alevel economics 基础 讲义
alevel商科知识点
alevel商科知识点English Answers：1. Microeconomics.Demand and supply: The relationship between the quantity of a good or service demanded by consumers and the quantity supplied by producers at a given price.Price elasticity of demand: The responsiveness of demand to changes in price.Income elasticity of demand: The responsiveness of demand to changes in income.Cross-price elasticity of demand: The responsiveness of demand for one good or service to changes in the price of another good or service.Market equilibrium: The point at which the quantitydemanded and the quantity supplied are equal.Market failure: A situation in which the market fails to allocate resources efficiently.Externalities: Costs or benefits that are imposed on third parties by economic activities.Public goods: Goods or services that are non-rivalrous and non-excludable.2. Macroeconomics.Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of all goods and services produced in an economy in a given period of time.Inflation: A sustained increase in the general price level.Unemployment: A situation in which people who are willing and able to work cannot find jobs.Fiscal policy: Government spending and taxation.Monetary policy: The actions of the central bank to control the money supply.Economic growth: An increase in the capacity of an economy to produce goods and services.Balance of payments: A summary of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world.3. Business.Types of business organizations: Sole proprietorships, partnerships, corporations, and limited liability companies.Business objectives: Profit, market share, growth, and sustainability.Management functions: Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.Marketing: The activities involved in creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers.Finance: The management of money and other assets.Human resources management: The management of peoplein an organization.Operations management: The management of the production and delivery of goods and services.4. Finance.Financial markets: Markets where financial instruments are traded.Financial instruments: Stocks, bonds, derivatives, and currencies.Risk and return: The relationship between thepotential return on an investment and the risk of losing money.Portfolio management: The management of a collection of investments.Capital budgeting: The process of evaluating and selecting long-term investments.Financial ratios: Measures of a company's financial performance.Financial statements: Reports that provide information about a company's financial position and performance.Chinese Answers：1. 微观经济学。
Economy教师课堂教学课件
案例二：中国的经济发展模式
总结词
中国经济发展模式的特征和优缺点
详细描述
中国的经济发展模式是以出口导向型经济和投资驱动型经济为主的模式。这种模式的特 征是高储蓄、高投资、高出口和高增长。中国经济发展模式的优点包括实现了经济的高 速增长、创造了大量的就业机会、提高了人民的生活水平等。但是，这种模式也存在一
economy教师课堂教学课件
contents
目录
• 引言 • 经济学概述 • 微观经济学 • 宏观经济学 • 国际经济学 • 经济学案例分析 • 结论
01 引言
主题简介
主题名称
Economy（经济）
主题内容
介绍经济的基本概念、原理和现象，包括宏观经济学和微观经济学 的主要知识点。
主题目标
帮助学生了解经济的基本概念和原理，掌握分析经济现象的方法， 培养学生对经济问题的思考和判断能力。
06 经济学案例分析
案例一：全球金融危机
总结词
全球金融危机的背景、原因和影响
详细描述
全球金融危机是指2008年发生的全球性经济危机，其背景是长期的金融自由化和监管不足，导致房地产市场过度 投机和金融衍生品泛滥。危机的原因包括过度借贷、不良资产、高杠杆率等。全球金融危机对世界经济造成了严 重的影响，包括经济衰退、失业率上升、银行破产和信贷紧缩等。
促进经济发展
经济学有助于推动经济发 展，提高人民生活水平和 社会福利。
经济学的发展历程
重商主义
重商主义主张国家应该通过贸 易保护和鼓励出口来增加财富
。
古典经济学
古典经济学家如亚当·斯密和大卫· 李嘉图提出了自由放任和比较优 势理论，强调市场机制的作用。
新古典经济学
新古典经济学家如马歇尔和费雪 提出了边际效用和供需理论，强 调个体选择和供需关系。
alevel经济考试内容
1、基本经济思想。
包括：稀缺性、选择和机会成本、积极和规范的声明、生产要素、不同经济体系中的资源配置与转型问题、生产可能性曲线、金钱、商品和服务分类、有效的资源分配、外部性和市场失灵、社会成本和收益、成本效益分析。
2、价格体系与企业理论。
包括：需求和供给曲线、价格弹性、收入弹性和需求的交叉弹性、供给价格弹性、需求和供给的相互作用、市场均衡与非均衡、消费者和生产者剩余、边际效用递减定律、无差别曲线预算行、成本、收入和利润的类型，短期和长期生产、不同的市场结构、企业的成长和生存、公司的不同目标。
3、政府微观经济干预。
包括：最高和最低价格、税收(直接税和间接税)、津贴、转移支付、直接提供商品和服务、国有化和私有化、经济增长、经济发展和可持续性、国民收入统计、国家分类、就业/失业、收入的循环流动、货币供应(理论)、凯恩斯主义和货币主义学派、货币需求与利率决定、对发展中经济体的政策;贸易和援助政策。
4、宏观经济。
包括：总需求和总供给分析、膨胀、贸易支付差额、汇率、贸易条件、绝对优势和相对优势原则、保护主义、经济增长、经济发展和可持续性、国民收入统计、国家分类、就业/失业、收入的循环流动、货币供应(理论)、凯恩斯主义和货币主义学派、货币需求与利率决定、对发展中经济体的政策;贸易和援助政策。
5、政府宏观干预。
包括：政策类型：财政、货币和供应方政策、纠正国际收支不平衡的政策、纠正通货膨胀和通货紧缩的政策、政府宏观政策目标、问题的相互关联性、满足所有宏观经济目标的政策选择的有效性。
alevel economics 基础 讲义
alevel economics 基础 讲义
2
• Human wants are unlimited, but • Resources are limited (scarce) • A central problem therefore exists…we call
this the problem of SCARCITY
alevel economics 基础 讲义
6
6 Microeconomic Issues
– demand and supply decisions of what to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce
– the concept of opportunity cost based on comparing what
nature used in the process of production
•For example: forests, minerals,
wildlife, oil, rivers, lakes, oceans
•May be renewable or non-
renewable
alevel economics 基础 讲义© 2007 Pearson Education Australia
alevel economics 基础 讲义
3 Definition of economics
Economics is the study of society’s decisions about
– production – consumption – allocation of scarce resources
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
爱德思 alevel经济学 考试内容
爱德思 alevel经济学考试内容Studying for the A-Level Economics exam can be a daunting task, but with the right approach and dedication, you can achieve success. It is essential to have a thorough understanding of economic concepts and theories to excel in this subject. A good grasp of microeconomics and macroeconomics is crucial for tackling the questions that may come up on the exam.准备A-Level经济学考试可能是一项艰巨的任务，但如果采取正确的方法和投入适当的精力，你就能取得成功。
要在这门学科中取得优异成绩，对经济概念和理论有透彻的理解是至关重要的。
对微观经济学和宏观经济学有良好的掌握是解答考试可能出现的问题的关键。
One key aspect of preparing for the A-Level Economics exam is practicing past papers. By going through previous years' exam questions and attempting to solve them, you can get a sense of the types of questions that might be asked in the upcoming exam. This will also help you familiarize yourself with the format of the exam and improve your time management skills.准备A-Level经济学考试的一个重要方面是练习往年的试题。
alevel经济essay范文
A-Level经济Essay范文任务名称：A-Level经济Essay1. 引言•介绍A-Level经济Essay的背景和重要性•概述本文的结构和讨论内容2. 理解经济学的基础概念2.1 经济学的定义和作用•解释经济学的定义和其在现代社会中的作用•提到经济学对于政策制定和资源配置的重要性2.2 供求关系•解释供求关系的概念和作用•提及供求关系对于市场价格和数量的影响2.3 边际效应•解释边际效应的概念和原理•强调边际效应在经济决策中的应用3. 宏观经济学的重要理论3.1 国民生产总值（GDP）•解释国民生产总值（GDP）的概念和计算方法•强调GDP在衡量经济活动和经济增长中的重要性3.2 失业与通胀•分析失业和通胀的概念和相互关系•探讨失业和通胀对经济稳定和货币政策的影响3.3 货币供应与利率•讨论货币供应和利率的关系•分析货币政策对经济活动和通货膨胀的影响3.4 经济增长与发展•解释经济增长和发展的概念•探讨人力资本、技术创新和投资对经济发展的作用4. 微观经济学的重要理论4.1 供给和需求决定价格•解释供给和需求对价格决定的作用•强调市场机制对资源配置和利益分配的重要性4.2 市场结构和竞争•分析不同市场结构对竞争和价格形成的影响•探讨垄断和垄断竞争对经济效率和消费者福利的影响4.3 生产与成本理论•讨论生产函数和成本曲线的概念•强调生产效率和成本优化在企业决策中的作用4.4 国际贸易与全球化•讨论国际贸易和全球化的概念和重要性•分析贸易壁垒和自由贸易对国际经济关系的影响5. 政府在经济中的角色5.1 市场失灵•介绍市场失灵的概念和原因•探讨政府干预的必要性和方式5.2 税收与财政政策•分析税收对经济活动和财政政策的影响•强调财政政策在经济调控中的作用5.3 货币政策与央行•讨论货币政策对经济稳定和央行的角色•探讨货币政策工具和目标的选择5.4 社会福利与经济公平•分析社会福利和经济公平的概念和关系•强调政府在减少贫富差距和提高社会福利中的作用6. 结论•总结论点和讨论内容•强调经济学的重要性和应用领域注：本文仅为示范范文，具体内容请根据需要进行扩展和修改。
国际经济学讲义英文版
