语言学简明教程Chapter_3
语言学第三章chapter3
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河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学:第3章
Allomorph
Allomorphs are in complementary distribution.
{-s} (plurality) [-z]: meanings [-s]: maps [-iz]: watches [-ai-]: mice [-i:-]: feet [0]: deer
Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学:第3章
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学:第3章
Summary
Lexical morpheme
Free morpheme
morpheme
Functional morpheme
Derivational morpheme
Bound morpheme
Inflectional morpheme
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
Root: the basic element of a word that can stand by itself: talk, internationalism, work/shop, black/bird
新编简明英语语言学 3
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Analyzing word structures
▪ Affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes. 词缀不属于词汇范畴,通常是黏着词素。
▪ Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.
Chapter 3 Morphology
▪ Sentences are made up with different classes of words, which are stored in a speaker's mental dictionary or lexicon. 句子是由不同种类的单词组成的,这些单词 储存在说话人的大脑字典或词汇库里.
morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function
---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme(simple word) or more morphemes(complex word).
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N
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V
Af
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teach er
Derivational & inflectional morphemes 派生词素和屈折词素
▪ Derivational morphemes---- they are conjoined to other morphemes(or words), new words are derived, or formed.
语言学教程Chapter 3练习题
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Chapter 3:LexiconI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are calledm___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。
语言学教程第三章练习1
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语⾔学教程第三章练习1Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. AllomorphII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An initialism is pronounced letter by letter, while an acronym is pronounced as a word22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with vocabulary.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid, hyphenated and open24. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to close class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to open class.26. Back-formation is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27.Conversion is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the morpheme level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a derivative, and a word formed by compounding is called a compound.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: affix and bound root.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological rule31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?36.What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN III II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation。
语言学--Chapter-3
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Chapter 3: Tables and ExercisesTable 3.2 Some of the features required for classifying English sounds.Feature name ClassificatorypossibilitiesEnglish segmentsV oice [+voice] b, d, g, m, n, v, 3 ,dз , ŋ , ð , z, w, r, l, j (and all vowels) [-voice] p, t, k, f, s, θ, ʃPlace [labial] p, b, m, f, v[denti-alveolar] θ, ð , t, d, n, s, z, l, r[palatal] ʃ, 3, j (and front vowels)[velar] k, g, w ( and back vowels)Stop [stop] p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n[fricative] f, s, v, z, ʃ, 3, θ, ð[Approximant] w, r, l, j (and all vowels)Nasal [+nasal] m, n, ŋ[-nasal] ( all other speech sounds)Lateral [+lateral] l[-lateral] ( all other speech sounds)Sibilant [+sibilant] s, z, ʃ, 3 , tʃ, dз[-sibilant] ( all other speech sounds)Height [maximum] ( all consonants except w, j )[4 height] i: , u:, w, j[3 height] ei, i, əu, u[2 height] e, ɔ[1 height] æ, ɑ:Back [+back] u: , u, ɔ:, ɔ, əu, ɑ:, w, k, g[-back] i, i:, ei, e, æ ( and all other consonants) Syllabic [+syllabic] all vowels and some consonants as m, n, ŋ , l, r [-syllabic] all other consonants, including w, j .(Taken from Ladefoged, P. 1982: 39 with some minute revision)音节◌ɹn̩成音节◌e̯ʊ不成音节除阻◌ʰtʰ送气[a]◌d̚无声除阻◌ʱdʱ◌ⁿdⁿ鼻音除阻◌ˡdˡ边音除阻发音◌n̥d̥浊音清化◌s̬t̬浊化◌b̤a̤漏气音[b]◌b̰a̰吱嘎音发音部位◌t̪d̪齿化◌t̼d̼舌唇化◌t̺d̺舌尖化◌t̻d̻舌叶化◌u̟t̟较前◌i̠t̠较后◌ëä较央◌e̽ɯ中央化◌e̝ɹ较高(抬)(ɹ = 有声齿龈嘶音擦音)◌˔˔◌e̞β̞较低(降)(β̞= 双唇近音)◌˕˕协同发音◌ɔx̹更圆唇◌ɔx̜ʷ更展唇◌ʷtʷ dʷ唇化或唇-软颚化◌ʲtʲ dʲ颚化◌ˠtˠ dˠ软腭化◌ˤtˤ aˤ喉壁化◌ᶣtᶣ dᶣ唇-卷舌化◌̴ɫz̴软腭化或喉壁化◌e̘o̘舌根前移◌e̙o̙舌根后移◌ẽz̃鼻音化◌˞ɚɝ卷舌化( 2 ) V(owel) [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $This rule can be explained in the following way piece by piece:V [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $Vowels become nasalized in the before nasal within aenvironment segments syllable(8)The syllable structure for the words with one syllable:σOnset RhymeNucleus Codas p l i n t s →[splints] (10). The syllable structure for words with more than one syllableσσOnset Rhyme Onset RhymeNucleus Coda Nucleus Codas e n t r əl [sentrəl] central(11) Some examples for the words with one syllable.Front onset onset back onset vowel front coda coda back coda back coda back coda(1)(2)(3)Nucleusonset (peak)codae.g.: eye ai [ai]it i t [it]me m i: [mi:]bit b i t [bit] scrimps s k r i m p s [skrimps] screen s k r i: n [skri:n] twelfths t w e l f θs [twelfθs](12) Different intonations representing different attitudes of the speaker(Radford 2000:48).a. b. c. d. e.me me ? me! me me ?!eat peas eat peas ? eat peas ! eat peas eat peas ?!↓↗ ̄↘/ ̄↘↗A simple statement, a question, a strong assertion, a matter of fact assertion, disbeliefEXERCISES(Exercise I, II, III are adapted from the exercises 299-310 in Fromkin,et al.