different types of unemployment
unemployment
MacroeconomicsTopic 5: “Explain what factors determine the level of unemployment.”Reference: Gregory Mankiw’s Principles of Macroeconomics, 2nd edition, Chapter 14.What is unemployment and how is it measured?This topic asks you to explain the causes of unemployment. In order to do that you first must know what we mean by unemployment and how the unemployment rate is measured.Each month, the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the US Government surveys a sample of the US population and asks them about their employment status during the last week. The precise definitions can be complicated, but the basic idea is that each adult (aged 16 and older) in the survey is put into one of three categories: Employed, unemployed and not in the labor force. If the person worked at a full-time or part-time job they are classified as employed. If the person didn’t work, but wanted to work and was looking for work, they are classified as unemployed. If the person did not want to work, for example, if they were a full-time student or retired, they are classified as being not in the labor force.When calculating the extent of unemployment in the economy we only want to include the people who want to work. The total number of people who want to be work is called the labor force and can be defined as the sum of the employed and unemployed:Labor Force = Number of Employed + Number of Unemployed (seeking work)We can then define the unemployment rate as the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed:Unemployment Rate = ((Number of Unemployed)/(Labor Force))*100The following problem uses these formulas:Problem: In April of 2002, the Bureau of Labor Statistics released the following data (in thousands):Number of Employed: 133,976Number of Unemployed: 8,594Not in the Labor Force: 70,922Calculate the Labor Force and the Unemployment Rate.Answer:Labor Force = 133,976 + 8,594 = 142,570Unemployment Rate = (8,594/142,570)*100 = 6.0%Classifying types of unemploymentPeople are unemployed for a number of different reasons, and so we divide unemployment into three different types:Frictional unemployment (which is also called job search unemployment in some textbooks) is short-run unemployment that results from the activity of searching for a new job. An example of this is someone who moves to California because they believe there are better job opportunities there, but is unemployed for a few weeks until they find a new job. Structural unemployment is chronic (persistent) unemployment that happens when wages in labor markets do not balance supply and demand. An example of this is when an individual has limited job skills and so no firm is willing to give them a job, even at the lowest wage they can legally offer. Cyclical unemployment is short-term unemployment that is associated with the ups and downs of the economy. An example of this is when the economy enters a recession and workers are laid-off, but with the expectation that they will go back to work when the economy picks-up.Next, we will go through the definitions in more detail.What causes frictional unemployment?Frictional unemployment is unemployment that results from the activity of searching for a new job. Essentially, labor markets are about matching firms with workers. For example, there might be a company that is looking for a programmer with certain computer skills and you might have those skills. It is in the labor market where you and the company find each other. However, this can be a difficult task. The company has to evaluate many candidates to find the worker with the best qualifications, and you need to find the company with the right opening that makes the best offer. Doing all this searching takes time, and sometimes it means spending time unemployed. After all, it might be in your best interest to turn down a low-paying job, even when you are unemployed, if you believe that you can find a higher-paying job in the near future.In a market economy, there are always some companies going out of business and other companies starting up. This starts people searching for new jobs and starts companies searching for new workers, which means that there will always be some unemployment in the economy.What causes structural unemployment?Structural unemployment is chronic (persistent) unemployment that happens when wages in labor markets do not balance supply and demand. To see why structural unemployment occurs we must look at why the wage rate does not adjust. One reason for this could be laws that restrict the lowest level of wages that firms can offer - the minimum wage. Imagine that you are a worker without much in the way of job skills. Because of this, you are not very productive, and the most that an employer would offer you is $3 per hour for an entry level job. However, if the minimum wage is $6 per hour then the employer won’t hire you. You are considered unemployed because you want towork at the market wage of $6, but no employer will hire you at that wage. Because of this, we would expect that lower average skill levels, or a higher minimum wage, would mean that there will be more structural unemployment in the economy.Unions can have a similar effect on unemployment. Often unions restrict the supply of labor, by limiting the number of workers eligible for a job, in order to get a higher wage. This produces a higher income for those who have jobs, but results in structural unemployment for those that do not. These unemployed workers would like to work for the higher wage (or even a lower wage), but businesses are not willing to hire them at the high wage and are not allowed by the union to offer them a lower.What causes cyclical unemployment?Taken together, structural and frictional unemployment make up what is called the natural rate of unemployment. The word natural does not necessarily mean that it is desirable (after all, we would like to reduce structural unemployment); it just means that this is the rate of unemployment that we would expect to have in the economy on average.However, sometimes the economy is growing faster than average and sometimes slower, and this will affect the amount of unemployment. When the economy is booming, unemployment falls, and when the economy is in a recession, unemployment rises. Unemployment due to the temporary ups and downs of the economy is called cyclical unemployment. Formally, cyclical unemployment is defined as the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate.。
学术英语(社科)Unit3三单元原文及翻译
UNIT 3 Unemployment1. Losing a job can be the most distressing economic event in a person’s life. Most people rely on their labor earnings to maintain their standard of living, and many people get from their work not only income but also a sense of personal accomplishment.A job loss means a lower living standard in the present, anxiety about the future, and reducedself-esteem. It is not surprising, therefore, that politicians campaigning for office often speak about how their proposed policies will help create jobs.失去一份工作可能是最痛苦的经济事件在一个人的生活。
大多数人们依靠自己的劳动收入来维持他们的生活标准,许多人会从他们的工作得到的不仅是收入，还有自己的成就感。
一个失去工作意味着现在要定一个更低的生活标准,焦虑未来,并丧失自尊心。
这并不奇怪,因此,政治家竞选办公室经常谈论他们所提出的政策将帮助创造就业机会。
4.In judging how serious the problem of unemployment is, one question to consider is whether unemployment is typically a short-term or long-term condition. If unemployment is short-term, one might conclude that it is not a big problem. Workers may require a few weeks between jobs to find the openings that best suit their tastes and skills. Yet if unemployment is long-term, one might conclude that it is a serious problem. Workers unemployed for many months are more likely to suffer economic and psychological hardship.判断失业问题有多么严重时，其中一个问题就是要考虑是否失业通常是一个短期或长期的条件。
Lecture 10：Unemployment
Lecture 10: Unemployment1.UnemploymentThe concept of unemployment is somewhat ambiguous since in theory virtually anyone would be willing to be employed in return for a generous enough compensation package.⇒ Economists define unemployment in terms of an individual’s willingness to be employed at some prevailing market wage.u（unemployment rate）=U/LGovernment statistic: U temporary layoff waiting to be recalled , actively searchfor work in the previous week or monthNote: Limitations of unemployment rate data⇒For a number of reasons, they do not necessarily provide an accurate reflection of the economic hardship that members of a group are suffering.（1）I ndividuals who are not actively searching for work, including those who search unsuccessfully and then gave up, are not counted among the unemployed. e.g., discouraged worker.（2）U nemployment statistics tell us nothing about the earnings levels of those who are employed.（3）A substantial fraction of the unemployed come from families in which other earners are present and the unemployed are often not the primary source of their family support.（4）U nemployed receive some income support such as government unemployment compensation.（5）U nemployment rate data tell us little about the fraction of the population that is employed.2.Types of Unemployment and Their Causes（1）F rictional UnemploymentWD0: Labor DemandS0: Labor Supply(W0, E0): Equilibrium Wage andEmployment LevelEven in a market-equilibrium orfull-employment situation there will still besome frictional unemployment, becausesome people will be “between jobs”.Frictional unemployment arises because labor markets are inherently dynamic, because information flows are imperfect, and because it takes time for unemployed workers and employers with job vacancies to find each other.（2）S tructural UnemploymentStructural unemployment arises when changes in the pattern of labor demand cause a mismatch between the skills demanded and supplied in a given area or cause an imbalance between the supplies and demands for workers across areas.WW0A WW0AE1A E0A Employment E0B E1B EmploymentUnemployment of E0A– E1A workers would be created in the short run.If wages were completely flexible and if costs of occupational or geographic mobility were low, market adjustments would quickly eliminate this type of unemployment.Note: It has been argued that structural unemployment may also arise if some employers are paying above market-clearing (or efficiency) wages to reduce employee turnover and/or shirking and to increase productivity.（3）D emand-Deficient UnemploymentDemand-deficient unemployment occurs when a decline in aggregate demand in the output market causes the aggregate demand for labor to decline in the face of downward inflexibility in real wages.WIf real wages are inflexible downward, E fall to E1,and E0– E1 workers will become unemployed.Flows into unemployment increase while flowsW0into employed decline.W2120One appropriate government response to demand-deficient unemployment is to pursue macroeconomic policies to increase aggregate demand; these policies include increasing the level of government spending, reducing taxes, and increasing the rate of growth of the money supply.Why employers respond to a cyclical decline in demand by temporarily laying off some of their work force rather than reducing real wages.(a)Rigid money wage: employers are not free to unilaterally cut money wages because ofthe presence of unions.(b)The asymmetry of the information between employers and employees makes layoffsthe preferred policy.(c)In the presence of investments in firm-specific human capital, layoffs affect only theleast-experienced workers, the workers in whom the firm has invested the smallest amount of resources.⇒The firm will find choosing the layoff strategy a more profitable alternative.(d)A system of layoffs in which the newest employees are laid off first provides animplicit contract (a guarantee or form of insurance to experienced workers) that they will be immune to all but the severest declines in demand.⇒They will be willing to pay for the stability by accepting lower wages.（4）S easonal UnemploymentSeasonal unemployment is similar to demand-deficient unemployment in that it is induced by fluctuations in the demand for labor. However, the fluctuations can be regularly anticipated and follow a systematic pattern over the course of a year.e.g., Agricultural employeeTo attract workers to such seasonal industries, firm will have to pay workers higher wages to compensate them for being periodically unemployed.⇒The existence of compensating wage differentials makes it difficult to evaluate whether this type of unemployment is voluntary or involuntary in nature.3.Job SearchMany theories claim to explain the existence and persistence of unemployment in competitive markets. Any given worker can choose from among many different job offers. Because it takes time to learn about the opportunities provided by different employers, search activities prolong the duration of the unemployment spell. The worker, however, is willing to endure a longer unemployment spell because it might lead to a higher-paying job. In fact, search unemployment is a human capital investment in information.