Course Syllabus of International EconomicsFor undergraduate student who major in economics(Class hours:72)Course Description:This course is designed for undergraduate student who have had a course in economic principles, but do not have the opportunity to study international trade and money on a regular basis.Course Objective:·To grasp and retain the underlying theory of international trade and money.·To show the intellectual advances in this dynamic field.·To provide an up-to date and understandable analytical framework for illuminating trade policy, past and current.·To review principles of economics as necessary.Course Contents and Schedule:Textbook and Reference Books:Textbook·Paul , Maurice Obstfeld. International Economics , 6e, 清华大学出版社，2004. Reference Books·[美]保罗•克鲁格曼，茅瑞斯•奥伯斯法尔德，《国际经济学》，第五版，中译本，中国人民大学出版社，2003.·李坤望主编，《国际经济学》，第二版，高等教育出版社，2005.·姜波克、杨长江编著，《国际金融学》，第二版，高等教育出版社，2004. ·Dominick Salvatore. International Economics, Prentic Hall International , 8e, 清华大学出版社，2006.PREFACE§ place of this book in the economics curriculum§ Distinctive Features of International Economics: Theory and PolicyThis book emphasized several of the newer topics that previous authors failed to treat in a systematic way :·Asset market approach to exchange rate determination.·Increasing returns and market structure.·Politics and theory of trade policy.·International macroeconomic policy coordination·The world capital market and developing countries.·International factor movements.§3. Learning Features·Case studies·Special boxes·Captioned diagrams·Summary and key terms·Problems·Further readingCHAPTER 1 Introduction§1. What Is International Economics About?Seven themes recur throughout the study of international economics :·The gains from trade(national welfare and income distribution)·The pattern of trade·Protectionism·The balance of payments·Exchange rate determination·International policy coordination·International capital market§2. International Economics: Trade and Money·Part I (chapters 2 through 7) :International trade theory·Part II (chapters 8 through 11) : International trade policy·Part III (chapters 12 through 17) : International monetary theory·Part IV (chapters 18 through 22) : International monetary policyCHAPTER 2Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage:The Ricardin Model*Countries engage in international trade for two basic reasons :·Comparative advantage : countries are different in technology (chapter 2) or resource (chapter 4).·Economics of scale (chapter 6).*All motives are at work in the real world but only one motive is present in each trade model.§1. The Concept of Comparative Advantage1.Opportunity cost: The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could have been produced with the resources used to produce a given number of roses.Table 2-1 Hypothetical Changes in ProductionMillion Roses Thousand ComputersUnited States －10 ＋100South America ＋10 －30Total 0 ＋70advantage: A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries.·Denoted by opportunity cost.·A relative concept : relative labor productivity or relative abundance.3. Comparative advantage and trade : Trade between two countries can benefit both countries if each country exports the goods in which it has a comparative advantage. §2. A One-Factor Economypossibilities : a LC Q C + a LW Q LW≤LFigure 2-1Home’s Production Possibility Frontierprice and supply·Labor will move to the sector which pays higher wage.·If P C/P W>a L C/a LW (P C/a L C>P W/a LW, wages in the cheese sector will be higher ), the economy will specialize in the production of cheese.·In a closed economy, P C/P W =a L C/a LW.§3. Trade in a One-Factor World·Model : 2×1×2·Assume: a L C/a LW< a L C*/a LW*Home has a comparative advantage in cheese.Home’s relative productivity in cheese is higher.Home’s pretrade relative price of cheese is lower than foreign.·The condition under which home has this comparative advantage involves all fourunit labor requirement, not just two.(If each country has absolute advantage in one good respectively, will there exist comparative advantage?)the relative price after trade·Relative price is more important than absolute price, when people make decisions on production and consumption.·General equilibrium analysis: RS equals RD. (world general equilibrium)·RS: a “step” with flat sections linked by a vertical section.(L/a L C)/(L*/a LW*)Figure 2-3World Relative Supply and Demand·RD: subsititution effects·Relative price after trade: between the two countries’ pretrade price.(How will the size of the trading countries affect the relative price after trade? Which country’s living condition improve more? Is it possible that a country produce both goods?)gains from tradeThe mutual gain can be demonstrated in two alternative ways.·To think of trade as an indirect method of production :(1/a L C)( P C/P W)>1/a LW or P C/P W>a L C/a LW·To examine how trade affects each country’s possibilities of consumption.Figure 2-4Trade Expands ConsumptionPossibilities(How will the terms of trade change in the long-term? Are there incomedistribution effects within countries? )numerical example :·Two crucial points :(1)When two countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage, both countries gain from trade.(2)Comparative advantage must not be confused with absolute advantage; it is comparative, not absolute, advantage that determines who will and should produce a good.Table 2-2 Unit Labor RequirementsCheese WineHome a LC=1 hour per pound a LW=2 hours per gallonForeign a*L C=6 hours per pound a*L W=3 hours per gallon Analysis: absolute advantage; relative price; specialization;the gains from trade.wages·It is precisely because the relative wage is between the relative productivities that each country ends up with a cost advantage in one good.·Relative wages depend on relative productivity and relative demand on goods. Special box : Do wages reflect productivity ?Table 2-3 Changes in Wages and Unit Labor CostsCompensation Compensation Annual Rate of Increaseper Hour, 1975Per Hour,2000in Unit Labor Costs,(US=100) (US=100) 1979-2000United States 100 100South Korea 5 41Taiwan 6 30Hong Kong 12 28 NASingapore 13 37 NASource: Bureau of Labor Statistics（foreign labor statistics home page, ）·Debates about relative wages and relative labor productivity.·Long-run convergence in productivity produces long-run convergence in wages.§4. Misconceptions About Comparative AdvantageThe proposition that trade is beneficial is unqualified. That is, there is no requirement that a country be “competitive” or that the trade be “fair”.and competitivenessmyth1:Free trade is beneficial only if your country is strong enough to stand up to foreign competition.·The gains from trade depend on comparative advantage rather than absolute advantage.·The competitive advantage of an industry depend on relative labor productivity and relative wage.·Absolute advantage: neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for comparative advantage (or for the gains from trade).pauper labor argumentmyth2: Foreign competition is unfair and hurts other countries when it is based on low wages.·Whether the lower cost of foreign export goods is due to high productivity or low wages does not matter. All that matter to home is that it is more efficient to “produce” those goods indirectly than to produce directly.myth3:Trade exploits a country and make it worse off if its workers receive much lower wage than workers in other nations.·Whether they and their country are worse off?·What is the alternative ?(if it refuse to trade, real wages would be even lower ).