(2007), Exercises IV, V are revised according to those provided in Radford (2000): 101-102. )Exercises IMinimal pairs can be used to find the phonemes of the particular language; find the sets of minimal pairs for each pair of English consonants given below:/k/ ---/g/, /b/---/m/, /l/---/r/, /p/---/f/, /s/---/ʃ/,/tʃ/--- /dз/, /e/---/æ/, /n/---/ŋ/, /θ/--- /ð/, /i/---/i:/,Exercises IIIn some dialects of English, the following words have different vowels, as is shown by the phonetic transcriptions (in American transcription [ai] is transcribed as [aj]):A. B. C.bite [bʌjt] bide [ bajd] die [daj]rice [rʌjs] rise [rajz] by [baj]ripe [rʌjp] bribe [brajb] sigh [saj]wife [wʌjf] wives [wajvz] rye [raj]dike [dʌjk] dime [dajm] guy [gaj]a.How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B becharacterized? that is, what feature specifies all the final segments in Aand all the final segments in B ?b.How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B ?c.Are [ʌj] and [aj] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.d.Give the phonetic representations of the following words as they would bespoken in the dialect described here:Life [ ], lives [ ], lie [ ], file [ ], bike [ ], lice [ ]e.Formulate a rule that will relate the phonemic representations to thephonetic representations of the words given above.Exercises IIIConsider the following English verbs. Those in column A have stress on next-to-last syllable, whereas the verbs in column B and C have their last syllable stressed.A. B. C.astonish collapse amazeexit exist improveimagine resent surprisecancel revolt combineelicit adopt believepractice insist atonea.Transcribe the words under columns A, B, and C phonemically.( Use aschwa for the unstressed vowels.)b.Consider the phonemic structure of the stressed syllables in these verbs.What is the difference between the final syllables of the verbs in columns Aand B? Formulate a rule that predicts where stress occurs in the verbs incolumns A and B.c.In the verbs in column C, stress also occurs on the final syllable. Whatmust you add to the rule to account for this fact ? ( Hint: for the forms incolumns A and B, the final consonants had to be considered; for the formsin column C, consider the vowels.)Exercises IVRecall that the symbol = means an unaspirated consonant and the symbol h means aspiration. Show how the pattern of data below can be explained by the Maximal Onset Principle. Assume that separate words are syllablified separately.1a. stub [st =ʌb] 2a. spare [sp= eə] 3a. scar [sk=ɑ: ]b. this tub [ðis t hʌb] b. this pear [ðis p h ea] b. this car [ðis k h ɑ:]c. disturb [dist=ə:b] c. despair [disp= eə] c. discard [disk=ɑ:d]Exercises VBreak the following words into syllables, and applying the Maximal Onset Principle, identify the onsets, nuclei and codas by providing a diagram such as that in (10).a, comfortable, b, secretary, c, cooperation, d, confessional.Exercises VIIn the discussion of the phonological rules, we have a deletion rule stated as Delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Thus, in the pairs like sign / signature, design / designation, paradigm / paradigmatic,there is not a phonetic [g] in the first word; but in the pairs like gnosis / agnostic, the pronunciation of the first word is also lack a phonetic [g]. Can you give a more general rule describing these data ?Exercises VIISuppose / d / is the basic form of the pronunciation of the past-tense morpheme–ed; given the following data, please form some rules to explain the past-tense formation of regular verbs as those in section 3.Set A: grab [græb], grabbed [græbd], hug [hʌg], hugged [hʌgd]; faze[ feiz], fazed [feizd]; roam [rəum], roamed [rəumd].Set B: reap[ri:p], reaped [ri:pt]; poke [pəuk], poked [pəukt]; kiss [kis], kissed [kist]; patch [pætʃ], patched [pætʃt]Set C. fight [fait], fighted [faitəd], load [ləud], loaded [ləudəd]Exercises VIIIIn the pronunciation of the word speak [sp=i:k], bean [bi:n], the phonemes /p/, /i:/ may be described according to its phonetic features as the following:/p/: [voiceless, labial, stop, unaspirated], /i:/: [voiced, high, front, spread, nasalized]. Among these features, which features may be distinctive, which are nondistinctive features? Give the reasons to support your argument.[文档可能无法思考全面,请浏览后下载,另外祝您生活愉快,工作顺利,万事如意!]。
语言学复习重点Chapter 3
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Chapter Three ——Morphology(形态学)Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed.Word is a minimal free form with a unity of sound and meaning.The classification of words :1、variableand invariable words(可变化词和不变词)Variable words are those words which can take inflective endings;E.g write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.invariable words are those that cannot.E.g since, when, seldom, through, etc.2、grammatical and lexical words(语法词和词汇词)词汇词也即实词,又译作notional/content word ;语法词也即虚词,又称function/form word 功能词/形式词3、c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)According to their membership:c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)An close class is one whose membership is in principle fixed or limited. (封闭类:连介代冠)An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited. (开放类:名动形副数叹)一、Morph Morpheme AllomorphMorph:The phonological and orthographic forms that represent morpheme are called morphs.[swi:t]{sweet}SweetMorpheme:The smallest unit of language.It can be represented as1-morpheme un-,-ish,-s.-ed1-morpheme word boy,desire2-morpheme wordboy+ish, desir(e)+ableAllomorphA morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.im possible{in} in convenientir regular tax.il logical-s [-s] book books{plural} -es [-iz] box boxes-i [-ai] mouse miceConclusion:All the allomorphs should have the same meaning.All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.The allomorphs with the same meaning should function the same in the language grammar structure.