言学 Chapter4 课后练习答案教学文案
语言学C h a p t e r4课后练习答案Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determin e a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellentSurface Structure: CPC SDeep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NP13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window。
(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案
Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there isno limit to the number of sentencesnative speakers of thatlanguage are able to produce and comprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase,infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of Englishsentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the directobject usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s _________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same timestructurally alone is known as an f _____________ clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p _______ .4. A c __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e ________ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.7. G ________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence8. A a __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s ___________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, questionor command.10. A s ___________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical 8. simple 9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Markthe choice that can best complete the statement :1 The head of the phrase “ the city Rome ” is ___________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city andRome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to theintroductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.B. grammatical D. functionalA. recursiveC. social4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understandA. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “ on the half ” belongs to _________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact thatA. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is _______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The _______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not toexposethemselves ” is a___________ s entenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constitue nts -word groups (phrases), which are in turn an alyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups wordsinto structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complexsentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in acomplex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate tothe other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Maryshowed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head.The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is definednegatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3. 略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". Forexample: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more,clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
新编语言学教程第2版第4章答案
新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。
新编语言学教程第2版第4章答案
新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。
新编语言学教程第2版第4章答案
新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V , A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word ’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of aconjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1) there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP ) can be coordinated.3) coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black sky c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterday d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellent b) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved that Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she loved e c) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPS P NPN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrow b) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the party c) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:C SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window Surface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
语言学树形图课后问题详解
树形图详细讲解网上的相对理想的树形图答案，注意正两点：1. 短语和中心词在一竖线上2. 含有形容词修饰语的名词短语的画法NPDet NA Na little boy1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NeSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the man ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads detective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads detective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) An old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NAn old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that T om asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that T om asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe e was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog e bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN NHerbert found the man (whom) she loved ed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Adve come tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Ne report the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Ne for lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNef) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det N what was Helen e bringing e to the。
新编语言学教程第2版第4章答案
新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。
语言学第四单元参考答案
Chapter 4 From Word to Text1.syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction:it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (―the boy‖), VP (―kicked‖) and NP (―the ball‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.constituent: Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple,S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (―S‖, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.exocentric: Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.coordination: A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.subordination: Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.category: The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.agreement: Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen?--Oh, it’s the one I lost.embedding: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. E.g., I saw the man who had visited you last year.recursiveness: it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, ―I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.grammatical subject & logical subject: Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.cohesion:Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is ―Reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.3.(a) ((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).(b) (Shut) ((the) (door)).(c) ((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).(d) ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((beaming) (away))).(e) (He) (((bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay) (cheque)))))).2.(1) The instructor told the students to study. [NP(det.+n.)+V+NP(det.+n.)+inf.](2) The customer requested for a cold beer. [NP(det+n.)+V+PP(prep.+det.+adj.+n.)](3) The pilot landed the jet. [NP(det+n)+V+NP(det+n.)](4) These dead trees must be removed. [NP(det+adj.+n.)+mv(modal verb)+be(auxiliary verb)+Past Participle](5) That glass suddenly broke. [NP(det+n)+adv.+V]4.(a) Ducks quack. (non-headed, independent clause)(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough. (non-headed, prepositional phrase)(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair. (headed; headword—damaged; adjectival group)(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries. (headed; headword—singing; gerundial phrase)(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine. (headed; headword—face; nominal group)(f) A lady of great beauty came out. (non-headed; prepositional phrase)(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains. (headed; headword—climbing; gerundial phrase)(h)The man nodded patiently. (non-headed; a sentence)(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword. (headed; headword—roused; adjectival phrase)5.a. Nb. Yc. Yd. Ye. Yf. Ng. Yh. N6.(a) The comet that Dr. Okada discovered appears every twenty years.(b) Everyone respected the quarterback who refused to give up.(c) The most valuable experiences that I had on my trip to Europe were small ones.(d) Children whose parents abuse alcohol will probably become abusers of drugs or alcohol.(e) Many nations are restricting emissions of noxious gases which threaten the atmosphere.7.In this chapter, several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness, including coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this "[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a car and a dog] got into the car". While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element (here a relative clause).However, hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, while the latter is paratactic:We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.8.(a) The best thing would be to leave early. (infinitive phrase)(b) It's great for a man to be free. (infinitive phrase)(c) Having finished their task, they came to help us. (past participial phrase)(d) Xiao Li being away, Xiao Wang had to do the work. (absolute phrase)(e) Filled with shame, he left the house. (past participial phrase)(f) All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs. (absolute phrase)(g) It's no use crying over spilt milk. (gerundial phrase)(h) Do you mind my opening the window? (gerundial phrase)9.The grammatical category ―subject‖ in different language possesses different characteristics. In English, ―subject‖ may have the following characteristics:A. Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in statement such as ―Sally collects stamps".B. Pronoun forms: The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject. This form is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:He loves me.I love him.We threw stones at them.They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with verb: In the simple present tense, an –s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular. However, the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:She angers him.They anger him.She angers them.D. Content questions: if the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in (b). But when any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliary verb, we must insert did or do(es) immediately after the question word, as in (d, e)(a) John stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the British Council.(b) Who stole/would steal Mrs. Thatcher’s picture from the British council?(c) What would John steal, if he had the chance?(d) What did John steal from the British Council?(e) Where did John steal Mrs. Thatcher’s pictur e from?E. Tag question: A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence:John loves Mary, doesn’t he?。