§5. Comparative Advantage With Many Goods·Model: 2×1×n·For any good we can calculate a Li /a Li*, label the goods so that the lower the number, the lower this ratio.a L1/a L1*<a L2/a L2*<…<a LN/a LN *(or a L1*/a L1>a L2*/a L2>…>a LN*/a LN)wages and specialization·Any good for which a Li*/a Li>w/w* will be produced in home. (Relative productivity is higher than it’s relative wage, wa Li<w*a Li*, goods will always be produced where it is cheapest to make them.)·All the goods to the left of the cut end up being produced in home.Table 2-4 Home and Foreign Unit Labor RequirementsRelative HomeHome Unit Labor Foreign Unit Labor ProductivetyRequirement(a Li)Requirement(a*Li)Advantage(a*Li/a Li)Apples 1 10 10Bananas 5 40 8Caviar 3 12 4Dates 6 12 2Enchiladas 12 9If w/w*=3, A、B、C will be produced in Home and D、E in Foreign.·Is such a pattern of specialization beneficial to both countries?(Hint: Comparing the labor cost of producing an import good directly and indirectly).the relative wage in the multigood model·w/w*: RD of labor equals RS of labor.·The relative derived demand for home labor (L/L*) will fall when the ratio of hometo foreign wages (w/w*) rises, because:(1)The goods produced in home became relative more expensive.(2)Fewer foods will be produced in home and more in foreign.Figure 2-5 Determination of relative of wages.RD: derived form relative demand for home and foreign goods.RS: determined by relative size of home and foreign labor force (Labor can’t move between countries).§6. Adding Transport Costs and Nontraded Goods·There are three main reasons why specialization in the real international economy is not so extreme:(1)The existence of more than one factor of production(2)Protectionism(3)The existence of transport cost.Eg: Suppose transport cost is a uniform fraction of production cost , say 100 percents.For goods C and D in table 2-4:D: Home 6hours < 12hours×1/3×2 foreignC: Home 3hours×2 >12hours×1/3 foreignThus, C and D became nontraded goods.·In practice there is a wide range of transportation costs.In some cases transportation is virtually impossible: services such as haircut and auto repair ; goods with high weight-to-value ratio, like cement.·Nontraded goods : Because of absence of strong national cost advantage or because of high transportation cost.·Nations spend a large share of their income on nontraded goods.§7. Empirical Evidence on the Ricardian Model·Misleading predictions :(1)An extreme degree of specialization.(2)Neglect the effects on income distribution.(3)Neglect differences in resources among countries as a cause of trade.(4)Neglect economics of scale as a cause of trade.·The basic prediction of the Ricardian model has been strongly confirmed by a number of studies over years.(1)Countries tend to export those goods in which their productivity is relative high.(2)Trade depend on comparative not absolute advantage.Figure 2-6Productivity and exportsAnswers to Problems of Chapter 21. a. b. a LA/ a LB=3/2=c. P A/ P B= a LA/ a LB=2. a.b.If the relative price of apples after trade is between and 5 Home and Foreign will specialize in the production of apples and bananas respectively. The world relative supply of apples is 3. a .RD include the pointsb. the equilibrium relative price of apples is P A /P B =2c. Home produces only apples and trades them for bananasForeign produces only bananas and trade them for applesd. Home ：(1/ a LA )（P A /P B ）=（1/3）×2= Foreign ：(1/*LB a )（P A /P B ）=（1/1）× =4.211/8003/1200//**==LB LA a L a L 21/132=>LB a 51/121*=>LA a 21)212()11()2,21()5,51(，、，、、The equilibrium relative price of apples is , it equals pretread relative price of apples in Home, So Home produces both apples and bananas, neither gains nor loss form trade; Foreign produces only bananas and trades it for apples, Foreign gains from trade.answer is identical to that in problem3 since the amount of “effective labor”has not changed.6.·Pauper labor argument.·Relative wage reflects relative productivity, international trade can’t change it ·Trading with a less productive and low-wage country will rise, no lower its standard of living.7.·to determine comparative advantage need for all four unit labor requirements (forboth the manufacture and the service sectors)·is an absolute advantage in services, this is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage.·The competitive advantage depends on both relative productivity and relative wages.8. ·*ωω=·Since . is considerably more productive in services, Service prices are relative low.·Most services are nontraded goods·P= , . purchasing power is higher than that of Japan.9.·The gains from trade decline as the share of the nontraded goods increases, notrade, no gains.10.·Label the countries so that(a LC /a LW )1<(a LC /a LW )2…<( a LC /a LW )N·Any country to the left of RD produces cheese and trades it for countries to right of RD produces wine and trades it for cheese.·If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion, the Country with that a LC /a LW produces both goods.*LSLSaa<*31PCHAPTER 3Specific Factors and Income Distribution* The failures of the Ricardian model·A n extreme degree of specialization.·W ithout effects on the income distribution.( because it supposes labor is the only factor )* There are two main reasons why international trade has strong effects on the distribution of income.·S hort-term: specific factor, chapter3.·L ong-term: relative abundance and relative intensity, chapter4. (resource endowment theory or factor proportions theory ).* What is a specific factor?Specific factor: --- can be used only in the particular sector.Mobile factor: --- can move between sectors.·Think of factor specificity as a matter of time.·Labor is less specific than most kinds of capital.§1. The Specific Factors Modelof the model : 2×3×2.·America and Japan;·Labor (L)、Capital (K)、Terrain (T) ;mobile factor specific factorQ M=Q M(K,L M)、Q F=Q F(T,L F)、L=L M+L F·Manufacture and Food.possibilities·Production of manufactures and food is determined by the allocation of labor.Figure 3-3·Because of diminishing returns, PP is a bowed-out curve instead of a straight line. ·The slope of PP, which measures the opportunity cost of manufacture in terms of food is =MPL F/MPL M.dQ F/dQ M=(dQ F/dL)/(dQ M/dL)=－MPL F /MPL M=－1/MPL M* MPL F; (MPL F↑/MPL M↓)↑, wages, and labor allocation·The demand for labor: MPL M*P M=W M , MPL F*P F=W F·The allocation of labor: W M=W F , L=L M+L FFigure3—4P M、P F L M、L F Q M、Q F·The production of specific factor modelMPL M*P M=MPL F*P F=W MPL F/MPL M=P M/P F(opportunity cost=relative price)Figure 3-5distribution of income within the manufacturing sectorFigure 3-2MPL M*dL Mtotal income: Q M=∫Lwages: (W/P M)*L MMPL M*dL M (W/P M)*L Mincome of capitalists: ∫L·What happens to the allocation of labor and the distribution of income when P M andP F change? ( Figure3-6. 3-7. 3-8 )① Notice that any price change can be broken into two parts : an equal proportional change in P M and P F , and a change in only one price.Eg: P M↑P M↑10% + P M↑7%P F↑F↑10%② A equal proportional change in price have no real effects on the real wage, real income of capital owner and land owner.Figure 3-6③ A change in relative priceFigure 3-7·Wage rate rise less than the increase in P M.