二、Classification of morpheme1、Free vs. Bound morphemesFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves,e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone,e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e. it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.e.g. Dislike, impolite, production,Membership, carelessnessfriend as in unfriendliness.Root may befree: those that can stand by themselves,e.g. black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix (-en, -ify).Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added,e.g.friend root > basefriendly root/base + suffix > baseunfriendly prefix + base > baseStem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g. friend+-s;friendship swrite+-ing,possibility+-es.Note:A stem can be equivalent to a root.A stem may contain a root and aderivational affix.2、Derivational vs Inflectional morphemeInflection indicates:case and number of nouns,tense and aspect of verbs,degree of adjectives or adverbs.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.三、Word-formationCompoundingAffixationOther formation1、CompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.✧Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill✧Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit✧Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree✧Preposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric& exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, noone2、Affixation✧Nominal forms: boys, boy’s✧Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting✧Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest3、DerivationClass-changing:✧N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard✧N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless✧V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant✧V>A: acceptable, adorable✧A>N: rapidness, rapidity✧A>V: deafen, sweeten✧Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly4、Other formations:1)Blendingtransfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smog2)Acronym①AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome②ASAP: as soon as possible3)Abbreviation/InitialismAI: artificial intelligencea.s.a.p.: as soon as possibleECU: European Currency Unit4)ClippingBack-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sFore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings: (de)tec(tive)5)Back-formationdiagnose < diagnosisenthuse < enthusiasmlaze < lazy6)Invention/CoinageMostly brand names:Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraCoca-cola, Orlon and Dacron7)BorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate,8)Conversion 转换e.g. to butter the bread, take a look, empty a box, up the price9)Eponymsare words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.e.g. Sandwich (originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling)ExerciseI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. Free morphemes can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes.4. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs.5. The word “modernizations”is made up of three morphemes.6. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attached.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with a proper word.Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the ___ ___ of words and the____ by which words are formed.[-t], [-d], and [-id] are ___of the morpheme –ed.“Careless”is the __ of the word “carelessness”.__ affixes,__affixes, and __roots are all bound morphemes.III. Questions1. Analyze and then tell how many morphemes each of the following words contain. unselfishness, justifiable, sporting2. What constitutes the internal structure of words?3. List the allomorphs of the morpheme plural.。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
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Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀,时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1_3章课后练习题答案
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.. . . ... 学习参考学习参考 . 《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题 参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language ?答: Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答: The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combinedto form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissiblesentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答: The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t as “traditional gramma raditional gramma raditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答: In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答: Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to reco “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is o nly the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答: First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? (2.2语言的识别性特征) 美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征,其中最重要的识别性特种有5种: 即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
简明语言学第三章笔记
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3.6 Morphological rules of word formation
productive
less productive
1) Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from that of its base. Once formed, derived words become independent lexical items and receive their own entry in a speaker’s mental lexicon. a) Affix Change Examples -able V-A fixable, emendable, respectable -al V-N proposal, refusal, disposal -ing V-A exciting, moving, touching -ive V-A exertive, impressive, restrictive -ful N-N mouthful, spoonful -ful N-A hopeful, wonderful, faithful -ize N-V realize, finalize, hospitalize -ness A-N happiness, sadness, shyness Prefix dedisreantiun-
Assignments
1. Explain the following terms morpheme, allomorph free morphemes, bound morphemes 2. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes 1) The farmer’s cows escaped. 2) It was raining. 3) Those socks are inexpensive. 4) Jim needs the newer copy. 5) The strongest rower continued. 6) She quickly closed the book. 7) The alphabetization went well.
语言学简明教程Chapter_3
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Deletion