(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案.docx
Chapter 4From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set ofsyntactic rules.2.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers ofthat language are able to produce and comprehend.3.An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without lossof grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase,verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6.Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7.Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8.Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and thedirect object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF6-10 TTTTT)II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the sametime structurally alone is known as an f__________ clause 3.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clauseis normally called an e_______ clause.6.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7.G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence 8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1.sentence2. finite3.predicate4. complex5. embedded6.open7. grammatical8.simple9. sentence10. subjectIII.There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1The head of the phrase“ the city Rome” is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.PrepositionD. subordinator3Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.All of the above.5The phrase “ on the halfA endocentric B” belongs to ________construction exocentric C subordinate Dcoordinate6. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.noun phrases can be used to modify another nounphraseC.noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves ” is a____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compound DcomplexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D10 AIV . Explain the following terms, using examples.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3.Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groupswords into structural constituents and shows the syntacticcategory of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V.Answer the following questions:1.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate themwith examples.2.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4.What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and","but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
语言学 第四章 树形图 句法教程文件
语言学第四章树形图句法Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.• If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example,The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.– The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev.•To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) •He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. •Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently,they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）.•The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic).•Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: –He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. •It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.•English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teach er’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationshipwith one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).•This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s gr eat for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SVA Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in. –We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry. –He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text. •Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)。
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category How to determine a word’s categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of thesame type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that canappear prior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level ?a head or an entire XP?can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of theheads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences. a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black sky c) The man examined hiscar carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)S。
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with itsmeaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
语言学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thesrule
syntax1.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a)full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb)a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc)often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd)the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Ne)move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3.Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb)Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc)What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NWhat will you e talk about ed)The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane)He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a)A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb)A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc)An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd)A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but(is) tired of statisticsN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is)tired of statisticsd)The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine)Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective,a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb)He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc)Gerry can’tbelieve the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee)The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was too longb)The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesc)Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN NHerbert found the man (whom)she loved ed)The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8.The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e come tomorrowb)Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det N Can you e pass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det N should the students e report the incidentd)What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN N what did you e eat e for lunche)Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNwhom should this e be reported to ef)What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det N what was Helen e bringing e to the party。
语言学Chapter4课后练习答案(20200602074319)
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appearprior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the categorytype of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposals d) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPN You know that I hate war b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det N Chris was happy that his father bought him aRoll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she lovedec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure:CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
语言学树形图课后问题详细讲解
语言学树形图课后问题详细讲解树形图详细讲解网上的相对理想的树形图答案，注意正两点：1. 短语和中心词在一竖线上2. 含有形容词修饰语的名词短语的画法NPDet NA Na little boy1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposals e) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P N What will you e talk about ed) The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the man OR InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet N The apple might hit the man e) He often reads detective stories. SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads detective stories OR InflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads detective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPNAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) An old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NAn old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went out c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPN You know that I hate warb) He said that T om asked whether the class was over. SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was over。
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syntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English exam d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPDeep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PP8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e come tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nshould the students e report the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NPN N Infl V PN Nwhat did you e eat e for lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNwhom should this e be reported to ef) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nwhat was Helen e bringing e to the party。