·Labor shifts from the food sector to the manufacturing sector andQ M rises while Q F falls.Figure 3-8 P M/P F↑5. Relative prices and the distribution of income①A rise in P M benefits the owners of capital , hurts the owner of land.Figure 3A-3W/ P M↓, income of capitalists in term of P M rises (the shadow), income of capitalists in term of P M、P F rises.Figure 3A-4②Because W/P M drops and W/P F rises, the real wage of the workers is uncertain. Itdepends on their consumptions structure.§2. International Trade in the Specific Factors Model·For trade to take place, the two countries must differ in P M/ P F. If RD is the same, RS is the source of trade ; if technologies is also the same , differences in resources can affect RS.Figure 3-9and relative supplyAn increase in the capital stock (capital per worker) raises the marginal product of K↑M↑Q M↑Q F↓,RS shift to the right.Figure 3-10Correspondingly, T MPL F↑M↓Q F↑, RS shift to the left. Suppose L J=L A , K J>K A, T J<T Aor(K/L)J>(K/L)A,(T/L)J<(T/L)A).Then the situation will look like that in Figure 3-11.Figure 3-11pattern of trade·The amount of the economy can afford to import is limited by the amount it exports. ·Budget constraint: D F－Q F =( P M/ P F)×(Q M－D M)import exportFigure3-12two fectures:①slope = －P M/P F②tangent PF at the production point after trade. ·The budget constraint and the trading equilibrium.Figure 3-13Japan: ( P M/P F)↑Q M↑Q F↓, D M↓D F↑,Figure 3-13 continuedAmerican: ( P M/ P F)↑Q M↓Q F↑, D M↑D F↓,§3. Income Distribution and the Gains from Tradedistribution: who gains and who loses from international trade?·Trade benefits the factor that is specific to the export sector of each country but hurts the factor to the import-competing sectors, with ambiguous effects on mobile factors.gains from trade.Does trade make each country better off?Is trade potentially a source of gain to everyone?Figure 3-14① The pretrade production and consumption point is shown as point 2.② Part of the budget constraint (AB) represents situations in which the economyconsumes more of both manufacture and food than it could in the absence of trade (point2).③ It is possible in principle for a country’s government to use taxes and subsidiesto redistribute income to give each individual more of both goods.·The fundamental reason why trade potentially benefits a country is that it expands the economy’s choices. This expansion of choice means that it is always possible to redistribute income in such a way that everyone gains from trade.§4. The Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThere are two ways to look at trade policy:(1) (Normative analysis) Given its objectives, what should the government do?What is the optimal trade policy?(2) (Positive analysis) What are the governments likely to do in practice?trade policy·Economists: to maximize the national welfare, free international trade is the optimal policy.·Three main reasons why economists do not regard the income distribution effects of trade as a good reason to limit trade (P57).distribution and trade politics·An example : an import quota : . sugar (P200).·Problems of collective action (P 231).·Typically, those who lose from trade in any particular product are a much more concentrated, informed, and organized group than those who gain.·The formulation of trade policy: A kind of political process.Special box: Specific factors and the beginning of trade theory.CHAPTER 4Resources and Trade:The Heckscher-Ohlin Model(Factor Endowment Theory)*Comparative advantage is influence by the interaction between relative abundance and relative intensity.*Relative abundance: the proportions of different factors of production are available in different countries.If(T/L)H<(T/L)F, Home is labor-abundant and Foreign is land-abundant“per captia”,“relative” , no country is abundant in everything.*Relative intensity: the proportions of different factors of production are used in producting different goods.At any given factor prices, if (T C/L C)<(T F/L F), production of Cloth is labor-intensive and production of Food is land-intensive. A good can’t be both labor-intensive and land-intensive.(Factor-proportions theory)§1. A Model of Two-Factor Economy1. Assumption of the modelThe same two factors are used in both sectors: T、L ; Cloth、Food.(1)Alternative input combinations: In each sector, the ratio of land to labor used in production depends on the cost of labor relative to the cost of land, w/r.Figure 4A-2w/r↑T↑L↓T/L↑(T C/L C↑and T F/L F↑)(2) Relative intensityAt any given wage-rental ratio, food production use a higher land-labor ratio, foodproduction is land-intensive and cloth production is labor-intensive.Figure 4-2price and goods prices(1)One-to-one relationshipBecause cloth production is labor-intensive while food production is land-intensive. The one dollar worth isoquant line of cloth and food are shown as 4-3-1 two isoquants CC and FF are tangent to the same unit isocost line.Figure 4-3-1When P C rises, the slope of the unit isocost line w/r rises, that is, there is one-to-one relationship between factor price ratio w/r and the relative price of cloth P C/P F (Figure4-3-2). The relationship is illustrated by the curve SS.(Suppose the economy produce both cloth and food).Figure 4-3-2Figure 4-3-3(2)Stolper-Sammelson effectIf the relative price of a good rises, the real income of the factor which intensivly used in that good will rise, while the real income of the other factor will fall.↑↑T C/L C↑,T F/L F↑MPL C↑, MPL F↑W/P C↑, W/P F↑Figure 4-4and output(1)Relative price、resources and productionGiven the prices of cloth and food and the supply of land and labor, it is possible to determine how much of each resource the economy devoted to the production of each good; and thus also to determine the econom y’s output of each good.Figure4-5.The slope of OcC is Tc/Lc, the slope of O F F is T F/L F(2)Rybczynski effectIf goods prices remain unchanged, an increase in the supply of land will rise the output of food more than proportion to this increase, while the output of cloth will fall.Figure4-6T↑T F↑L F↑;T C↓L C↓Q F↑Q C↓Rybczynski effect: At unchanged relative goods price, if the supply of a factor of production increases, the output of the good that are intensive in that factor will rise, while the output of the other good will fall.Figure 4-7·The economy could produce more of both cloth and food than before.·A biased expansion of production possibilities.·An economy will tend to be relatively effective at producing goods that are intensive in that factors with which the country is relative well-endowed.§of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies1. Resources、relative prices and the pattern of tradeAs always, Home and Foreign are similar along many dimentions, such as relative demand and technology. The only difference between the countries is their resources: Home has a lower ratio of land to labor than Foreign does.·relative abundance relative supply relative prices trade(T/L)H<(T/L)F (T C/L C)<(T F/L F)RS lies to the right of RS*,(P C/P F)H<( P C/P F)F Home trade Cloth for Food,Foreign trade Food for Cloth.