（1）T he Wage Offer DistributionTo simplify the analysis, we assume that search activities are conducted only by unemployed workers. The wage offer distribution gives the frequency distribution describing the various offers available to a particular unemployed worker in the labor market.The unemployed worker knows the shape of the wage offer distribution. Search activities, however, are costly. Each time the worker applies for a new job, he incurs transportation and other types of search costs. Moreover, he is also forgoing earnings: He could have been working at a lower-paying job. The worker’s economic trade-offs are clear: The longer he searches, the more likely he will get a high wage offer; the longer he searches, however, the more it costs to find that job.（2）T he Asking WageThe asking wage is the threshold wage that determines if the unemployed worker accepts or rejects incoming job offers. There is a clear link between a worker’s asking wage and the length of the unemployment spell the worker will experience. Workers who have low asking wages will find acceptable jobs very quickly and the unemployment spell will be short. Workers with high asking wages will take a long time to find an acceptable job and the unemployment spell will be very long.Dollars The marginal revenue curve gives the gain from anadditional search. It is downward sloping becausethe better the offer at hand, the less there is to gainMC from an additional search. The marginal cost curvegives the cost of an additional search. It is upwardsloping because the better the job offer at hand, thegreater the opportunity cost of an additional search.The asking wage equates the marginal revenue andMR the marginal cost of search.0 $5 $10 w~$20 $25 Wage Offer at HandThe Determination of the Asking Wage（3）D eterminants of the Asking WageThe worker’s asking wage will respond to changes in the benefits and costs of search activities. Workers with high discount rates are present-oriented, and hence perceive the future benefits from search to be low.A major component of search costs is the opportunity cost resulting from rejecting a job offer and continuing the search. The unemployment insurance (UI) system, compensates workers who are unemployed and who are actively engaging in search activities. Unemployment insurance benefits, therefore, reduce the marginal cost of search.4.Inflation and UnemploymentNote: Because our focus is on the labor market, we shall emphasize the price of labor-the wage rate-when discussing the issue of inflation.（1）T he Inflation/Unemployment Trade-OffThe negative relationship between unemployment and wage inflation was dubbed the Phillips curve.Rate of Wage InflationPhillips CurveUnemploymentDuring the 1970s the relationship appears to have broken down.An interpretation is that while a trade-off between the rates of inflation and unemployment exists at a point in time, the position of the trade-off curve is determined by a number of other factors that can change over time.Rate of Wage Inflation (∙W)1970s Early 1980s Progressively higher rates of wage inflation have 1960s become associated with any given level of W2unemployment.W1W0Unemployment Rate (U)U0It is also possible that the Phillips curve has become much flatter over recent years, so that the decrease in wage inflation accompanying a 1% point increase in the unemployment rate is now smaller than it once was.（2）T he Basic Model of the Inflation/Unemployment Trade-OffWageSupply It is reasonable to assume that the speed at whichThe wage rate changes is related to the extend to W2which the labor market is in disequilibrium, as W1measured by the excess demand for labor.W0W3W4DemandE⇒∙W=αX=α〔(D-S)/S〕i.e., the percentage rate of change of wage (∙W) is proportional to the excess demand for labor (X)W Excess Demand for Labor (X)XX U X<0Because the excess demand for labor is usually not observable, it is necessary to replace it with an observable variable, such as the unemployment rate.U* is the unemployment rate that exists when the excess demand for labor is zero. i.e., natural or full-employment rate of unemployment.WU。
有关就业中性别不平等现象的英语作文
有关就业中性别不平等现象的英语作文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Gender inequality in the workplace is a big problem that needs to be fixed. Girls and boys should have the same opportunities to get a job and be treated fairly.Sometimes, boys and girls are not given the same chances when it comes to finding a job. For example, some people think that boys are better at certain jobs, like being a doctor or an engineer. They might not give girls a chance to prove that they can do those jobs too.Another problem is that boys and girls are sometimes paid different amounts of money for doing the same job. This is not fair because everyone should be paid based on their skills and hard work, not their gender.It's important for everyone to work together to make sure that boys and girls are treated equally in the workplace. This means giving everyone the same opportunities and paying them fairly for their work.In conclusion, gender inequality in the workplace is a serious issue that needs to be addressed. Everyone deserves to have the same chances and be treated fairly, regardless of their gender. Let's all work together to make sure that boys and girls have equal opportunities in the workforce.篇2Oh my gosh, let's talk about this super important topic of gender inequality in jobs! I mean, it's not fair that boys and girls don't have the same opportunities when it comes to getting a job.First off, why do people think that boys are better at some jobs than girls? That's just silly! We're all super smart and awesome in our own ways. Girls can be amazing engineers, doctors, or even scientists, just like boys. And boys can totally be fabulous teachers, nurses, or chefs, just like girls.But sometimes, people still think that boys should do the tough jobs and girls should do the easy ones. That's just not cool! We should all get to choose the job we want based on whatwe're good at and what we love to do.And let's not forget about the pay gap! It's not fair that boys get paid more than girls for doing the same job. We all work just as hard, so we should all get paid the same amount.So, let's all work together to make sure that boys and girls have the same opportunities when it comes to jobs. Let's smash that gender inequality and show the world that we're all equal and awesome in our own special ways!篇3Hey guys, today I want to talk about gender inequality in the workplace. It's not fair that boys and girls aren't treated the same when it comes to jobs.First of all, girls should have the same opportunities as boys to get good jobs. It shouldn't matter if you're a boy or a girl, everyone should have the chance to do what they love and be paid fairly for it.Secondly, sometimes girls are paid less than boys for doing the same job. That's not right! Everyone should be paid the same for working equally hard.Also, some jobs are considered "for boys" or "for girls" which is silly. Boys can be nurses and girls can be engineers, there shouldn't be any rules about who can do what job.We all need to stand up for gender equality in the workplace. Boys and girls are both awesome and we should all have the same opportunities and be treated with respect.Let's work together to make sure that everyone has a fair chance in the job market. Girls and boys can do anything they set their minds to, and we should all support each other in reaching our goals.So let's say no to gender inequality and yes to a fair and equal workplace for everyone!篇4Gender inequality in employment is a big problem in our society. It means that some people might not be treated fairly because of their gender when they are looking for a job or when they are working in a job. This is not right! Everyone should have the same opportunities no matter if they are a boy or a girl.One big example of gender inequality in employment is when boys and girls are choosing what jobs they want to dowhen they grow up. Some people might think that boys should be doctors or engineers, while girls should be nurses or teachers. But that's not fair! Boys and girls should be able to choose any job they want, even if it's not what people expect them to do.Another example is when boys and girls are working in the same job but girls are getting paid less than boys. This is called the gender pay gap. It's not fair that girls are doing the same work but not getting the same pay! All workers should be paid equally for the work they do, no matter if they are a boy or a girl.We need to change this! We need to make sure that everyone has the same opportunities and is treated fairly at work. Boys and girls should be able to choose any job they want and should be paid the same for the work they do. Let's make the world a fairer place for everyone!篇5Have you ever noticed that there are more boys at certain jobs than girls? It's not fair, right? This is called gender inequality in the workplace, and it's a big problem that we need to talk about.One reason why there is gender inequality in jobs is that some people think that boys are better at certain jobs than girls.They might think that boys are stronger or smarter, but that's not true! Girls can do anything that boys can do, and vice versa. We should all have the same opportunities to work in any job we want.Another reason for gender inequality in jobs is that some jobs pay more for boys than for girls. This is called a gender pay gap, and it's not fair either. Girls and boys should be paid the same for doing the same work. We all deserve to be treated equally and with respect.We can help fix gender inequality in the workplace by speaking up and standing up for what is right. We can encourage girls to pursue careers in fields where they are underrepresented, and we can support each other in achieving our dreams. Let's work together to create a more equal and fair society for everyone.篇6Oh my goodness, let's talk about gender inequality in the workplace! It's like, so not fair when boys and girls don't have the same opportunities to get a job and do cool stuff.I heard that sometimes boys get paid more money than girls for doing the same work. That's like, totally not cool! Everyoneshould get paid the same for the same work, no matter if they're a boy or a girl.And sometimes, girls don't get hired for certain jobs just because they're girls. How unfair is that? Girls can do anything boys can do, so why should they be left out of awesome jobs just because of their gender?We need to stand up for each other and make sure that everyone has the same chances to get a job and be successful. Boys and girls should be treated equally and given the same opportunities to shine in the workplace.So let's work together to make sure that gender inequality in the workplace becomes a thing of the past. All of us deserve a fair chance to follow our dreams and be successful, no matter what gender we are. Let's make the world a better place for everyone!。
unemployment英语作文
unemployment英语作文英文回答：Unemployment is a prevalent issue that affects individuals, families, and entire economies. It occurs when people who are actively seeking work are unable to find suitable employment. There are various factors that contribute to unemployment, including economic downturns, technological advancements, and changes in industry demand.Individuals who experience unemployment often face significant financial and emotional challenges. They may lose income, struggle to pay bills, and experience a decline in their overall well-being. Unemployment can also lead to social isolation and a loss of self-esteem.From an economic perspective, unemployment has negative consequences for both individuals and society as a whole.It can reduce consumer spending, lead to a decrease in tax revenue, and hinder economic growth. Additionally,unemployment can strain social welfare systems and increase the risk of social unrest.Addressing unemployment requires a comprehensive approach that involves governments, businesses, and individuals. Governments can implement policies tostimulate economic growth, provide job training programs, and support workers who have lost their jobs. Businessescan invest in job creation and provide opportunities for career development. Individuals can enhance their skillsand qualifications to make themselves more competitive in the job market.中文回答：失业是一个普遍存在的问题，它会影响个人、家庭和整个经济。
曼昆经济学原理宏观经济学分册英文原版PPT课件28unemployment
Unemployment is measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). It surveys 60,000 randomly selected households every month. The survey is called the Current Population Survey.
How Is Unemployment Measured?
A person is unemployed if he or she is on temporary layoff, is looking for a job, or is waiting for the start date of a new job.
How Is Unemployment Measured?
Based on the answers to the survey questions, the BLS places each adult into one of three categories: Employed Unemployed Not in the labor force
JOB SEARCH
Job search the process by which workers find appropriate jobs given their tastes and skills. results from the fact that it takes time for qualified individuals to be matched with appropriate jobs.
Why Are There Always Some People Unemployed?