rule
—the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant: design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms: signature, designation, paradigmatic.
How about beat and pit?
9
Exercise
Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs? 1. pat, pen, main, more, heat, four, bun, fat, ban, chain, pan 2. tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, pit, heel
7
Reflect
Why do we pronounce /l/ differently when it occurs in different positions of words? [li:d], [fi:ł], [helθ], [plei]
英语语言学概论 Chapter 3phonetics
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Speech organs
• Oral cavity: lips, teeth, teeth ridge(alveolar ridge)(齿龈), hard palate(硬腭), soft palate(velum), glottis(声门), vocal cords • lip: labial; • teeth:dental • teeth ridge: alveolar • palate: palatal • velum: velar; glottis: glottal
3.4 coarticulation & IPA
• coarticulation(协调发音): the process of simultaneous and overlapping articulation of speech sounds. “pen’, • IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet(国 际音标) : one symbol stands for one sound and every symbol has a consistent value, 72 symbols for consonants, 25 for vowels. • IPA: International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会)
• 2 the position of the tongue • The vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate: high,mid,low vowels: • Which part of the tongue is raised: • front, central, back vowel:
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320
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3.2 Morphemes 1. word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.2 Morphemes Discussion: Try to study the internal structures of the following words to find out the smaller meaningful components. internationalization blackboard worked tourists
2) Bound morphemes Free root: (free morpheme) a root which has a clear and definite meaning and which can be used as a word; All the root words are free roots.
3.1 Introduction Morphology: a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. predict: pre: before dict: speak Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
Alter the meaning or derivational affixes: grammatical category of the base
(完整word版)Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)
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Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支,它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules。
形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则(单词构成的规则)。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches:inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支:屈折形态学和词汇形态学(也叫派生形态学).前者研究的是单词的屈折变化,后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素2.1Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language词素:语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology。
正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样,词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词2.2Types of morphemes 词素的类型2.2.1Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes。
《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter-3-Morphology320
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Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
3.2 Morphemes
1. word:
a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.1 Introduction
Discussion:
➢ If we look at the following words simplify, falsify, justify, diversify, qualify, identify and beautify, we feel that they bear sth. similar in their internal structures. What is it?
3.1 Introduction
Morphology: ➢ a branch of grammar which studies the
internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
predict: ➢ pre: before ➢ dict: speak
the act of bringing something under international control
英语语言学Linguistics-chapter-3-练习答案
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Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfilm e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答:a. micro + film b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答:(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results o pposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1)-s, the third person singular, present simple tense(2)-ed, the past tense(3) has –ed, the present perfect(4) are+v-ing, the plural form; the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(1) go, goes, going, gone (inflection)go- the root formgo+es, simple present, 3rd person singulargo+ing, present participlegone, past participle(2) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)dis-, prefix (added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal-y, suffix (added after the verbs to form nouns) denoting a state or an action or its result-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing that perform a specified action or activity-able, an adjective suffix added to verbs meaning able to be-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of –able, meaning having the quality as in manageability(可处理性)and suitability(合适性).(3) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’ (a mixture of inflection or derivation)Derivation: invent+-orInflection: inventor’s, inventors’ indicating possessive case(4) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)-cy, added to the nouns ending with “t” to form another noun denoting a state governed in such a way.-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaning related to or in resemblance with…-ize, a suffix added to the noun to form verbs denoting the conversion, transforming.6. The following sentences contain both derivational andinflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)。
新编简明英语语言学教程ch3
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Root
A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
All words may be said to contain a root morpheme. Roots involving total variation among their allomorphs are
Stem
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affixes can be added.