·H-O proposition: Countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed.Figure 4-82. Trade and the distribution of income·According to Stolper-Samuelson effect, a rise in the price of cloth raises the purchasing power of labour in terms of both goods, while lowering the purchasing power of land in terms of both goods. Thus,in Home,laborers are made better off while landowners are made worse off.·Owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade,but owners of a country’s scare factors lose.·The distinction between income distribution effects due to immobility and those due to differences in factor intensity.The specific factor model: Sectors; temporary and transitional problemThe H-O model: Factors; permanent problem·Resources and trade (factor endowment theory)Short-run analysis: The specific factor modelLong-run analysis: H-O model3. Factor price equalization·Factor price equalization proposition: International trade produces a convergence of relative goods prices. This convergence, in turns, causes the convergence of the relative factor prices. Trade leads to complete equalization of factor prices. (Figure4-8,4-4 or Figure 4A-3)Figure 4A-3·One-dollar-worth isoquant lines.·G oods’ price and technologies are the same, so CC、FF are the same inboth countries.·w/r are the same in both countries.·In an indirect way the two countries are in effect trading factors of production. （Home exports labor: more labor is embodied in Home’s exports than its imports；Foreign exports land: more land is embodied in F oreign’s exports than its imports.）·In the real world factor prices are not equalized (Table4-1). Why?Table 4-1 Comparative lnternational Wage Rates(United States=100)Hourly compensationCountry of production workers,2000United States 100Germany 121Japan 111Spain 55South Korea 41Portugal 24Mexico 12Sri Lanka* 2*1969. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Staistics Home Page.Three assumptions crucial to the prediction of factor price equalization are in reality certainly untrue.(1)Both countries produce both goods.(Trading countries are sufficiently similar intheir relative factor endowments)(2)Technologies are the same.(Trade actually equalizes the prices of goods in twocountries).(3)There are barriers to trade: natural barriers (such as transportation costs) andartificial barriers (such as tariffs, import quotas, and other restrictions).Case study: North-south trade and income inequality·Why has wage inequality in . increased between the late 1970s and the early 1990s?(1)Many observers attribute the change to the growth of world trade and inparticular to the growing exports of manufactured goods from NIEs.Table 4-2 Composition of Developing-Country Exports(Percent of Total)Agricultural Mining ManufacturedProducts Products Goods1973 30 221995 14Source: World Trade Organization(2)Most empirical workers believed that trade has been at most a contributingfactor to the growing inequality and that the main villain is technology.§3. Empirical Evidence on the H-O Model1.Tests on dataTable 4-3 Factor Content of and lmports for 1962Imports ExportsCapital per million dollars $2,132,000 $1,876,000 Labor(person-years) per million dollars 119 131 Capital-labor ratio (dollars per worker) $17,916 $14,321 Average years of education per workerProportion of engineers and scientists in work forceSource:Rodert Baldwin,“Determinants of the Commodity Structure of Ecomomic Review61(March1971), ·Leontief paradox: . exports were less capital-intensive than . imports. (Capital-labor ratio)·. exports were more skilled labor-intensive and technology-intensive than its imports. (Average years of education; scientists and engineers per unit of sales)·A plausible explanation: . may be exporting goods that heavily use skilled labor and innovative entrepreneurship(such as aircraft and computer chips), while importing heavy manufactures that use large amounts of capital (such as automobiles).on global dataTable 4-4 Testing the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelFactor of Production Predictive Success*CapitalLaborProfessional workersManagerial workersClerical workersSales workersService workersAgricultural workersProduction workersArable landPasture landForest*Fraction of countries for which net exports of factor runs in predicted direction.Source: Harry , Edward , and Leo Sveikauskas,“Multicountry, Multifactor Tests of the Factor Abundance Theory,”American Economic Review 77(December 1987), .·If the factor-proportion theory was right, a country would always export factors for。
alevel economics 基础 讲义 ppt课件
•Resources can also be called the
factors of production.
Three categories of resources
•Land •Labour •Capital
Economics is the study of society’s decisions about
– production – consumption – allocation of scarce resources
in order to satisfy as many unlimited wants as possible.
−Earlier: axe, bow and arrow
−Now: buildings, production equipment, software, factories.
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
into consideration how a certain choice may have an indirect cost on
7
Resources
•Resources are the basic categories
lawyers
Entrepreneurship is a special type of labour the creative ability of individuals to manage the combination of resources to produce products.
alevel的高数知识概要 -回复
alevel的高数知识概要-回复[A-level高数知识概要]高等数学是一门重要的数学课程，它是大学数学的基础。
在A-level数学中，高等数学起到了承上启下的作用，既是高中数学的延伸，也是大学数学的预备。
本文将从基本概念、函数与极限、导数与微分、积分以及微分方程等方面，详细介绍A-level高等数学的知识要点。
第一部分：基本概念在学习高等数学之前，我们首先需要了解基本概念。
数学的基本概念有实数、复数、集合、数列等。
实数包括有理数和无理数两部分，有理数是可以表示成两个整数之比的数，无理数是不能表示成两个整数之比的数，例如根号2。
复数是由实部和虚部构成的数，通常用a+bi的形式表示，其中a是实部，b是虚部。
集合是具有特定性质的事物的总体，数学中有很多集合，例如自然数集、整数集、实数集等。
数列是数的按照一定顺序排列的一个序列，例如等差数列和等比数列。
第二部分：函数与极限函数是数学中的一种重要关系，它将一个集合中的每个元素映射到另一个集合中的唯一元素。
数学中常见的函数有多项式函数、指数函数、对数函数、三角函数等。
极限是函数在某一点或无穷远处的特征值，用来描述函数的趋势和性质。
研究函数极限时，我们需要学习邻域、数列极限以及无穷小量等概念。
邻域是指函数在某一点附近的取值范围，数列极限是指数列中的值随着自变量的变化趋于某个常数，无穷小量是指当变量趋于无穷大或无穷小时，函数值无限趋近于0。
第三部分：导数与微分导数是函数在某一点的变化速率，是描述函数局部行为的重要工具。
学习导数时，我们需要掌握导数的定义、求导法则以及常见函数的导数。
导数的定义是极限的概念，表示函数在某一点的切线斜率。
求导法则是用来求解不同函数导数的公式，包括常数倍、和差、乘积、商数法则以及复合函数法则等。
常见函数的导数是指常见函数的导数表达式，如幂函数、指数函数、对数函数以及三角函数的导数等。
微分是函数局部变化的线性近似。
学习微分时，我们需要了解微分的定义、微分的性质以及微分的应用。
alevel economic参考书
很荣幸为您撰写关于A level经济学参考书的文章。
A level经济学是一门广受欢迎的学科，而一本优质的参考书可以帮助学生深入理解和掌握这一学科的重要知识。
在本文中，我将对A level经济学参考书的深度和广度进行全面评估，并为您共享我对这一主题的个人观点和理解。
让我们来深入探讨A level经济学参考书的深度。
一本优质的参考书应该能够涵盖经济学的核心概念和原理，包括供求关系、市场结构、生产成本、货币政策等方面的内容。
它还应该深入解释各种经济模型和理论，以及它们在实际经济中的应用。
在评估一本参考书的深度时，我们需要着重考虑它对各种经济学概念的剖析和讲解是否透彻、清晰，并且是否能够为读者提供深度的理解和思考。
除了深度之外，A level经济学参考书的广度也是非常重要的。
一本优质的参考书应该能够涵盖经济学领域的多个方面，例如微观经济学、宏观经济学、国际经济学等。
它应该能够全面介绍各种不同的经济理论和模型，并且能够为读者提供多层次、多角度的认识。
在评估一本参考书的广度时，我们需要考虑它对不同经济领域的覆盖情况，并且是否能够帮助读者建立起对整个经济学领域的系统化认识。
关于A level经济学参考书，我个人认为，一本优质的参考书应该能够在深度和广度上达到均衡。
它应该能够深入解释每一个经济学概念，并且在不同经济领域之间建立起联系，以便为读者提供全面、深入的理解。
它还应该能够引导读者对经济现象进行批判性思考，并且能够帮助他们在实际生活和工作中应用经济学知识。
在总结回顾本文时，我们可以看到，A level经济学参考书的深度和广度是非常重要的。
一本优质的参考书应该能够在深度和广度上达到均衡，并且能够为读者提供全面、深入的理解。
它还应该能够帮助读者在实际生活和工作中应用经济学知识。
希望我撰写的这篇文章能够帮助您更深入地理解A level经济学参考书这一主题。
A level经济学是一门非常重要的学科，涉及到微观经济学和宏观经济学的知识。
经典经济学入门教材英文讲义1(Principles of Economic)
Utility Theory
• Utility is the degree of a preference an individual assigns to a state. If situa tion A is preferred to B, we say that A offers a higher utility than B.