英文版宏观经济学复习提纲 Chapter 10 Unemployment
10UnemploymentChapter SummaryUnemployment is one of the key macroeconomic variables that is widely used by the population to determine the state of the nation’s economy. The unemployment statistics released, however, are not without problems, as it tends to underestimate the true proportion of the labour force who are not working. There are also different types of unemployment: (i) Frictional unemployment, which is where people are looking for work that matches their circumstances and skills. In many ways some degree of frictional unemployment is desirable, as it means people are taking their time to find the best job for themselves, rather than being forced to take the first job that comes along; (ii) Structural unemployment is where the skills of some workers do not match the skills that firms demand. Although this is unavoidable in any dynamic economy over time, this type of unemployment can sometimes last for a considerable period of time, as workers need to be retrained in the skills employers want; (iii) cyclical unemployment, which is when unemployment increases as economic growth slows (or decreases), and firms demand less labour. We therefore always see cyclical unemployment rising during a recession, and declining when growth is strong. The final section of the chapter takes a brief look at the system of wage-setting in Australia over the past twenty-five years, and shows how Australia has moved from a highly centralised system, to a more decentralised one. Learning ObjectivesWhen you finish this chapter you should be able to:1.Define the unemployment rate and the labour force participation rate, and understand how they arecalculated. The unemployment rate is defined as the proportion of those in the labour force who are not working, but who are actively seeking work and available to start work. The labour force participation rate is the proportion of the working-age population who are either employed or who are actively seeking work.The method by which the ABS uses to measure these statistics is through a survey of households.2.Explain the economic costs of unemployment. There are costs to individuals (loss of income, self-esteem,and skills); the government (costs of unemployment benefits, loss of tax revenue), and to the economy overall (lower GDP).3.Identify the types of unemployment. There are three types of unemployment: frictional (matching workersto jobs); structural (the skills of the unemployed do not match the skills demanded by firms); and cyclical (unemployment that occurs due to the business cycle).4.Explain what factors determine the unemployment rate. The unemployment rate can be influenced by anumber of factors. The government, through various labour market policies, can help to reduce both the frictional and structural types of unemployment (for example, through its Job Network scheme, and through re-training structurally unemployed people). It also plays a role by paying unemployment benefits, which allows people to spend more time trying to find the best job for their skills (it can, however, lead to a higher unemployment rate, as the average duration of unemployment is longer).165Unemployment5.Describe the changes that have occurred in the determination of wages in Australia and discuss thepossible effects on unemployment. Australia has moved over the past twenty-five years from a highly centralised system of wage determination, where the Australian Industrial Commission would set wages, and all workers in that occupation or industry would receive those wages and conditions. Gradually, however, Australia has moved to a more decentralised system, characterised by enterprise bargaining, where individual firms and workers negotiate wages. In more recent times, attempts have been made to further decentralise the labour market further.Chapter ReviewChapter Opener: Why is the unemployment rate important to Woolworths?Woolworths Ltd is one of Australia’s largest companies. Aside from the Woolworths supermarkets, they also operate other retail outlets, such as Big W, Dick Smith and Tandy. Strong economic growth and low unemployment have a positive, but relatively small, effect on sales in their supermarkets (because food is relatively price inelastic), however, it has a large effect on some of their other stores, as electrical goods and so on are quite price elastic. However, because Woolworths is also one of Australia’s largest employers, when the unemployment rate is at very low levels it is very difficult for them to avoid the higher costs from increased pressure on wages. Therefore, while low unemployment brings many advantages to Woolworths, it also brings higher costs.Measuring the unemployment rate and the labour force participation rateEvery month, the ABS releases its data on the unemployment rate. They calculate this through their Labour Force Surveys, which samples 0.045% of the population to determine the employment status of persons in these households. A person is considered employed if they have worked at least one hour during that survey week. If they have not, they are also asked (a) whether they have actively sought work and (b) whether they are currently available for work. If they answer yes to both questions, they are considered unemployed. If they answer no to (a) and (b), they are considered to not be in the labour force. Therefore, the labour force consists of people either employed, or unemployed and actively seeking work. The unemployment rate is calculated as follows:Number of unemployedx 100Unemployment rate=Labour forceThe labour force participation rate measures the percentage of the working-age population that is in the labour force:Labour forcex 100Labour force participation rate=Working-age populationIt is important to remember that this is not a perfect measure of the true rate of unemployment. For example, it doesn’t measure those working part-time but who wish to work full-time, or workers who become discouraged and cease looking for employment. Therefore, while it a useful measure, it is far from exact.Over the past thirty years, the trends in the labour force participation rate have been for an increase in female participation (from 44% in 1978 to 58% in 2007), and a decline in the male participation rate (from 79% down to 72% in 2007). However, overall, the participation rate has increased from 61% in 1978 to 65% in 2007.In terms of the length of unemployment, in 2007 over 60% of people were unemployed for less than 13 weeks,166 Chapter 10however, 16% had been unemployed for over one year. The longer a person is unemployed, the harder they often find it to find a job.The costs of unemploymentTo the economy overall, the costs of unemployment are considerable. The more people in employment, the higher is the economy’s GDP. From the government’s perspective unemployment involves extra costs in terms of re-training (which should, however, increase productivity in the long run), extra welfare payments, and a loss of tax revenue from people not working. For the individual, unemployment involves a loss of human capital (skills) and a loss of self-esteem. The welfare payments they receive are also extremely low (41% of the minimum wage), and so poverty is a major problem for those unemployed. The majority of the unemployed are younger workers (aged 15-19). Types of unemploymentThere are three major types of unemployment:1.Frictional: the short-term unemployment arising from matching workers with jobs. For example, studentsentering the workforce for the first time may take a while to find a job. Some frictional unemployment is desirable in an economy, because it is more important that people find the job for which they are best suited.2.Structural: this arises because of mismatches between the skills of the workers, and the skills required byfirms. Over time, some industries will rise, while other the skills required in other declining industries may no longer be in demand. This is a particular problem for older workers, whose skills are no longer in demand. Therefore, structurally unemployed people may be unemployed for longer periods of time, and they may need to be retrained.3.Cyclical: this is increase in unemployment due to the business cycle. When an economy goes into arecession, demand for most goods and services decline, and so firms do not require as much labour to produce it.Helpful Study HintsAnother common type of unemployment is seasonal unemployment. This is where employment rises (and falls) at certain times of the year in certain industries. For example, many causal workers are hired over Christmas. However, the ABS publishes the seasonally-adjusted unemployment rate, which takes these factors into account. Therefore, seasonal is not considered a distinct category of unemployment.Full employment is defined as those being either frictionally or structurally unemployed (this is sometimes known as the natural rate of unemployment.Helpful Study HintsRemember that, at potential real GDP, there will be frictional and structural unemployment, but no cyclical unemployment, so the unemployment rate will not be zero.167UnemploymentExplaining unemploymentThe government can help to reduce the levels of frictional and structural unemployment in a number of ways. For the frictionally unemployed the government runs its Job Network, which is a network of private and community organisations who attempt to find work for people. The government also offers some re-training courses for those structurally unemployed. Unemployment benefits assist the unemployed because it allows people to spend more time finding a job that suits their skills better. If no benefits were offered, people would be forced to take the first job that came out, which may not be where they would be most productively employed.Labour market regulation and deregulationAustralia has been moving over the past twenty years from a highly centralised wage system, to a more decentralised one. The goal of a decentralised system is to provide greater labour market flexibility, so the economy can adjust more quickly to changing economic circumstances. In a centralised system, arbitration meant that the Australian Industrial Relations Commission would set minimum wages and conditions, and all workers in that occupation or industry would receive these benefits. Gradually during the 1980s and into the 1990s, bargaining began to focus more on the enterprise, or firm, level, and so workers would negotiate with their direct employer, rather than industry-wide. The WorkChoices legislation from 2006 was a further extension of this.The advantages of a deregulated labour market are that it allows for the price signals coming from individual markets to be reflected in the labour market. For example, in industries and geographical areas where high demand for goods and services exist, workers can enjoy higher wages as a result. However, those in declining or recessed industries may find their wages falling in response.The disadvantages of deregulation generally involve those of equity. For example, it is argued that those workers with the lowest skills often find their wages are lower. It is also argued that these lower-skilled workers are at a negotiating disadvantage against their employer, and so may not be able to secure a ‘fair’ wage.Many firms, however, often pay higher-than-market wages to their workers. Why would they do this? One reason is to motivate workers to be more productive. However, these efficiency wages, coupled with the role of unions bargaining higher-than-market wages, and the setting of a ‘safety net’ minimum wage, all ensure that the demand for labour is less than the quantity of labour supplied, which means that economies will always experience some unemployment, even when cyclical unemployment is zero.Self-Test(Answers are provided at the end of the Self-Test.)Multiple-Choice Questions1.When aggregate demand increases, unemployment will usually _________ and inflation will _________.a.rise; riseb.rise; fallc.fall; falld.fall; rise2.Slow growth in aggregate demand leads toa.higher unemployment and higher inflation.b.higher unemployment and lower inflation.c.lower unemployment and lower inflation.d.lower unemployment and higher inflation.168 Chapter 103.People who are not currently employed, but say they want a job, are counted as unemployed only if theya A have previously held a jobb are actively seeking employmentc are willing to accept a reasonable offerd are between 16 and 65 years of age4.Consider an economy made up of 200 people, 90 of whom hold jobs, 10 of whom are looking for work, and 15of whom are retired. The unemployment rate isa10 percentb12 percentc17 percentd20 percent5.Which of the following people would be counted as unemployed?a a retired naval officerb a full-time student in high schoolc a father of preschool children who does not want to workd a downhill ski instructor who looks for work during the summer6.Which of the following is true about labour force participation?a When workers become unemployed, the labour force participation rate declines.b When the unemployed become "discouraged workers," the labour force participation rate declines.c When workers are not fully using their skills, the labour force participation rate decreases.d Since the 1950s the labour force participation rate of women has decreased in Australia.7.One of the features of the Australian participation rate over the years has been:a a decline in the participation rate of females, with the male participation rate rising strongly.b a strong rise in the participation rate of both males and females.c a strong rise in the participation rate of females, with a slight decline in the participation rate formales.d the female participation rate has remained fairly constant, while the male participation rate has risen.8.Chana was being treated unfairly by her boss, so she stormed off the job and two weeks later found anotherposition. For two weeks Chana experienceda cyclical unemploymentb structural unemploymentc nominal unemploymentd frictional unemployment9. A person who repairs typewriters becomes unemployed because people buy personal computers instead ofhaving their typewriters repaired. This person can best be described asa frictionally unemployedb structurally unemployedc cyclically unemployedd not part of the labour force10.Which of these is likely to increase the most in a severe recession?a frictional unemploymentb seasonal unemploymentc structural unemploymentd cyclical unemployment169Unemployment11.When the economy is at full employment, what types of unemployment may exist?a noneb structural and frictionalc frictional and cyclicald frictional, cyclical, and structural12.Efficiency wages are paid for all the following reasons except toa reduce worker turnover.b entice higher quality workers.c increase productivity.d abide by the minimum wage legislation.13.An increase in unemployment