word = root + affix word = stem + inflectional affix
words having inflectional changes
INVARIABLE WORDS refer to those words such as "since", "when", "seldom", "through", "hello". They do not take inflective endings.
In English, only pronouns have corresponding forms. Person’s name relies on suffix –’s in possessive.
by WU Gengtang 广东技术师范学院 2011年 Copy Left
语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon
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2) grammatical words and lexical words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. • lexical words: words mainly working for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link together different content parts. • Lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones as function words.
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
• Definition of morpheme • Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morphemes: they can make up words by themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes. • Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such poly-morphemic words are called compounds. • Morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme are named as bound morphemes.
语言学_Chapter 3_Morphology
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Are there other categories of words which are not included?
Other categories
• Two lesser categories: • Numerals: words that denote numbers or the order. Cardinal numerals: those denoting the numbers, e.g. one, two, one hundred, etc. Ordinal numerals: those denoting the order, e.g. first, second, eighth, etc. • Interjection: a word or phrase used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings, such as exclamation, sorrow, surprise, regret, etc. e.g. alas, oh, My God!, Dear me
Question Time!
Puzzling Question!
Amazing Question!
All Questions Are Welcome
Interesting Question!
Serious question!
Warm-up
• Afraid, biology • /v_show/id_XMTAzNzgwNTY=.html?fro m=s1.8-1-1.2拆单词 • /programs/view/ciNnLLrr9tk/ • /v_show/id_XNTA4OTE0NzY=.html?fro m=s1.8-1-1.2 长视频 • 柯南 /v_show/id_XODgxNjI4Njky.html?from =s1.8-1-1.2 • 手机记单词App /article/86112f13535b4f2736978 76c.html • /v38286803.htm
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inconceivable input impossible
alveolar [n] velar [η] bilabial [m] bilabial [m]
Assimilation in Mandarin 好啊 hao wa 海啊 hai ya 看啊 kan na 跳啊 tiao wa 天啊 ……
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3.2 The Distinctive Sounds of Language
sound (声音) Phone(语音)
Phoneme (音素/音位)
Allophone (音位变体)
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A phone(语音)
— a speech sound; a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, h some do, some don‘t, e.g. [ beit ] & [ bait ], [spit] & [pit].
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ReflБайду номын сангаасct
Why do we pronounce /l/ differently when it occurs in different positions of words? [li:d], [fi:ł], [helθ], [plei]
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3.3
Minimal pair (最小对立体)
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Deletion
rule
—the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant: design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms: signature, designation, paradigmatic.
—assimilates one
sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in- is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
For example, the words ―pan‖ and ―ban‖ differ only in the initial sound: ‗pan‘ begins with /p/, and ‗ban‘ with /b/. Therefore, /p/and /b/ are phonemes in English. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English 6 is often considered to have 44 phonemes.
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Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language--the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is the study of sound production and properties. It is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
How about beat and pit?
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Exercise
Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs? 1. pat, pen, main, more, heat, four, bun, fat, ban, chain, pan 2. tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, pit, heel
3.5 Beyond the Sound Segments 超音段特征
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3.1 Introduction
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns (systems) of language. It is concerned with the linguistic patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. It is also called phonemics.
It is the smallest identifiable unit in a stream of speech that is able to be transcribed with an IPA symbol.
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A phoneme(音素,音位)
— is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. It is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words in meaning.
Complementary distribution 互补分布 --allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [ ~ l ] & clear [l], aspirated [ph] & unaspirated [pˆ].
For example, pat [ ph ] aspirated
sport [p ] regular
[ p ˆ ] unaspirated The above three phones of [ ph ] [ p ] [ p ˆ ] are called tip
the allophones of the same phoneme/p/.
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3.4 Some rules of phonology
Sequential
rules 序列规则
Assimilation Deletion
rule 同化规则 省略规则
rule
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Sequential rules
— the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i l‖ might possibly form: blik, klib, bilk, kilb. 1. If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. 2. If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.