Monotonicity examples
• Suppose values of y and x must be pos itive. In all of the following, y is a monotonic transformation of x:
–y –y –y –y = = = = 2x x+4 x^2 ln(x)
Monotonicity
• g(x) is a monotonic transformation of f(x) if, for all x1 and x2, f(x1) <, =, > f(x2) if and only if g(x1) <, =, > g (x2)
• In other words, monotonic transformat ions are order preserving. • Utility functions are equivalent to m onotonic transformations of themselve s
Branches of Economics
• Microeconomics is the study of how ho useholds and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific markets .
A-level 经济学 Economics CIE 第二章讲义(完美打印版)
Chapter 2The price system and the microeconomy1、Demand and supply curveDemand scheduleDemand curveDemand curveSupply•Supply:the willingness andability to sell a product.•Market supply :total supply of a product.Supply curveEquilibrium:The demand and supply are equal surplus:supply exceeds demand.shortage:demand exceeds supply.Demand and supply diagram2、Factors influencing demandprice and demandmovement along demand curve•An extension of demand •A contraction of demandThe relationship between non-price factors and demand1、income:•normal goods:positive relationship•inferior goods:negative relationship (poor quality stuffs)2、price and availability of related products:•substitute:alternative goods and can satisfy the same want.•complement:have a joint demand as they enhance the satisfaction that consumers derive from another product.joint demand:two goods are consumed together.3、Advertising4、Changes in population5、Changes in taste and fashion6、Other factors:weather,expectation,special events •An increase in demand •A decrease in demand shift in demand curveThe effect of changes in Demand3、Factors influencing supply•An extension of supply •A contraction of supplymovement along demand curveprice and supplynon-price factors influencing supply•The costs associated with supplying the product wage rates;raw material prices;energy prices;transport •the size,structure and nature of the industryincreasing industry;price war •government policy legislation;tax•other factors:weather,future expectations,joint supplyThe effect of changes in DemandPrice Elasticity of DemandDefinition:A measure of the responsiveness of demand to a change in price.PEDPercentage change in quantity demandedpercentage change in pricePED% ∆ QD % ∆ PInterpretation :sign:inverse relationship between demand and price size:the extent by which demand will extend orcontract when price changesElastic and Inelastic DemandElastic demand occurs when a change in price results in a greater percentage in demand,giving a PED figure more than1but less than infinity.When demand is elastic,price and total revenue move in opposite directions.Inelastic DemandInelastic demand occurs when a change in price results in a smaller percentage in demand,giving a PED figure less than1but more than zero.When demand is inelastic,price and total revenue move in the same directions.other degrees of elasticity•Perfectly elastic demand:PED is infinity.•Perfectly inelastic demand:PED is zero.•Unitary elasticity of demand:a percentage change in price results in an equal percentage change in demand.PED=1 Factors Determining the Degree of Elasticity•availability of substitute•the proportion of income spent on the product •luxury or necessity•addictive or not•whether its purchase can be postponed•how the market is defined•the time period under considerationChanges in PEDPrice and PED•As the price rises,PED becomes more elastic;•As the price falls,PED becomes more inelastic.Demand and PED•As the demand rises,PED becomes more inelastic;•As the demand falls,PED becomes more elastic.Income elasticity of demand•a measure of the responsiveness of the quantity demanded following a change in income•positive and negative Cross elasticity of demand•a measure of the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for one product following a change in the price of another related product.•XED=%%•substitute:positive•complement:negativePrice Elasticity of SupplyDefinition:A measure of the responsiveness of supply to a changein price.PES Percentage change in quantity supplied percentage change in pricePED% ∆ QS% ∆ PInterpretation:sign:positivesize:the extent by which supply will extend or contract when price changesElastic and Inelastic supplyElastic supply occurs when a change in price results in a greater percentage in supply,giving a PED figure more than1but less than infinity.Inelastic supply occurs when a change in price results in a smaller percentage in supply,giving a PED figure less than1but more than zero.Factors Influencing PESthe time taken to produce it(agriculture);the cost of altering its supply;feasibility of storing it;feasibility of increasing productionother degrees of elasticity•Perfectly elastic supply:PES is infinity.•Perfectly inelastic demand:PES is zero.•Unit elasticity of supply:a percentage change in price results inan equal percentage change in demand.PES =1Changes in Demand and Supplyconsumer surplusthe difference between the value a consumer places on units consumed and the payment needed to actually purchase that product.Producer surplusthe difference between the price a producer is willing to accept and what is actually paid。
A-Level经济课程设置及学习
A-Level经济课程设置及学习通常情况下，中国生从两个途径学习并参加A-Level考试。
第一种途径是通过就读民办国际学校、公立学校国际班或者外籍子女学校就读A-Level课程并取得考试资格。
第二种途径是学生通过自主学习，选择考点自主报名参加考试。
不少同学认为A-Level经济比较难，感觉考试总是得分不高，而另外一些入门的同学则觉得经济很简单，好玩还实用，差异为何会如此巨大？今天编辑就给大家介绍一下这门对中国初高中生来说比较陌生的A-Level经济课程。
爱德思经济爱德思IAL经济课程会在今年9月进行调整，2018新经济教学大纲内容分成四部分：Unit 1: Markets in actionUnit 2: Macroeconomic performance and policyUnit 3: Business behaviourUnit 4: Developments in the global economy***********************************************Markets in action市场运转Unit 1主要是关于经济学本质与价格机制是如何在当地、国家和全球市场范围调节资源分配的。
这一部分内容的学习包括基本概念的介绍、消费者行为与需求、供给、价格决定、市场失灵、政府的市场干预。
Macroeconomic performance and policy宏观经济表现与政策Unit 2介绍了经济表现的主要衡量方法，还有国际化背景下的主要目标和经济政策工具。
这一部分的内容包括经济表现的衡量方法、总需求量、总供给量、国民收入、经济增长、宏观经济目标与政策。
Business behaviour商业行为Unit 3是Unit 1内容的延伸，并且检验了公司间的竞争如何受到市场参与者的数量与规模的影响，最后学生应该有能力分析与评估不同背景下公司的定价与产出决策，了解竞争在商业决策中的角色。
Alevel Economics 经济
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Price of film
Quantity On Figure 1 above, (ii) label demand, D, supply, S, equilibrium price, P and the equilibrium quantity, Q; (2)
aleveleconomics基础讲义全
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
into consideration how a certain choice may have an indirect cost on
7
Resources
• Resources are the basic categories of inputs used to produce goods and services.