benefits is not likely to do which of the following?a reduce a person's incentive to look for workb increase the opportunity cost of being unemployedc provide a better safety net for unemployed familiesd make it easier for people to search longer for jobs appropriate to their skill levels14.The unemployment rate disguises the extent of the unemployment problem becausea children are not counted as unemployedb retired persons are not counted as unemployedc full-time students are not counted as unemployedd people overqualified for their current job are not considered unemployed15.Which of the following factors tends to make the official unemployment rate an overstatement of the actuallevel of unemployment in the economy?a exclusion of discouraged workersb inclusion of those only working part-timec inclusion of those who are overqualified for their current jobsd inclusion of those who pretend to look for work in order to qualify for welfare programs16.If unions are successful in negotiating above-equilibrium wages,a those workers with jobs will benefit at the expense of those who don't have jobs.b all workers, employed or otherwise, will benefit.c labour demand will rise.d labour demand will be unaffected.17.The WorkChoices legislation in 2006 was designed to:a centralise wage negotiations through the Australian Industrial Relations Commission.b allow for more individual negotiations of wages and conditions between workers and employers.c abolish the Fair Pay Commission.d re-establish the Australian Industrial Relations Commission170 Chapter 1018.During a recession, we would expecta unemployment to be above the natural rate.b unemployment to be below the natural rate.c we will be at the full employment level.d we will be beyond the full employment level.19.If a firm decides not to pay efficiency wages to its employees, it may find thata it starts to attract better workers.b costs will fall, but productivity will rise.c job turnover will decline.d none of the above.20.If a large increase in consumer spending caused aggregate demand to shift to the right, then the demand forlabour would __________ and unemployment would probably __________.a rise; fallb not change; fallc fall; rised fall; not changeShort Answer Questions1. During a recession, what would you expect to happen to labour demand and why?2. Discuss the pros and cons of unemployment compensation.171Unemployment 3. Determine the impact on each of the following if 100,000 formerly unemployed workers decide to return to schoolfull time and stop looking for work:a The labour force participation rateb The size of the labour forcec The unemployment rate4. Assume that the adult population is 19 million and the labour force participation rate is 67 per cent.a What is the size of the Australian labour force?b If one million adults are not working, what is the unemployment rate?True/False QuestionsT F 1. Discouraged workers are included in the labour force figures but not in unemployment figures.T F 2. A person whose skills do not match the available job openings is considered frictionallyunemployed.T F 3. The natural rate of unemployment is zero.T F 4. Part-time workers who want full-time work are counted as only partially employed in the official unemployment statistic.T F 5. To be counted as unemployed, a person must be looking for a job.T F 6. When actual real GDP output is below full-employment real GDP, the GDP measures the cost of cyclical unemployment.T F 7. The unemployment rate rises any time there is an increase in the number of unemployed.T F 8. Government fiscal policies attempting to stimulate aggregate demand are often aimed atreducing cyclical unemployment.T F 9. Full employment, which is always expected to occur, consists of the frictionally and cyclically unemployed.T F 10. The natural rate of unemployment is fixed and does not change.172 Chapter 10Answers to the Self-TestMultiple-Choice QuestionsQuestion Answer Comment1 d When aggregate demand increases, unemployment will usually fall and inflation willrise. When aggregate demand decreases, unemployment will usually rise and inflationwill fall. As a result, there is a short-run trade-off between unemployment andinflation.2 b The AD-AS model indicates that slow growth in aggregate demand leads to bothhigher unemployment and lower inflation.3 b In order to be counted as unemployed, a person must not only be without a job, butmust be actively seeking work. This takes out those who are not working, and haveno intention of doing so.4. a We are looking here for the number of people in the labour force. Although there are200 people in the population, there are only 100 who are considered in the labourforce (90 in work and 10 without a job). The other 100 are made up of retirees and,presumably, children. Therefore, the unemployment rate will be:U/(U + E) = 10/(90+ 10) = 10%5. d To be unemployed, you must not only be out of work, but actively seeking work. Theonly alternative here that fits the bill is the ski instructor, who must find work overthe summer when not skiing. Someone who is at school or university is notconsidered unemployed because getting work is not their primary goal.6. b What we are looking for here is not necessarily whether someone is employed, orunemployed, but rather whether they are entering or leaving the labour force. This isthe only thing that will change the labour force participation rate. The only one herethat fits the bill is the alternative relating to discouraged workers, who leave thelabour force because they cannot get a job. This will reduce the labour forceparticipation rate.7. c Since the Second World War, the participation rate for women (that is, the proportionof the female adult population who either in work or actively looking for work) hasincreased substantially, in line with most developed countries. The male participationrate has declined slightly, primarily because of earlier retirement.8. d Frictional unemployment is the natural turnover of jobs, whether people leave themvoluntarily or otherwise.9 b This person becomes structurally unemployed. Anyone who loses their job becausethe demand for the labour has dropped (often because demand for the product theymake drops) is considered structurally unemployed (that is, the structure of theeconomy has changed, making their skills redundant).10. d Cyclical unemployment is the type of unemployment we associate with recessions,because it arises purely through a lack of demand, not through having the wrongskills, or because you are waiting for the right job.11. b We never have zero unemployment in an economy, because there will always besome degree of frictional unemployment through job search, and there will always besome structural unemployment due to changing demand for labour. Therefore, whenwe talk about full employment, we are saying only that there is zero cyclicalunemployment, because some unemployment will always exist.12. d Efficiency wages are paid for a number of reasons by employers (to increaseproductivity, reduce worker turnover and so on). One of the things that is notassociated with efficiency wages, however, is that workers are paid the minimumwage. The whole point of efficiency wages is to offer a wage that is well above theminimum wage, to entice the best workers.13. b An increase in unemployment benefits is actually likely to decrease the opportunity173Unemployment cost of being unemployed, because the 'wage' they receive rises, relative to the wagethey would receive in a job. It may still be less than what they would get if gainfullyemployed, but the incentive to find work is reduced, because the unemploymentbenefit is now relatively more attractive.14. d The unemployment rate does not take into account the number of people who areunder employed. That is, who have a job of some description, but not one that theyare necessarily suited to. The other four alternatives are not included in the labourforce anyway, and so do not disguise the extent of the unemployment problem.15. d The unemployment rate may have a small component of people who are trying to'rort' the system, by claiming benefits when they have no intention of getting a job. Inthis sense, they add to the unemployment rate when really they should be counted asnot in the labour force.16 a If unions can negotiate above-equilibrium wages, those people who currently havejobs are better off (because they receive a higher wage), however, because the wage ishigher, the demand for labour will fall. Because of this, those without jobs will find itharder to get work, because there are now less jobs available.17 b WorkChoices was designed to improve flexibility in setting wages and conditions.18 a A recession means negative economic growth. In other words, the production ofgoods and services declines. Because we have less production, we require less peopleto produce that output. This gives rise to an increase in cyclical unemployment.Whenever this occurs, this means that the unemployment rate overall is above thenatural rate (which occurs when we have zero cyclical unemployment).19. d All of these alternatives are associated with an employer actually paying efficiencywages, not refusing to pay them.20. a Because there is an increase in the demand for goods and services, there will also bean increase in the demand for labour necessary to produce that output. As a result,we would expect the unemployment rate to fall. Note that we say 'probably', becausesometimes when there is an expansion in the economy, the labour force increasesrapidly as people previously discouraged once again start looking for work. This maymean the unemployment rate (for a while at least) may not show a decrease, eventhough the number of people employed will rise.Short Answer Responses1. During a recession, what would you expect to happen to labour demand and why?During a recession, the demand for labour will fall (shift to the left). A recession indicates output is falling, therefore, firms require fewer workers to produce this smaller amount of output. What ultimately happens to unemployment will depend in part on whether wages adjust relatively quickly or slowly to this change in demand.2. Discuss the pros and cons of unemployment compensation.The major pro (benefit) of unemployment benefits is that they provide people with at least a small amount of money to buy the basic necessities of life. Before people received unemployment benefits, the unemployed had to rely on family members or charity to survive. During the Great Depression, for example, this caused an enormous degree of hardship, with unemployment in Australia being around 20 per cent. Another benefit is that it acts as an automatic stabiliser in the economy. That is, when we are in a recession, government spending rises to pay the extra unemployment benefits that are necessary. This provides people with some money to demand goods and services, which they could not have done if the government gave them nothing. It therefore serves to boost aggregate demand somewhat when the economy needs it the most.174 Chapter 10One of the major costs that some people say have arisen from unemployment benefits is that it reduces the opportunity cost of getting a job. If the option is a job or starving to death, the opportunity cost is very high. If the option is a low-skilled, low paying job, or a slightly lower level of income from getting the dole, then it may reduce the incentive to go out and get a job. This raises the frictional level of unemployment, because people are prepared (and able) to wait longer to find a job [Note: some people consider this a benefit, because it allows people to find a job that suits them best. Rather than take the first job offered, it allows them to wait and get a job in their chosen field of expertise, which should result in an overall increase in productivity in the economy].Some economists have advocated lowering the amount of benefits received fortnightly, to encourage people to go and get a job. Because the unemployment compensation lowers the opportunity cost, some people have said that it leads to people becoming ‘dole bludgers’ – that is, people who have no intention of getting a job, but who pretend to look for work just to receive their fortnightly payments.3. Determine the impact on each of the following if 100,000 formerly unemployed workers decide to return to schoolfull time and stop looking for work:a The labour force participation rateb The size of the labour forcec The unemployment ratea The labour force participation rate drops since these workers have left the labour force.b The size of the labour force drops by 100,000.c The unemployment rate drops since the percentage drop in the number of unemployed is greater than thepercentage drop in the labour force.4. Assume that the adult population is 19 million and the labour force participation rate is 67 per cent.a What is the size of the Australian labour force?b If one million adults are not working, what is the unemployment rate?With a participation rate of 67 per cent, this means that 19 million × 0.67 = 12.73 million people are in the labour force. Technically speaking, just because you are not working does not mean you are unemployed (this should include those retired, for example), however, here it must be that these people only include those unemployed.The actual number of people not working is 19 million – 12.73 million = 6.27 million people, plus the number of those in the labour force who are not working. Therefore, all you have to work out is the unemployment rate based on a labour force of 12.73 million, and unemployment of 1 million:(1 million / 12.73 million) × 100 = 7.9%.。
Unemployment
Module 5 Unemployment Top Five Concepts
Introduction
This unit discusses the causes and problems associated with unemployment. You will also learn the types of unemployment and who is included when the unemployment rate is calculated. Did you know that some people who are unemployed may not be counted or included in the unemployment rate?
Concept 4: Full Employment
The overall economic goal of the U.S. or Chinese economy is for full employment. Full employment is defined as the lowest rate of unemployment compatible with price stability; usually between 4 – 6 percent unemployment for the US As the economy nears full employment, rising prices may occur (wages and the price of goods increase as demand increases).
Concept 2: Unemployment
Other employment problems include those individuals who are either working part-time and seeking full-time employment, or are employed at jobs below their capacity. People in this situation are called underemployed. Examples of underemployment include a college graduate with a Bachelor’s degree in business working as a cook at a fast food restaurant, and a teacher who is unable to find a full-time job working as a substitute teacher. Underemployed people are counted as being employed and not included in the unemployment rate.