• For example: forests, minerals, wildlife, oil, rivers, lakes, oceans
• May be renewable or nonrenewable
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Resources: capital
• Capital is the physical plant, machinery and equipment used to produce other goods. That is, human-made goods that do not directly satisfy human wants, for example:
A-level经济学词汇中文释义简介(三)
A-level经济学词汇中文释义简介（三）据360教育集团介绍：很多同学在学习A-level经济学课程的时候，A-level经济学专业词汇决定难背是一方面，还有就是经济学概念不太好理解，今天小编给大家收集一些常见的经济学词汇意思。
41 企业 Firm也叫厂商，是市场经济中从事生产、经营活动的基本生产组织和单位。
根据其所有权和管理方式的不同，在现实中通常可能采取单人业主（或独资经营）制、合伙制、股份公司几种形式。
它的基本经济职能是通过一系列有关购买和配置生产资料及劳动力、选择技术进行生产、组织销售等决策经营活动实现各种生产要素的有效组合，进而将投入转化为产出。
厂商从事上述经济活动的目的，主要是获取最大限度的利润，即实现总收入与总成本之间差额的最大化。
这是它与其他社会经济单位，例如作为消费者的居民家庭相区别的一个重要方面。
42 企业家 Entrepreneur能抓住机会引进一种新产品、一种新的生产方法或者一种改进了的组织机构的企业所有者。
通常同创新联系在一起，是社会的稀缺资源。
有些企业家，如爱迪生，是一些将科学突破转化为金钱的发明家；有些企业家，如比尔·盖茨，是一些幻想家，他们以新的方式关注今日的世界，然后改变我们对待世界的方式。
在美国，创办公司的人数大于结婚人数，也大于孩子出生人数。
43 新经济 New Economy劳动生产率的增长是一个经济体实际工资和生活水平提高的基础。
许多经济学家相信，美国已经实现了一个生产率增长较快、经济增长率较高的“新经济”。
其基础是以微型芯片和信息技术为特征的快速技术变革，报酬递增和低单位成本，以及抑制物价的全球竞争的深化。
拥护者认为新经济有着比传统经济更低的自然失业率，能够在不导致通货膨胀的情况下更快地增长，并且由于个人收入的增加带来更多的税收。
怀疑者则认为，要断定新经济是一种持久的长期趋势，抑或是短暂的现象还为时尚早。
44 小业主制 Single Proprietorship, Sole Proprietorship小业主制是企业组织的最简单的形式，指单个人为获取利润而单独所有和经营一个企业，也是作为微观经济学基本概念的厂商的具体形态之一。
【A-level经济学】经济学专业词汇解析(一)
【A-level经济学】经济学专业词汇解析（一）提到A-level经济学，可能很多小伙伴两眼热泪吧，尤其是想到那些常用的专业词汇的时候吧，不仅难记忆，就是理解都不是那么容易的。
别急，今天索引留学小编就来跟大家分享一些常用的经济学词汇的意思，笔跟小板凳，你准备好了吗？1稀缺Scarcity有限的资源与人类无限的欲望相比，总会显得不足，因而我们说资源是稀缺的。
稀缺并不意味着难以得到，而仅仅意味着，不付出代价就不能得到。
稀缺是每一个人所面对的现实。
即使是一个亿万富翁，他似乎可以拥有他想要的一切，但在他的字典里，仍然有“稀缺”这个词：他的时间是有限的，他可以得到一切，却没有时间一一地享受这一切。
2自由物品Free Goods我们不用花钱就可以得到的物品被称为自由物品。
在这个稀缺的世界上，自由物品是一种例外，它们是大自然的恩赐。
不幸的是，因为人们不加珍惜，这种恩赐正在一样一样地减少。
空气曾经被公认为是自由物品，但是随着污染遍及世界的每个角落，自由地呼吸清洁的空气似乎越来越变成人们的一种奢望。
3经济物品Economic Goods一种物品是稀缺的，需要花费代价才能得到，这种物品就是经济物品。
经济物品是稀缺的事实并不意味着它是难以得到的，而仅仅意味着，它是不能自由取用的。
“经济物品”前面的“经济”两个字就决定了这种物品绝对不是“免费的午餐”。
4经济人Economic Man经济学家说，经济学研究的是人类的行为。
但是，世界上没有相同的两个人，他们的行为可能大相径庭，经济学家如何克服这个矛盾?很简单，经济学家从不关心具体某个人的行为，他们关注的是人类行为的共性。
在他们眼里，千差万别的活生生的个人都是经济人：不懈地追求自身最大程度满足的理性的人。
显然，经济人是自利的，但自利不等于自私。
举个例子来说，一个虔诚的基督教徒由于相信上帝的原因，会充满行善的愿望，他人得到幸福时，他会觉得自己更幸福——他是自利的，但并不自私。
a-level学习资料：经济学AS讲义---basic ecnomic idea
Topic 1 Basic Economic Ideas1.What is Economics?Economics – studies the allocation of scarce (scarce = limited) resources in response to unlimited wants.2.What is scarcity?●Limited resources:资源的有限性In economic we categories the resources available to us into four types. There are known as factors of production:1). Land: natural resources in their natural states. Examples: minerals, oil, water,forests.2) Labor – the human capacity to work.3) Capital – anything that is produced in order to increase productivity in the future; includes human capital and physical capital.In economics, capital does NOT include financial capital, such as money, stocks, and bondsExamples: Machines, vehicles, buildings (factories, warehouses, offices, etc.), skills. Physical capital（物质资本）– includes buildings, machinery, and equipment. Human capital （人力资本）– acquired skills and abilities embodied within a person.4) Entrepreneurship –personal initiative to combine resources in productive ways. Involves risk.●Unlimited wants：欲望的无限性Scarcity: Wants are unlimited but resources are scarce.相对于人类需要的无限性而言，任何资源和商品都是稀缺的3.How scarcity implies choice？●Scarcity means we must choose. （because of scarcity, we need to decide howto use limited resources）When you use a resource for one good, you can’t use that resource for something else.Example: the building we are in is being used as a school. Therefore, we do not get to use it as a hotel, business office, or anything else that we want. We must choose one thing.4. Opportunity cost: The benefit lost from the next best alternativeThe relationship between scarcity, choice and opportunity cost.5. The three basic economic problemsa.what to produce？b.How to produce？c.For whom to produce?The three basic economic problems can be answered differently in different economic systems:a: command economic system:1)Planners have to decide what is to be produced.2)Planners then have to decide to how it is to be made.3)Finally planners have to make decisions about distribution-whichconsumers will receive what goods and services.The key features of a command economy are that central government and its constituent organizations take responsibility for:●The allocation of resources●The determination of production targets for all sectors of the economy●The distribution of income and the determination of wages●The ownership of most productive resources and property●Planning the long-term growth of the economy.An evaluation of command economiesDisadvantage:①In a planned economy, individuals have relatively little Choice②In a planned economy, it is difficult to provide sufficient incentives forenterprises and individual workers to produce good quality products.③Queuing is endemic in many planned economies.④Environment is even worse than market econoAdvantage:1)Planners set high priorities on providing all citizens with a minimumstandard of living. But equally, there is considerable evidence tosuggest that those in power used the planning system to their ownadvantage.2)Karl Marx dreamt of creating a society in which each would receiveaccording to their need. Communist planned economies, to someextent, achieved this reduction in risk for the individual. However,it can be argued that removing risk also removes incentives to workand create wealth.Command economies can only work if there is a centralized bureaucracy devising and implementing plans. They leave little room for individual freedom. Whether a pure command economy could operate within a political democracy is debatable.b. market economic system●What is to be produced?In a pure free market, it is the consumer which determines the allocation of resources.●How is it to be produced?Producers are in competition with each other. producers must produce at lowest cost if they are to survive in the market place. This then determines how goods are produced.For whom?This is determined by ownership of the factors of production.An evaluation of free market economyAdvantage:1)one of the principal advantages claimed for market forces is thatthey promote efficiency.2)the profit motive provides an incentive for entrepreneurs toproduce high-quality products and to innovate. Similarly, thepossibility of high wages encourages workers to train, work hardand take on extra responsibility.3)Changes in consumer tastes and demand for workers are signalledquickly and aotomatically through the price mechanism.Consumers,producers and workers have more economic freedom than in aplanned economy to pursue their own self-interest.Disadvantage: Because markets do not always perform well and they may fail to produce an outcome that maximises benefits to society. (market failure)1)in seeking to reduce their costs, firms may create pollution bydumping their waste materials and depleting non-renewableresources. Their self-interest may conflict with the needs of theenviornment and the long-run needs of the economy.2)Private –sector firms only have an incentive to produce productsthat consumers want and are willing to pay for. Goods and servicesthat consumers do not want to pay for directly may mot beproduced. (public goods and merit goods)3)In the absence of governemnt intervention, consumers may notchoose to consume the socially disirable levels of allproducts.