大学英语作文：Unemployment-失业问题,Unemployment-失业问题范文
大学英语作文：Unemployment-失业问题,Unemploymen大学英语作文：Unemployment-失业问题,Unemployment-失业问题范文无论是在学校还是在社会中，大家都有写作文的经历，对作文很是熟悉吧，写作文是培养人们的观察力、联想力、想象力、思考力和记忆力的`重要手段。
还是对作文一筹莫展吗？以下是小编为大家整理的大学英语作文：Unemployment-失业问题,Unemployment-失业问题范文，希望能够帮助到大家。
in our country, the word unemployment was seldom heard seweral years ago. but now, more and more people around us have lost their jobs. many young people, including lots of college graduates, are fired or have to stay at home. obviously, unemployment is becoming a serious social problem.what on earth is the reason for such a situation? on one hand, it is because of the conomic condition. recently, our country, has undergone great economic reforms. in order to improve the efficiency, many state-owned enterprises have to fire a large number of their employees. on the other hand, with the rapid development of science and technology, mechanical automaton is more and more widely used in the modem production. but the popalation of our country, keeps increasing at the same time. many people want jobs while factories need fewer workers. unfortunately, it seems that the contradiction will last for a long period of time.its quite necessary to solve this problem, because it will strongly influence the development of our society. from my point of view, we shouldnt only stay at home and wait for a chance. as long as you have a strong will, you are sure to get success.。
论嘉莉妹妹的美国梦
论嘉莉妹妹的美国梦论嘉莉妹妹的美国梦学院、专业研究方向学生姓名学号指导教师姓名指导教师职称AbstractSister Carrie is the first novel of Theodore Dreiser, the outstanding novelist in American literature. The novel received wide controversy since its publication, and the main character Carrie is also a controversial person. The thesis tries to analyze Carrie’s American Dream and the causes of her disillusioned dream.Besides an introduction and a conclusion, the thesis is divided into three parts. In the introduction, the author introduces the plot of Sister Carrie and former studies on Sister Carrie briefly. And the author also tells the purpose of the thesis. In the first chapter, the author introduces Dreiser and his works first, and then describes American social environment in the 1900s. In the second chapter, the author briefly introduces American Dream and analyzes what Carrie’s American Dream is. In the third chapter, the author tries to explain how Carrie’s American Dream disillusioned, and then gives two causes of Carrie’s disillusion with the American Dream: one is her greed, another is her way of pursuing happiness. At last, the author draws the conclusion: Carrie is the representative of most Americans in the early 20th century, her way of pursuing happiness is influenced by the social environment. And we should draw a lesson from her.Key words: Carrie;American Dream; desire; disillusion摘要《嘉莉妹妹》是美国文学中著名的小说家西奥多•德莱赛的处女作。
近年来出现大学生就业难的现象英语作文
近年来出现大学生就业难的现象英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1In recent years, the phenomenon of college graduates facing difficulties in finding jobs has become increasingly prominent. This issue has raised concerns among policymakers, educators, parents, and society at large. In this essay, we will delve into the various factors contributing to this problem and explore possible solutions.One of the key reasons behind the high unemployment rate among college graduates is the mismatch between the skills they possess and the demands of the job market. Many graduates lack the practical skills and experience necessary to thrive in today's competitive work environment. While they may have strong theoretical knowledge in their field of study, they often lack the hands-on experience that employers value.Another factor that exacerbates the problem is the oversupply of college graduates in certain fields. As more and more young people pursue higher education, certain industries become saturated with qualified candidates, making it difficultfor all graduates to find employment. This oversupply also puts downward pressure on wages, leading to lower salaries for those who do manage to secure a job.Furthermore, the rapid pace of technological advancement has led to the automation of many jobs, making it harder for college graduates to compete with machines. As artificial intelligence and robotics continue to evolve, the job market is becoming increasingly competitive, with employers favoring candidates who can adapt to new technologies and work efficiently.In addition to these structural challenges, the COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated the issue of college graduates' unemployment. The economic downturn caused by the pandemic has led to widespread job losses, making it even more difficult for graduates to secure a job in an already competitive market. Many companies have frozen hiring or laid off employees, leaving recent graduates with few options for employment.Despite these challenges, there are steps that can be taken to address the issue of college graduates' unemployment. One potential solution is to reform the education system to better align with the needs of the job market. Colleges and universitiescan provide more practical training and hands-on experience to help students develop the skills employers are looking for. Internship programs and partnerships with companies can also help students gain valuable work experience while still in school.Another possible solution is for graduates to embrace lifelong learning and continuous skill development. In today's rapidly changing job market, it is essential for workers to adapt to new technologies and trends to stay competitive. Graduates can take online courses, attend workshops, or pursue further certifications to enhance their skills and make themselves more attractive to employers.Finally, government intervention is crucial in addressing the issue of college graduates' unemployment. Policymakers can implement initiatives to create more job opportunities for graduates, such as providing incentives for companies to hire young workers or investing in industries with high demand for skilled workers. Additionally, government-funded training programs can help graduates acquire the skills needed to succeed in the modern job market.In conclusion, the issue of college graduates' unemployment is a complex and multifaceted problem that requires a comprehensive approach to solve. By addressing the mismatchbetween students' skills and the demands of the job market, embracing lifelong learning, and implementing government interventions, we can help recent graduates find meaningful employment and contribute to the economy.只要我们共同努力，相信大学生就业难的问题一定会迎刃而解。
unemployment(失业)经济学作业(全英)
Unemployment会展0901 彭则轶Directory1. Definition2. The calculation of the unemployment rate3. Definitions, types and theories3.1 Classical unemployment3.2 Cyclical or Keynesian unemployment3.3 Structural unemployment3.4 Frictional unemployment3.5 Hidden unemployment3.6 Long-term unemployment4. Controlling or reducing unemployment4.1 Demand side solutions4.2Supply-side solutions5. Unemployment of Chinese graduates1. DefinitionsUnemployment, as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively looked for work within the past four weeks. The unemployment rate is a measureof the prevalence of unemployment and it is calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of unemployed individuals by all individuals currently in the labour force.2. The calculation of the unemployment rateThe unemployment rate is calculated as: the unemployment rate (%)=( unemployed÷labor force) × 100%3. Definitions, types and theoriesEconomists distinguish between various overlapping types of and theories of unemployment, including cyclical or Keynesianunemployment, frictional unemployment, structural unemployment and classical unemployment. Some additional types ofunemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonalunemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hiddenunemployment. The U.S. BLS measures six types of unemployment, U1-U6.Though there have been several definitions of voluntary andinvoluntary unemployment in the economics literature, a simple distinction is often applied. Voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individual's decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment (including the market structure, government intervention, and the level of aggregate demand) in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of frictional unemployment is voluntary, since it reflects individual search behavior. Voluntary unemployment includes workers who reject low wage jobs whereas involuntary unemployment includes workers fired due to an economic crisis, industrial decline, company bankruptcy, or organizational restructuring.On the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. However, the existence of structural unemployment may reflect choices made by the unemployed in the past, while classical (natural) unemployment may result from the legislative and economic choices made by labour unions or political parties. So, in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw. The clearest cases of involuntary unemployment are those where there are fewer job vacancies than unemployed workers even when wages are allowed to adjust, so that even if all vacancies were to be filled, some unemployed workerswould still remain. This happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment which can boomerang back and exacerbate these macroeconomic forces.3.1 Classical unemploymentClassical or real-wage unemployment occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies.Most economists have argued that unemployment increases the more the government intervenes into the economy to try to improve the conditions of those with jobs. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of laborers with few skills to above the market equilibrium, resulting in people who wish to work at the going rate but cannot as wage enforced is greater than their value as workers becoming unemployed. Laws restricting layoffs made businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky, leaving many young people unemployed and unable to find work.However, this argument is criticized for ignoring numerous external factors and overly simplifying the relationship between wage rates and unemployment- in other words, that other factors may also affect unemployment.Some, such as Murray Rothbard, suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to themarket clearing level.3.2 Cyclical or Keynesian unemploymentCyclical or Keynesian unemployment, also known asdeficient-demand unemployment, occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand for most goods and services falls, less production is needed and consequently fewer workers are needed, wages are sticky and do not fall to meet the equilibrium level, and mass unemployment results. Its name is derived from the frequent shifts in the business cycle although unemployment can also be persistent as occurred during the Great Depression of the 1930s. With cyclical unemployment, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies, so that even if full employment were attained and all open jobs were filled, some workers would still remain unemployed. Some associate cyclical unemployment with frictional unemployment because the factors that cause the friction are partially due to cyclical variables. For example, a surprise decrease in the money supply may shock rational economic actors and suddenly inhibit aggregate demand.Classical economists reject the conception of cyclical unemployment and alternatively suggest that the invisible hand of free markets will respond quickly to unemployment andunderutilization of resources by a fall in wages followed by a rise in employment. Similarly, Hayek and others from the Austrian school of economics argue that if governments intervene through monetary policy to lower interests rates this will exacerbate unemployment by preventing the market from responding effectively.Keynesian economists on the other hand see the lack of demand for jobs as potentially resolvable by government intervention. One suggested interventions involves deficit spending to boost employment and demand. Another intervention involves an expansionary monetary policy that increases the demand of money which should reduce interest rates which should lead to an increase in non-governmental spending.3.3 Structural unemploymentStructural unemploymentOkun's Law interprets unemployment as a function of growth in GNP"Driver looking for work" Unemployed German laborer in 1949Structural unemployment occurs when a labour market is unable to provide jobs for everyone who wants one because there is a mismatch between the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for the available jobs.Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment, except to say that it lasts longer. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to easily abolish this type of unemployment.Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers fromlong-lasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, while their skills (includingjob-searching skills) become "rusty" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to homelessness and a fall into the vicious circle of poverty. This means that they may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. Some economists see this scenario as occurring under British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during the 1970s and 1980s. The implication is that sustained high demand may lower structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of path dependence or "hysteresis".Much technological unemployment (e.g. due to the replacement of workers by machines) might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labour productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level ofoutput every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with this problem suggests that this problem is instead one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by Okun's Law, the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labour force but also the workers made redundant by increased labour productivity. Otherwise, we see a jobless recovery such as those seen in the United States in both the early 1990s and the early 21st century.Seasonal unemployment may be seen as a kind of structural unemployment, since it is a type of unemployment that is linked to certain kinds of jobs (construction work, migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using "seasonal adjustment" techniques.3.4 Frictional unemploymentFrictional unemployment is the time period between jobs when a worker is searching for, or transitioning from one job to another. It is sometimes called search unemployment and can be voluntary based on the circumstances of the unemployed individual. Frictional unemployment is always present in an economy, so the level of involuntary unemployment is properly the unemployment rate minus the rate of frictional unemployment, which means that increases ordecreases in unemployment are normally under-represented in the simple statistics.Frictional unemployment exists because both jobs and workers are heterogeneous, and a mismatch can result between the characteristics of supply and demand. Such a mismatch can be related to skills, payment, work-time, location, seasonal industries, attitude, taste, and a multitude of other factors. New entrants (such as graduating students) and re-entrants (such as former homemakers) can also suffer a spell of frictional unemployment. Workers as well as employers accept a certain level of imperfection, risk or compromise, but usually not right away; they will invest some time and effort to find a better match. This is in fact beneficial to the economy since it results in a better allocation of resources. However, if the search takes too long and mismatches are too frequent, the economy suffers, since some work will not get done. Therefore, governments will seek ways to reduce unnecessary frictional unemployment through multiple means including providing education, advice, training, and assistance such as daycare centers.The frictions in the labour market are sometimes illustrated graphically with a Beveridge curve, a downward-sloping, convex curve that shows a correlation between the unemployment rate on one axis and the vacancy rate on the other. Changes in the supply ofor demand for labour cause movements along this curve. An increase (decrease) in labour market frictions will shift the curve outwards (inwards).3.5 Hidden unemploymentHidden, or covered, unemployment is the unemployment of potential workers that is not reflected in official unemployment statistics, due to the way the statistics are collected. In many countries only those who have no work but are actively looking for work (and/or qualifying for social security benefits) are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work (and sometimes those who are on Government "retraining" programs) are not officially counted among the unemployed, even though they are not employed. The same applies to those who have taken early retirement to avoid being laid off, but would prefer to be working. The statistic also does not count the "underemployed" - those with part time or seasonal jobs who would rather have full time jobs. In addition, those who are of working age but are currently in full-time education are usually not considered unemployed in government statistics. Because of hidden unemployment, official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates.3.6 Long-term unemploymentThis is normally defined, for instance in European Union statistics, as unemployment lasting for longer than one year. It is an important indicator of social exclusion. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports this as U4 and U5.4 Controlling or reducing unemploymentSocieties try a number of different measures to get as many people as possible into work, and various societies have experienced close to full employment for extended periods, particularly during the Post-World War II economic expansion. The United Kingdom in the 1950s and 60s averaged 1.6% unemployment, while in Australia the 1945 White Paper on Full Employment in Australia established a government policy of full employment, which policy lasted until the 1970s when the government ran out of money.4.1 Demand side solutionsMany countries aid the unemployed through social welfare programs. These unemployment benefits include unemployment insurance, unemployment compensation, welfare and subsidies to aid in retraining. The main goal of these programs is to alleviate short-term hardships and, more importantly, to allow workers more time to search for a job..A direct demand-side solution to unemployment isgovernment-funded employment of the able-bodied poor. This was notably implemented in Britain from the 17th century until 1948 in the institution of the workhouse, which provided jobs for the unemployed with harsh conditions and poor wages to dissuade their use. A modern alternative is a job guarantee, where the government guarantees work at a living wage. Temporary measures can include public works programs such as the Works Progress Administration. Government-funded employment is not widely advocated as a solution to unemployment, except in times of crisis; this is attributed to the public sector jobs' existence depending directly on the tax receipts from private sector employment.In the U.S. the unemployment insurance allowance one receives is based solely on previous income (not time worked, family size, etc.) and usually compensates for one-third of one's previous income. To qualify, one must reside in their respective state for at least a year and, of course, work. The system was established by the Social Security Act of 1935. Although 90% of citizens are covered by unemployment insurance, less than 40% apply for and receive benefits.However, the number applying for and receiving benefits increases during recessions. In cases of highly seasonal industries the system provides income to workers during the off seasons, thus encouraging them to stay attached to the industry.4.2 Supply-side solutionsHowever, the labour market is not 100% efficient: it does not clear, though it may be more efficient than bureaucracy. Some argue that minimum wages and union activity keep wages from falling, which means too many people want to sell their labour at the going price but cannot. This assumes perfect competition exists in the labour market, specifically that no single entity is large enough to affect wage levels. Advocates of supply-side policies believe those policies can solve this by making the labour market more flexible. These include removing the minimum wage and reducing the power of unions. Supply-siders argue the reforms increase long-term growth. This increased supply of goods and services requires more workers, increasing employment. It is argued that supply-side policies, which include cutting taxes on businesses and reducing regulation, create jobs and reduce unemployment. Other supply-side policies include education to make workers more attractive to employers.However, recent meta-analyzes involving many studies refute that there is any statistically significant, negative impact of minimum wages on unemployment. Further, a number of scholars argue that the predicted negative impact is based on incoherent or simplistic logic that ignores mitigating environmental factors, such asnon-minimum wage labour markets including farm, service and selfemployed workers. They argue that the benefits of minimum wage laws outweigh the supposed but unproven costs.5 Unemployment of Chinese graduatesWhy there are so many unemployed college students?1 Finding jobs for college graduates is a growing problem in China. It became an even harder task for the 6.1 million June graduates after the country began to feel the effects of the global financial crisis in late 2008.2 the problem is around 1.5 million graduates who failed to find jobs last year, a half million increase from 2007,3 ENROLLMENT EXPANSION IN 19994 In the mid 1980s, China's college enrollment rate stood at about three percent, lower than many developing countries. In the early 1990s, the number rose to five percent.5 Around 1999, the country's education department sensed the need to expand the college enrollment rate6 in 1999, universities enrolled 1.59 million students, up 41.2 percent from the previous year. Since then, the numbers just kept climbing.7 In 2002, the college enrollment rate reached 15 percent. It rose to 19 percent in 2005. With 23 million students going to college,China had the highest enrollment rate in the world at the time.8"At present many companies do not trust new graduates, who may have learned 'mountains of' theories but also lack practical abilities,"9"Thus many employers would prefer graduates from some higher vocational technical schools rather than college students,"。
HND
1.Unemployment (Unemployment) are broad and narrow. The broad unemploymentis a state of separation of production and workers. In this state, the production potential and initiative of the workers can not play, not only a waste of social resources, but also a negative impact on the socio-economic development. The narrow unemployment is the ability to work at the age of statutory labor and employment aspirations of the workers lose or not get paid to have the job of social phenomena. Depending on the different causes of unemployment can be divided into the following three types: 1, frictional unemployment: means in the process of conversion work, unemployment, structural unemployment: due to changes in industrial structure or production technology, making the original workopportunity to disappear and unemployment, cyclical unemployment: the unemployment caused by the fluctuations in the economic cycle.2.The New Deal introduced the ability to withdraw benefits from those who refused"reasonable employment". A complementary project was introduced in 1999, the Working Families Tax Credit. This is a tax credit scheme for low income workers which provides an incentive to work, and to continue in work. The New Deal is a programme of active labour market policies introduced in the United Kingdom by the Labour government in 1998, initially funded by a one-off £5 billion windfall tax on privatised utility companies.[1] The stated purpose is to reduce unemployment by providing training, subsidised employment and voluntary work to the unemployed.3.Although the social impact of unemployment is difficult to estimate and measure,but it is the most vulnerable people feel.Unemployment threaten the stability of the family as a social unit and economic unit. No income or loss, the head of the household can not play its due role. Family demands and needs are not met, the family relationship will be jeopardized. Western psychology studies have shown that the dismissal of the trauma caused by no less than the death of friends and relatives or academic failure. In addition, the interpersonal relationships outside the home by the serious impact of unemployment. Unemployed in the employment of staff who have lost self-respect and influence, is facing the possibility of colleagues refused, and may lose self-esteem and self-confidence.Ultimately, the unemployed, emotionally severely hit. The existence of a large number of unemployed persons has a double impact on China's economic growth and international competitiveness. On the positive side, it provides a wealth of labor resources for sustained development in China in 26 years. The same time, the existence of mass unemployment, the employment of personnel always maintain the enormous pressure, which eased the pressure on wage growth, so that China's manufacturing industry has long maintained the advantages of low wage costs.However, the existence of mass unemployment on the negative impact of economic growth can not be ignored. First of all, from the domestic factors, the existence of a large number of the unemployed population makes China's economic growth mode has always been difficult to complete by the investment-driven to consumption-led growth transformation. This is because a large number of unemployed persons can not benefit from economic growth, it isnot possible to increase consumer demand, ability to pay. A few high-income group, the demand for domestic consumption to some extent, is saturated, so a lot of consumer spending into the overseas developed countries, but also poured in a less cost-effective investment.From the history of world economic growth, this mode of growth is neither stable nor sustainable. Moreover, due to the social needs and to provide employment opportunities for low labor costs, the government and enterprises lack the power of the relaxed environment of economic structural adjustment and technological advancement. These factors will hinder long-term international competitiveness of China's economy4.5.Fiscal policy (the Fiscal policy / 'fiskl' pɒləsi / AmE 'pɑ: ləsi /) economicsvocabulary. An overview of the fiscal policy fiscal policy refers to the guiding principles prescribed by the State in accordance with the mandate of the political, economic and social development in a certain period financial, through fiscal spending and tax policy to regulate aggregate demand. The increase in government spending can stimulate aggregate demand, thereby increasing the national income, and vice versa suppress aggregate demand, reduce national income. Tax is a contraction of the power of the national income and, therefore, increase government revenue, inhibition of aggregate demand and thus reduce the national income, in turn, stimulate aggregate demand to increase national income.Fiscal policy is an integral part of national economic policy.It enacted by the state, representing the will and interests of the ruling class, has a distinct class character, and is subject to a certain level of development of social productive forces and the corresponding economic relations constraints. Fiscal policy is an integral part of national economic policy is closely linked with other economic policies. The formulation and implementation of fiscal policy, there must be financial policies, industrial policy, income distribution policy, economic policy coordination.ernment spending at all levels of government spending, consists of two parts,0to build roads, the establishment of the court, setting up schools. This part is included in GDP. Another part is not included in GDP, transfer payments, bond interest接书1017.iooi8.Regional policy is based on regional differences and develop a series ofmacro-operation mechanism for coordination of inter-regional relations and regional policy and the impact on regional development at the macro level. Its contents, the main regional economic policies, structural policies, landscape and nature conservation policy. To reduce regional employment differences as the main goal of regional policy.England's land area outside of the coal resources are relatively poor, the limited capacity of the domestic market. Leading position in the world after the Industrial Revolution, industrial products mainly for export, and industrial raw materials other than agricultural products and coal is heavily dependent on imports. Industrial products in exports, the whole economic cycle to be broken, causing the economic crisis, significant increase in the unemployedpopulation. Because of its traditional industries are highly concentrated geographically, resulting in a high rate of unemployment in some areas. Therefore, the spatial differences as the primary objective of the British regional policy to reduce the unemployment rate.Second, regional policy intermittently severely about party politics. British Labour and Conservative economic policy is an obvious difference, Labour biased in favor of policy interventions, emphasis on social justice; the Conservative Party is advocating a free market economy, emphasizing efficiency. Therefore, as part of the regional policy of the government intervention in economic activity, when Labour came to power, attention, the Conservative Party during the reign neglected.Three, regional policy, administrative and financial measures as the main means of implementation. In order to reduce the regional differences in the unemployment rate, the British regional policy emphasizes the adjustment of industrial layout. Through administrative means (such as the permit system) restrictions on industrial layout in the unemployment rate relatively low in London, to encourage industry to relocate or to open new factories to the traditional industries and high unemployment concentrated. Formulate preferential policies to financially induced by the low-unemployment areas migrate to areas of high unemployment。
新编商务英语阅读教程(第二版)参考答案
《《新编商务英语阅读教程》(第二版)练习参考答案》来自南京廖华在线阅读本文：《新编商务英语阅读教程》(第二版)练习参考答案《新编商务英语阅读教程》（第二版）练习参考答案Unit OneI.1. 资产C2. 边际变动E3. 市场势力I4. 劳动生产力（率）J5. 经济学A6. 市场失灵G7. 市场经济F8. 机会成本D9. 通货膨胀K10. 外部性H11. 效率B12. 菲利普斯曲线LII.Passage One经济学的研究主要分为两部分：宏观经济学与微观经济学。
宏观经济学着眼于经济全局——一幅宏观的画面。
在宏观经济学中，我们研究国家的政策目标，例如充分就业、抑制通货膨胀、经济增长等，而不考虑个人或者单个团体的利益和行为。
对宏观经济学的关注是为了从总体上认识并改善经济的运行。
微观经济学则关注宏观画面中的细节。
在微观经济学中，我们着眼于实际构成宏观经济的个人、厂商和政府机构。
我们感兴趣的是这些独立经济单位的行为。
他们的目标何在？以有限资源实现目标的途径是什么？如何对各种激励和机会做出反应？宏观经济学主要关注，例如，总消费性支出对总产出、就业及物价的影响。
很少关注消费性支出及其决定因素的实际内涵。
相反，微观经济学关注的是个体消费者具体的支出决策及其影响因素（爱好、物价水平、收入状况）。
宏、微观经济学的区别还反映在关于企业投资的讨论中。
宏观经济学中，我们需要了解决定企业总投资率的因素以及这些投资对一国的总产出、就业及物价水平产生影响的路径。
而微观经济学中，我们关注的是各家企业关于生产率、生产要素的抉择以及具体物品的定价决策。
了解宏、微观经济学的区别并非难事。
在现实社会，宏观经济的表现有赖于微观行为，而微观行为又受宏观经济表现的影响。
因此，人们只有了解了所有经济活动的参与者的行为方式及其成因，才能充分了解整个经济的运作方式。
但是，就如你会开车而不懂发动机的构造原理那样，你能观察到经济运行方式但并不能完全解开其中奥秘。
失业(英文)习题及答案
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C h a p t e r 6 Unemployment
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
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1970s. Young workers have higher rates of unemployment, so this demographic shift should tend to increase unemployment. In the 1990s, the baby-boom workers aged and the average age of the labor force increased, thus lowering the average unemployment rate.
5. Economists have proposed at least two major hypotheses to explain the increase in the natural rate of unemployment in the 1970s and 1980s, and the decrease in the natural rate in the 1990s. The first is the changing demographic composition of the labor force. Because of the post–World-War-II baby boom, the number of young workers rose in the
s = (1 job/12 weeks) = 0.083 jobs/week. c. From the text, we know that the formula for the natural rate of unemployment is
大学生就业困难的社会现象英语作文
大学生就业困难的社会现象英语作文全文共5篇示例，供读者参考篇1Jobby Troubles for Uni GradsHi there! My name is Emma and I'm in 4th grade. Today, I want to talk about a super serious thing that's happening with older kids who just finished university. It's called "difficulties finding a job" and it sounds like a huge bummer!You see, when you're a little kid like me, getting a job isn't really something you think about much. We're just focused on having fun, playing games, and learning new things in school. But when you become an adult, getting a good job becomes sooooo important.Grown-ups need jobs to earn money so they can pay for a place to live, buy food, and do all the other adult stuff that kids don't have to worry about yet. And you know what? Getting that first real job after university is supposed to be a big exciting step towards being a successful adult!But sadly, there's a problem happening lately. Lots and lots of university graduates can't seem to find a good job, no matterhow hard they try. Imagine spending years and years studying really difficult subjects, and then not being able to use all that knowledge to get hired somewhere! It's making a bunch of young people really frustrated and worried about their futures.There could be different reasons why finding a job is so hard right now. Maybe there just aren't enough job openings compared to how many fresh graduates there are. Or perhaps the adult world wants young workers to have very specific skills that aren't fully covered in university classes. It's a confusing situation for sure!Whatever the causes are, not being able to get hired is a huge bummer for university grads. They worked incredibly hard and spent a ton of money on their education. So it's got to be really disappointing and stressful when all that effort doesn't easily lead to landing a good career.Some of the older kids who can't find work have to move back in with their parents, which I imagine is pretty embarrassing when you're supposed to be a grown-up. Others take jobs they don't really want or that don't match their degrees, which seems like a massive waste of their studies. A few unlucky ones can't get any job at all and have to live off of savings or get financial help.No matter what, it's a crummy situation to be in after dedicating so much time to preparing for the working world.I really feel bad for any university graduates dealing with job search struggles. Getting an education is supposed to set you up for a bright, opportunity-filled future. So having harsh employment troubles must put a huge rain cloud over that hopeful outlook on life. It's an adult problem that I'm very glad I don't have to face quite yet!Although I definitely can't solve this difficult issue right now, I do hope things get better soon for struggling job seekers. Finding a career you love is a key part of the adult world, so it's awful that so many educated young people are getting blocked from that path. Maybe the job market will improve, or universities will make some changes to ensure students graduate with the exact skills companies want. Grown-ups can surely get pretty creative when they put their minds to fixing a problem!For any university grads reading this - don't give up! You put in all that hard work, so you absolutely deserve to find a fulfilling, well-paying role that makes you happy. Just keep studying open job listings, updating your grown-up paperwork (like aree-zoo-may, I think it's called?), and trying your absolute best.The perfect opportunity is out there somewhere. You'll get there, I just know it!Well, that's all I've got to say about the tricky situation with uni grads and jobs. Like I mentioned, it seems like a super frustrating problem that hopefully gets resolved soon. Us kids have it pretty easy for now, but I'm sure this issue will be something my classmates and I will have to deal with one day too when we're old enough to join the working world. For today though, I'm just going to keep focusing on 4th grade, having fun, and not worrying too much about adult troubles. Take care, grown-ups!篇2It's Not Fair! Why College Kids Can't Get JobsHi there! My name is Timmy and I'm 8 years old. Today I want to tell you about something that's really bugging me - how hard it is for college kids to find jobs after they graduate. It doesn't make any sense to me!See, my big brother Billy just finished college last year. He studied really hard for four whole years to get his diploma. But as soon as he had that piece of paper, he couldn't find a jobanywhere! He kept sending out resumes and going on interviews, but nobody wanted to hire him.I don't get it. Isn't the whole point of going to college to learn stuff so you can get a good job? Billy knows a ton about business management from all his classes. But I guess that didn't matter to employers. No matter how smart and educated you are, nobody will give you a chance if you're fresh out of school with no real work experience.It's not just Billy either. Lots of other kids who just graduated are struggling to find jobs too. My neighbor's daughter has a master's degree in engineering, but she's been looking for over a year with no luck. Another family friend who just got his teaching credential can't even score a job as a substitute teacher. What's the deal?From what I can tell, there just aren't enough jobs available for all the new college grads. Especially with grown-ups who already have experience fighting for the same positions. And a lot of companies would rather hire someone with a few years under their belt instead of taking a risk on an inexperienced newbie, even if that newbie has a fancy college education.It seems like such a waste too. College is crazy expensive these days. My parents say they're still paying off loans fromwhen my oldest sister went to school over 10 years ago! So kids and their families go into serious debt getting degrees, but then those degrees don't even help them get hired immediately after graduating. No wonder everyone is so broke and struggling!I just think it's really unfair. These college kids work their butts off, delaying getting jobs and making money for years while studying hard in hopes of better opportunities down the road. But then when they finally accomplish their goal of graduating, they can't even take advantage of it right away. Instead they're stuck doing things like working minimum wage jobs in retail or food service just to get some kind of paycheck and experience on their resume. When they could be out there using the knowledge they spent so much time and money acquiring!Frankly, I feel bad for college grads nowadays. Things shouldn't be set up this way where you're pretty much required to get a bachelor's degree to be taken seriously as a job candidate, but having that bachelor's degree alone still isn't enough to actually get you hired for most decent career-track jobs. The first few years out of college must be so frustrating and discouraging for a lot of people.I really hope things turn around and improve by the time I'm old enough to go to college and join the workforce myself. Getting that first job out of school shouldn't be this big, demoralizing obstacle that so many recent grads can't seem to overcome. Young people are our future, and we should be encouraging and enabling them rather than suppressing their potential by forcing them to flounder in jobs they're overqualified for.Employers really need to wake up and realize that candidates fresh out of college aren't necessarily as green and clueless as the stereotypes make them out to be. Sure, they may require a bit more training up front, but they're also enthusiastic go-getters with updated skills and fresh perspectives that could be huge assets. Not to mention, their lack of experience usually also means they're willing to work harder to prove themselves without demanding too much compensation right off the bat.I don't know, it just seems like such a catch-22 where you need a degree to get hired but then your degree alone isn't valued enough to actually hire you. How messed up is that? We seriously need to fix this issue if we want our economy and workforce to continue thriving into the future.So that's my take on why it sucks being a new college graduate struggling to get a decent job. Pretty unfair, right? I may be just a kid, but even I can see how broken this system is for you older kids out there. Hopefully by sharing my perspective, I can raise some awareness and things will get better soon. Because every kid who busts their hump for an education deserves to have their hard work pay off with real career opportunities waiting for them after the pomp and circumstance is over.篇3The Big Problem of University Grads Not Getting JobsHi there! My name is Timmy and I'm 9 years old. Today I want to tell you about a huge problem happening in our world - university graduates having a really hard time getting jobs after they finish their studies. It's a super serious issue that lots of grown-ups are talking about. Let me explain what's going on!You see, every year there are millions of students who complete their bachelor's or master's degrees at universities all around the world. They've studied really hard for 3, 4, or even more years. Subjects like engineering, business, computer science, you name it! After all that tough work and endlessexams, you'd think they'd easily be able to find a good job, right? Well, unfortunately that's not the case for many of them nowadays.Imagine spending years upon years reading thick textbooks, writing long essays, doing loads of homework and projects...only to graduate and discover hardly any companies are hiring! How disappointing would that be? You put in so much effort to earn that valuable degree, but then you can't even use it to start your dream career. Instead of getting hired, lots of these poor university grads end up unemployed or working survival jobs like waiting tables or doing data entry work. Not at all what they went to school for!There are a bunch of reasons why this unemployment issue exists for new graduates. One major factor is that there simply aren't enough job openings compared to the huge number of freshly-minted degree holders looking for work each year. Economies around the world haven't been creating new positions as quickly as universities keep cranking out alumni. It's an imbalance between supply and demand.Another part of the problem is that some university programs don't properly prepare students for the actual skills required in the real working world. Students may graduate withperfect grades, but then employers look at their resumes and think "Sure, this person aced their classes...but do they know how to use industry software? Can they meet tough deadlines? Do they have any prior experience?" Book knowledge alone isn't always enough.On top of that, a lot of new graduates lack practical work experience because they didn't intern or take part-time jobs during their student years. Employers these days really value candidates with internships under their belts. It shows they have a work ethic and some exposure to office environments.So with way too many candidates fighting for too few entry-level positions, not enough up-to-date skills being taught, and not much real-world experience...you can see why landing that first big job after university has become an immense challenge for today's youth. It's a complicated situation with no easy solution.Of course, the effects of this problem go far beyond just personal disappointment. Unable to find decent jobs that use their expensive education, many graduates are forced to move back in with their parents or take on major debt from student loans. Some feel they have no choice but to pick up low-skilled labor like driving rideshare vehicles or working at cafes andrestaurants - jobs that don't fully utilize their pricey degrees. Overall, it prevents our society from getting the most out of its highly-educated human resources.Governments, universities, career counselors, and employers themselves have all tried different approaches to tackle graduate underemployment and unemployment over recent years. For example, some countries have programs providing subsidies for companies that hire undergraduates from local universities. Other schools have revised their curricula to place much greater emphasis on internships, real-world projects, and programming that teaches practical career skills like data analysis, coding, and cloud computing.Still, experts predict the situation will likely persist or potentially even worsen in the years ahead. With booming youth populations in many nations, intensifying job competition from automation and AI technologies, and ongoing economic instability caused by conflicts, pandemics, climate change effects and more...it's an uphill battle getting every capable graduate into a suitable career-path position right out of school. But it's a battle we need to take on for the betterment of society.Well, that's the basic lowdown on the graduate job crisis from a kid's point of view! It's pretty heavy stuff and a problemwithout any quick fixes. But us kids are resilient - I'm sure as we grow up and become the next wave of university alumni, our generation will figure out innovative solutions. We've got to remain hopeful! Thanks for reading my essay. Now if you'll excuse me, I've got a big Algebra test to study for - maybe I'll become an underemployed mathematician someday, who knows?