( demerit goods and merit goods)4)Consumer sovereignty can be reduced by advertising and byproducer power.5)Some economists describe market economies as economicdemocracies with consumers expressing their preferences by“voting power”. because people have different income levels and sodifferent purchasing power. Those with the highest purchasingpower have the most influence on what is produced. Some productswanted by poor people will not be produced.6)Market economies often have a more unequal distribution ofincome than planned economies.C. the mixed economy:Decisions on most important economic issues involve some form of planning (by private as well as public enterprises) and interaction between government, businesses and labor through the market mechanism.At this time the government was responsible for:1)Substantial areas of public expenditure such as health, social services, educationand defence;2)The direct operation of nationalised industries3)Providing support for large areas of manifacturing6. production possibility curvea.the law of increasing costs: because the resources are specialization.b.Economic Growth –the ability of the economy to produce more or better output.Economic growth causes the PPF to shift7. the margin: decision making at the margine8. Positive and normative statements:Positive statements are objective statements that can be tested or rejected by referring to the available evidence. E.g● A rise in consumer incomes will lead to a rise in the demand for new cars● A fall in the exchange rate will lead to an increase in exports overseas.●More competition in markets can lead to lower prices for consumers. Normative statements express an opinion about what ought to be. They are subjective statements usually include or imply the words “ought” or “should”. E.g.●the level of duty on petrol is too unfair and unfairly penelizes motorists●the government is right to introduce a ban on smoking in public palces●the government should increase the national minimum wage to $ 6 per hour inorder to reduce relative poverty.●Russell Crowe is the best actor in the world9. ceteris paribus: assume other things being equal10. Division of labor:Division of labor: is a particular type of specialization where the production of a good is broken up into many separate tasks each performed by one person or by a small group of people.The advantage of division of labor: the division of labor raises output per person (productivity), thereby reducing costs per unit because lower skilled workers are easily trained and quickly become proficient through constant repetition of a task The risks of division of labor:a.May eventually reduce efficiency and increase unit cost because unrewarding,repetitive work lowers worker motivation and productivity.b.May reduce firm’s flexibility. ( if one machine breaks down then the entirefactory stops)c.Some workers receive a narrow training and may not be able to find alternativejobs if they find themselves out of work.d.Mass-produced standardized good tend to lack variety.To avoid the risks of division of labor som e companies have moved away from division of labor.11. Money: its functions and characteristicsMarkets, money and exchangea.products are exchanged in marketsb.money makes these exchanges much easier.c.Without money, people have to barter productsFunctions of moneya.medium of exchange : it enables people to sell products and then use the money received tobuy other products , thus making the excahnge of producs easier.b.unit of account or measures of value: both terms refer to the use of money to put a value ongoods and services.c.store of value: to enable people to save.d.standard for deffered payments.Characteristic of money:a.generally accepetable: this is the most important characteristic an item meeda to act as money.b.Limit in supplyc.homogeneousd.Recongnisablee.Portablef.Durableg.DivisibleForms of money:a.notes : 纸币b.coins: 硬币c.bank accounts: 支票帐户。
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−How many new roads have to be forgone if the government spends tax revenues on homeland security?
• Land • Labour • Capital
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Resources: land
• Any natural resource provided by nature used in the process of production
Economics is the study of society’s decisions about
– production – consumption – allocation of scarce resources
in order to satisfy as many unlimited wants as possible.
−Earlier: axe, bow and arrow −Now: buildings, production equipment,
software, factories.
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Resources: capital
• Capital is the physical plant, machinery and equipment used to produce other goods. That is, human-made goods that do not directly satisfy human wants, for example:
• Macroeconomics is the branch of economics that studies decision-making for the economy as a whole.
5
5 Macroeconomic Issues
– aggregate demand, aggregate supply – economic growth – unemployment – inflation – balance of trade – exchange rates
A note about financial capital
• Economists do not include money in their definition of capital money simply gives a measure to the value of assets.
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Opportunity cost
• The best alternative sacrificed for a chosen alternative
• Opportunity cost applies to personal, group and national decision-making, for example
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Short-Run v Long Run
• Resources can also be called the factors of production.
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Three categories of resources
• Any additional action by an individual or a firm, such as buying an additional pair of shoes or increasing production of a product by an additional unit, brings additional cost.
• Weighing the costs and benefits can help government officials determine if allocating additional resources to a particular public program will generate additional benefits for the general public
4
4 Two branches of economics
• Microeconomics is the branch of economics that studies decision-making by a single individual, household, firm, industry or level of government.
• The central question in marginal analysis is whether the expected benefits of that action exceed the added cost
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
A-LEVEL Microeconomics basic
/alevelteaching
1 What is Economics about? The problem of scarcity
• Economics is the study of how society chooses to allocate its scarce resources to the production of goods and services in order to satisfy unlimited wants.
• For example: forests, minerals, wildlife, oil, rivers, lakes, oceans
• May be renewable or nonrenewable
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
John Sloman, Keith Norris: Principles of Economics 2e © 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Marginal analysis
• Marginal analysis examines how the costs and benefits change in response to incremental changes in actions.
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
into consideration how a certain choice may have an indirect cost on
7
Resources
• Resources are the basic categories of inputs used to produce goods and services.
6
6 Microeconomic Issues
– demand and supply decisions of what to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce
– the concept of opportunity cost based on comparing what
Marginal analysis
• Marginal analysis helps businesses and individuals balance the costs and benefits of additional actions--whether to produce more, consume more, or other decisions---and determine whether the benefits will exceed costs, thus increasing utility.
Resources: labour
• The mental and physical capacity of workers to produce goods and services
• For example: farmers, nurses, lawyers
Entrepreneurship is a special type of labour the creative ability of individuals to manage the combination of resources to produce products.