篇4University Grads Can't Find Jobs? That's So Sad!My big brother just graduated from university last year. He studied really really hard for four whole years! He would stay up late almost every night, hunched over his desk, scribbling notes and typing on his laptop. Sometimes I would sneak into his room and peak over his shoulder to see what he was working on. It all looked like gibberish to me - just a bunch of big words and numbers and diagrams that made no sense.But my brother said it was all very important stuff that he had to learn to become an economist. An eCONomist, that's a funny word! I'm not totally sure what it means, but I think it has something to do with money and the economy and stuff.Anyway, my brother was really excited to finally be done with university so he could go get a job and start making money.Only problem is...he can't find a job! My parents are pretty worried about it too. They keep asking him "Have you sent out anymore resumes? Did you hear back from that company about the interview?" And my brother just kind of shrugs his shoulders and says "No, not yet." He spends pretty much all day sitting on the couch looking gloomy and applying for jobs online.I overheard my parents talking about it the other night after I was supposed to be asleep. My dad said "The job market is just brutal right now, especially for new grads with no experience. Companies can be really picky because there are so many applicants." My mom replied "I know, it's a real problem. Degree or no degree, it's hard for young people to get their foot in the door these days."They sounded really worried, which made me worried too. What if my brother can never find a job? Will he have to keep living at home forever? That would be kind of fun in a way because then he'd be around to play video games with me. But I know it wouldn't be a good situation for him or my parents.From what I can gather from talking to my parents and other adults, a lot of university graduates these days are having atremendously difficult time finding jobs, even after studying really hard for four years and racking up a ton of student debt. The economy is bad, there are more people than jobs, experience is hard to get, and employers are being super duper picky.It seems really unfair to me. My brother and his friends sacrificed their youths and teenage years hunched over books and pulling endless all-nighters. They chose good, practical majors that were supposed to make them employable. And now the real world is like "Sorry kid, thanks for the tens of thousands of dollars but we're not hiring right now!"No wonder there is a lot of talk these days about young people struggling with issues like anxiety, depression, lack of motivation and general feelings of hopelessness. If I went through four years of intense studying, graduated at the top of my class, and still couldn't find a decent job, I would feel pretty demoralized and despondent too!My parents keep telling my brother "Don't worry, something will come along eventually. You just have to persist and don't lose hope." But I can tell he's getting more discouraged with each passing week. Sometimes when I peek into his room, I seehim just staring off into space looking sad instead of working on job applications. I hope he doesn't give up completely.I really want my brother to be able to get a good job soon so he can move out, make money, be successful, and live a happy life. He works so hard and is so smart. It doesn't seem fair that he has to go through this struggle just because of a bad economy and too many people competing for too few jobs. Life shouldn't be that way for young people who do everything right!I'm just a kid, so I don't fully understand everything that's going on. But from my perspective, this situation seems really messed up and needs to be fixed somehow. Every child's biggest dream is to grow up, get an education, have a career, and pursue their ambitions and passions in life. But what's the point of going to university if you might just end up broke, in debt, and unable to get hired for your dream job?People always tell kids to work hard, listen to their teachers, get good grades, and go to college so they can have a great future. But what if, after doing all of that, you get out into the real world and there are no jobs for you? That would be really sad and demoralizing. I really hope that's not how things will be when it's my turn to go to university and become an adult. I want to be able to get a good job that I love and live out my dreams!I don't like seeing my brother so down in the dumps and stressed out about money all the time. It makes me worry about my own future too. Will I end up in the same bleak situation in 10-15 years, sending out countless resumes but unable to find work that puts my education to use? I really hope not, because that would be super depressing.University is supposed to prepare you for an excellent career, not leave you drowning in debt, living at home, and demoralized about your prospects. I think there needs to be a lot of changes and improvements to the system and the economy, so young people like my brother don't have to go through this nightmare after doing everything "right." Everybody should be able to find a good, stable job that uses their skills and education when they graduate. Isn't that what going to university is all about?Anyway, that's my take as a kid who sees their older sibling struggling with this issue right now. I don't have anymind-blowing solutions, but I hope the grownups in charge can figure out how to fix this huge problem. Because if they don't, I'm really going to dread growing up! I'll just end up another sad university grad unable to get hired despite working so hard and going so far into debt. And that would be one of the most disappointing and soul-crushing things ever. No kid dreams ofthat future! We dream of using our education to live our passions and ambitions. Please, make that dream possible for us again!篇5Here's an essay about the social phenomenon of university graduates facing difficulties in finding employment, written in English from the perspective of an elementary school student (around 2,000 words):University Grads Can't Find Jobs? That's Crazy!Hiya, friends! Today I want to talk about something super serious that's going on in our world. It's all about university grads and how hard it is for them to get jobs after they finish school. Can you imagine spending years and years studying, working really hard, and then not being able to find a job? That sounds totally crazy to me!You see, when people go to university, they learn a lot of important stuff that's supposed to help them get ready for the real world. They study things like math, science, history, and all kinds of other subjects. The idea is that after they graduate, they'll be able to use all that knowledge to get a good job and start their careers.But here's the problem: there are way too many university grads out there, and not enough jobs for all of them. It's like having a huge crowd of people all trying to get through a tiny door at the same time. It's a real mess!There are a few reasons why this is happening. First of all, more and more people are going to university these days. That's because a lot of jobs require you to have a university degree. So, if you want to have a good career, you pretty much have to go to university.Another reason is that the economy isn't doing so well in some countries. When the economy is bad, companies don't have as much money to hire new people. They might even have to lay off some of their workers to save money. That means there are fewer job openings for university grads.It's also tough because a lot of the jobs that used to be available for university grads are now being done by computers or robots. Machines are getting smarter and smarter, and they can do a lot of the work that used to be done by people. That's making it harder for university grads to find jobs in certain fields.So, what does all this mean for university grads? Well, it means that a lot of them are having a really hard time finding jobs after they graduate. Some of them end up having to takejobs that don't really match their degrees or their skills. Others might have to move to different cities or even different countries to find work.And if they can't find a job at all, some university grads end up living with their parents or taking on a lot of debt. That's definitely not what they were hoping for after all those years of studying and working hard.It's a pretty tough situation, and it's causing a lot of stress and anxiety for university grads. They've put in so much effort and money into their education, and now they're struggling to find jobs and start their careers.But you know what? I don't think it's fair for things to be this way. University grads shouldn't have to struggle so much to find good jobs after they graduate. They've worked really hard, and they deserve to have a chance to use all the knowledge and skills they've learned.So, what can we do about this problem? Well, for starters, I think we need to create more job opportunities for university grads. Maybe companies could offer more internships or training programs to help grads get some experience and get their foot in the door.Governments could also try to encourage businesses to hire more university grads by giving them tax breaks or other incentives. And universities could do a better job of helping their students prepare for the job market and figure out what kinds of careers they might want to pursue.But you know what else is really important? We need to start valuing education and hard work more in our society. We shouldn't just see university grads as a bunch of people with fancy degrees who can't find jobs. We should see them ashard-working, smart, and talented individuals who have a lot to offer.So, let's try to be more supportive of university grads and do what we can to help them succeed. Because if we don't, we're going to end up with a lot of really smart and capable people who are just wasting their talents and potential.And that's not good for anyone!。
大学英语作文之失业问题 Unemployment
大学英语作文之失业问题 UnemploymentIn our country, the word "unemployment" was seldom heard seweral years ago. But now, increasingly more people around us have lost their jobs. Many children, including a lot of school graduates, are fired or need to stick at home. Obviously, unemployment is becoming a major social problem.What in the globalis the cause of this type of situation? On one hand, this is as a result of the conomic condition. Recently, our country, has undergone wonderfuleconomic reforms. so as to decoratethe efficiency, many state-owned enterprises need to fireside numerous their employees. however, with the rapid progressionof science and technology, mechanical automaton is increasingly more common within the modem production. however the popalation of our country, keeps increasing on the similar time. many of us needjobs at the same time asfactories desirefewer workers. Unfortunately, it kind of feels thon the contradiction will last for a very long time period.it isquite essential to unravel this problem, as it is going to strongly influence the developmentof our society. From my perspective, we should alwaysn’t only remainat home and stay up for an opportunity. so long as you’ve a robust will, you’re certain to get success.在我国，在几年前“失业”很少听到。
就业歧视英语作文
就业歧视英语作文Discrimination in employment is a serious issue that affects many people around the world. It can take many forms, such as age discrimination, gender discrimination, or racial discrimination. This kind of discrimination can make it difficult for people to find and keep a job, and can have a negative impact on their career and livelihood.Employment discrimination can happen in many different ways. For example, a company might refuse to hire someone because of their age, even though they are qualified for the job. Or a person might be paid less than their colleagues because of their gender. This kind of discrimination is not only unfair, but it is also illegal in many places.One of the most common forms of employment discrimination is racial discrimination. This happens when a person is treated unfairly because of their race or ethnicity. For example, a company might pass over aqualified candidate for a job because of their race, or a person might be harassed or mistreated at work because of their race. This kind of discrimination can have a devastating impact on a person's career and well-being.Employment discrimination is a serious problem that can have a lasting impact on a person's life. It can make it difficult for people to find and keep a job, and can have a negative impact on their career and livelihood. It is important for people to speak out against discrimination and to work towards creating a more inclusive and fair work environment for everyone.。
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There are different types of unemployment and to reduce them requires very different policy measures.Unemployment is the macroeconomic problem that affects people most directly and a frequent topic of political debate and politicians focus their debates on job creation.Unemployment which varies over the business cycle, is often linked to the state of the economy. When facing different types of unemployment, the policy measures are usually different too. However, it is unreasonable to separate the types of unemployment alone when making policy measures to reduce the unemployment.Unemployment is defined as the total number of people who are actively looking for work but are not currently employed. There are different types of unemployment.Natural rate of unemploymentA fundamental property of the economies is that even during the best times, many workers are losing jobs while many others are finding new ones. This is part of the dynamic nature of an (developed) economy. The natural rate of unemployment is the rate that would prevail if the economy was in neither a boom nor a recession. That can be decomposed into two parts: frictional and structural unemployment.Frictional unemployment is unemployment due to time works spend in job search.A certain amount of frictional unemployment is inevitable due to constant process of economic change even in a smoothly operating labor market, the number of jobs being offered matches the number of people seeking jobs. A limited amount of frictional unemployment is relatively harmless and may be a good thing. The economy is more productive if workers take the time to a brief period while searching for the right jobs not experience great hardship.Structural unemployment is unemployment that results when there are more people seeking jobs in a particular labor market than there are jobs available at current wage rate. Several factors can lead to structural unemployment ,the most important being minimum wages labors unions, efficiency wages ,the side effects of government policies ,and mismatches between the supply and demand of laborers with necessary skill sets.Natural rate of unemployment can shift over time, due to changes in labor force characteristics and institutions and government policies.Cyclical unemploymentActual rate of unemployment fluctuates around natural rate of unemployment .Cyclical unemployment is the deviation of the actual rate of unemployment from the natural rate. As the same suggests, cyclical unemployment is the share of unemployment that arises from the downturns of the business cycle.Thus, actual unemployment is consists of frictional unemployment, structural unemployment and cyclical unemployment.As illustrated above, there are different types of unemployment, frictional unemployment, structural unemployment, cyclical unemployment, each has its own characteristics and the causes. It is suggested that it is more efficient to analyze the main dominant types and reasons of unemployment firstly and then take targeted measures in order to reduce that type unemployment. It is obviously to reduce different types of unemployment needs different policy measures.Discussions of frictional unemployment focus on voluntary decisions to work based on each individuals' valuation of their own work and how that compares to current wage rates plus the time and effort required to find a job. Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization. Keynesian economics emphasizes the cyclical nature of unemployment and recommends government interventions in the economy that it claims will reduce unemployment during recessions. This theory focuses on recurrent shocks that suddenly reduce aggregate demand for goods and services and thus reduce demand for workers. Keynesian models recommend government interventions designed to increase demand for workers; these can include financial stimuli, publicly funded job creation, and expansionist monetary policies.On the other hand, those different types of unemployment always exist in an economy in the same time, although in theory, structural unemployment can be zero at the equilibrium and cyclical unemployment can be zero as output gap is zero. It is seemed it is not possible that a policy measure for specific types of unemployment will not affect the other types. And when facing with making methods to lower unemployment, it is more reasonable that think the different types of unemployment rate as a whole.In conclusion, there are mainly there types of unemployment, respectively, frictional unemployment, structural unemployment and cyclical unemployment, those types always exist in an economy in the same time. It is more efficient to analyze the main dominant types and reasons of unemployment firstly and then take targeted measures in order to reduce that type unemployment. It is not possible that a policy measure for specific types of unemployment will not affect the other types, then it is more reasonable that think the different types of unemployment rate as a whole.。